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aria-controls="toc-Fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Classics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performing_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performing_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Performing arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performing_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Musicology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Musicology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Musicology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Musicology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span>Theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.3</span> <span>Dance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Visual art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.1</span> <span>History of visual arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.2</span> <span>Media types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drawing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drawing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.2.1</span> <span>Drawing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drawing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.2.2</span> <span>Painting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Today</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Today-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Today subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education_and_employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Education and employment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>In the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Humanities_Indicators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Humanities_Indicators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>The Humanities Indicators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Humanities_Indicators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Humanities_in_American_Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Humanities_in_American_Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span><i>The Humanities in American Life</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Humanities_in_American_Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_liberal_arts_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_liberal_arts_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>In liberal arts education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_liberal_arts_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_major" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_major"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>As a major</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_major-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_digital_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_digital_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>In the digital age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_digital_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-STEM" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#STEM"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.6</span> <span>STEM</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-STEM-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>In Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_value_of_the_humanities_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_value_of_the_humanities_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>The value of the humanities debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_value_of_the_humanities_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Philosophical history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citizenship_and_self-reflection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizenship_and_self-reflection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citizenship and self-reflection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizenship_and_self-reflection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humanistic_theories_and_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humanistic_theories_and_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Humanistic theories and practices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humanistic_theories_and_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truth_and_meaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truth_and_meaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Truth and meaning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truth_and_meaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pleasure,_the_pursuit_of_knowledge_and_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleasure,_the_pursuit_of_knowledge_and_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pleasure, the pursuit of knowledge and scholarship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleasure,_the_pursuit_of_knowledge_and_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticization_and_rejection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticization_and_rejection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Romanticization and rejection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticization_and_rejection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanities</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geesteswetenskappe" title="Geesteswetenskappe – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geesteswetenskappe" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="إنسانيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إنسانيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidaz" title="Humanidaz – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Humanidaz" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidaes" title="Humanidaes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Humanidaes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitar_elml%C9%99r" title="Humanitar elmlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Humanitar elmlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="মানববিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানববিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%AEn-b%C3%BBn-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Jîn-bûn-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jîn-bûn-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80" title="Гуманитар фәндәр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Гуманитар фәндәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Гуманітарныя навукі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гуманітарныя навукі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Гуманітарныя навукі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гуманітарныя навукі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Хуманитарни науки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хуманитарни науки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skianto%C3%B9_an_den" title="Skiantoù an den – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skiantoù an den" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitats" title="Humanitats – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Humanitats" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5_%C4%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Гуманитарилле ăславсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гуманитарилле ăславсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Humanitní vědy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Humanitní vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyniaethau" title="Dyniaethau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dyniaethau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Humanities" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitaarteadused" title="Humanitaarteadused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Humanitaarteadused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidades" title="Humanidades – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Humanidades" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homa_scienco" title="Homa scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Homa scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitateak" title="Humanitateak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Humanitateak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="علوم انسانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علوم انسانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettres_(culture)" title="Lettres (culture) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lettres (culture)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studeyrys-sheelnaue" title="Studeyrys-sheelnaue – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Studeyrys-sheelnaue" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidades" title="Humanidades – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Humanidades" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="인문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հումանիտար գիտություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հումանիտար գիտություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="मानविकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानविकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanisti%C4%8Dke_znanosti" title="Humanističke znanosti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Humanističke znanosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homala_cienci" title="Homala cienci – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Homala cienci" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezoluntu" title="Ezoluntu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ezoluntu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugv%C3%ADsindi" title="Hugvísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hugvísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discipline_umanistiche" title="Discipline umanistiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Discipline umanistiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%97" title="מדעי הרוח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדעי הרוח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1mag%C3%A1ral_t%C3%A1u" title="Pámagáral táu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Pámagáral táu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5" title="बश्रियाथ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="बश्रियाथ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Гуманитарлық ғылымдар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гуманитарлық ғылымдар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayaf_opeem" title="Ayaf opeem – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Ayaf opeem" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_humaniores" title="Artes humaniores – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Artes humaniores" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanit%C4%81r%C4%81s_zin%C4%81tnes" title="Humanitārās zinātnes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Humanitārās zinātnes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitariniai_mokslai" title="Humanitariniai mokslai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Humanitariniai mokslai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siensas_umana" title="Siensas umana – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Siensas umana" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiolonana" title="Fiolonana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiolonana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഹ്യുമാനിറ്റീസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹ്യുമാനിറ്റീസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मानव्यविद्या – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मानव्यविद्या" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemanusiaan" title="Kemanusiaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kemanusiaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geesteswetenschappen" title="Geesteswetenschappen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geesteswetenschappen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="人文科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人文科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umanitats" title="Umanitats – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Umanitats" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumanitar_fanlar" title="Gumanitar fanlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gumanitar fanlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%80" title="ਮਨੁੱਖਤਾ/ਮਾਨਵਿਕੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੁੱਖਤਾ/ਮਾਨਵਿਕੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90" title="بشري پوهنې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بشري پوهنې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauki_humanistyczne" title="Nauki humanistyczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nauki humanistyczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidades" title="Humanidades – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Humanidades" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Be_umaniste" title="Științe umaniste – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Științe umaniste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%96_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%8B" title="Гуманітны і соціалны наукы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Гуманітны і соціалны наукы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Гуманитарные науки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гуманитарные науки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkencat_humane" title="Shkencat humane – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkencat humane" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Humanities" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بشريات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بشريات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchovn%C3%A1_veda" title="Duchovná veda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Duchovná veda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistika" title="Humanistika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Humanistika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%95_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زانستە مرۆڤییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانستە مرۆڤییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Хуманистика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хуманистика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanisti%C4%8Dke_znanosti" title="Humanističke znanosti – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Humanističke znanosti" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistiset_tieteet" title="Humanistiset tieteet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Humanistiset tieteet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humaniora" title="Humaniora – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Humaniora" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araling_pantao" title="Araling pantao – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Araling pantao" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timassanin_tinfganin" title="Timassanin tinfganin – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Timassanin tinfganin" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%BD%D3%99%D1%80" title="Гуманитар фәннәр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гуманитар фәннәр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="มนุษยศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มนุษยศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Илмҳои гуманитарӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Илмҳои гуманитарӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%C5%9Feri_bilimler" title="Beşeri bilimler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beşeri bilimler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Гуманітарні науки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гуманітарні науки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="انسانیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انسانیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinzvwnz_yozgoh" title="Yinzvwnz yozgoh – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yinzvwnz yozgoh" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A2n_v%C4%83n_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Nhân văn học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhân văn học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanidades" title="Humanidades – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Humanidades" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E7%A7%91" title="人文学科 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="人文学科" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="גייסט וויסנשאפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גייסט וויסנשאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="人文學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="人文學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E7%A7%91" title="人文学科 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="人文学科" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitar_elmon" title="Humanitar elmon – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Humanitar elmon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q80083#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Academic disciplines that study society and culture</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>This article is about the academic discipline. For the magazine, see <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities#Humanities_magazine" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">Humanities (magazine)</a>.</span> <span>Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Humanity_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Humanity (disambiguation)">humanity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">human science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>.</span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/220px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/330px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg/440px-Head_Platon_Glyptothek_Munich_548.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1619" data-file-height="2251" /></a><figcaption>The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> depicted in a Roman copy of a work by <a href="/wiki/Silanion" title="Silanion">Silanion</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 370 BC</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Humanities</b> are <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a> that study aspects of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">certain fundamental questions asked by humans</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the term "humanities" referred to the study of classical literature and language, as opposed to the study of religion, or "<a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a>". The study of the humanities was a key part of the <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> curriculum in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently defined as any fields of study outside of <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal sciences</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied sciences</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Professional_development" title="Professional development">professional training</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use methods that are primarily <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical</a>, speculative, or interpretative and have a significant historical element<sup id="cite_ref-oed_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—as distinguished from the mainly <a href="/wiki/Empirical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical method">empirical</a> approaches of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oed_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The humanities include the studies of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Language arts">language arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">oratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, etc.), <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Theater">theater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, etc.), and <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">filmmaking</a>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some definitions of the humanities encompass law and religion due to their shared characteristics, such as the study of language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these definitions are not universally accepted, as law and religion are often considered professional subjects rather than humanities subjects. Professional subjects, like some social sciences, are sometimes classified as being part of both the liberal arts and <a href="/wiki/Professional_development" title="Professional development">professional development</a> education, whereas humanities subjects are generally confined to the traditional <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">liberal arts education</a>. Although <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> share some similarities with the humanities, these are often considered <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>. Similarly, disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">global studies</a> have closer ties to the social sciences rather than the humanities. </p><p>Scholars in the humanities are called <i>humanities scholars</i> or sometimes <i>humanists</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>humanist</i> also describes the philosophical position of <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">antihumanist</a> scholars in the humanities reject. Renaissance scholars and artists are also known as <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanists</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary schools</a> offer humanities classes usually consisting of <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>. </p><p>Human disciplines like history and language mainly use the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wallace2008p28_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace2008p28-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_research" title="Comparative research">comparative research</a>. Other methods used in the humanities include <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Source_criticism" title="Source criticism">source criticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">esthetic interpretation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Speculative_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative reason">speculative reason</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>humanities comes</i> from the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> phrase <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">studia humanitatis</a></i></span>, which translates to <i>study of humanity</i>. This phrase was used to refer to the study of classical literature and language, which was seen as an important aspect of a refined education in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. In its usage in the early 15th century, the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">studia humanitatis</i></span> was a course of studies that consisted of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy, primarily derived from the study of Latin and Greek classics. The word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">humanitas</i></span> also gave rise to the Renaissance Italian neologism <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">umanisti</i></span>, whence "humanist", "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fields">Fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classics">Classics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/220px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/330px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/440px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2750" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, the most famous Greek poet</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> academic tradition, refers to the studies of the cultures of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, namely Ancient Greek and Latin and the Ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> cultures. Classical studies is considered one of the cornerstones of the humanities; however, its popularity declined during the 20th century. Nevertheless, the influence of classical ideas on many humanities disciplines, such as philosophy and literature, remains strong.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> is systematically collected <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> about the <a href="/wiki/Past" title="Past">past</a>. When used as the name of a <a href="/wiki/Field_of_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of study">field of study</a>, <i>history</i> refers to the study and interpretation of the record of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>, institutions, and any topic that has changed over time. </p><p>Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the humanities. In modern <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>, history can occasionally be classified as a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, though this definition is contested. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></div> <p>While the scientific study of language is known as <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and is generally considered a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the study of languages is also central to the humanities. A good deal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a> claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time. Literature, covering a variety of uses of language including <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> forms (such as the <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a>), <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>, also lies at the heart of the modern humanities curriculum. College-level programs in a <a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">foreign language</a> usually include study of important works of the literature in that language, as well as the language itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/330px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/440px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>A trial at a criminal court, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Bailey" title="Old Bailey">Old Bailey</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div><p> In everyday language, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> refers to a rule that is enforced by a governing institution, as opposed to a moral or ethical rule that is not subject to formal enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of law can be seen as either a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> or a humanities discipline, depending on one's perspective. Some see it as a social science because of its objective and measurable nature, while others view it as a humanities discipline because of its focus on values and interpretation. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. Law has been defined in various ways, such as "a system of rules",<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "an interpretive concept" for achieving justice,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "an authority" to mediate between people's interests,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "the command of a sovereign" backed by the threat of punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy is shaped by the practical application of ideas from many social science and humanities disciplines, including philosophy, history, political science, economics, anthropology, and sociology. Law is <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, because politicians create them. Law is <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>'s stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. Law is also economics, because any rule about <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Company law">company law</a> and many more can have long-lasting effects on how productivity is organised and the distribution of wealth. The noun <i>law</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <i>word lagu</i>, meaning something laid down or fixed,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the adjective <i>legal</i> comes from the Latin word <i>LEX</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Folio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/First_Folio.jpg/220px-First_Folio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/First_Folio.jpg/330px-First_Folio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/First_Folio.jpg/440px-First_Folio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> authored some of the most acclaimed works in <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Literature</b> is a term that does not have a universally accepted definition, but which has variably included all written work; writing that possesses literary merit; and language that emphasizes its own literary features, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary language">ordinary language</a>. <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymologically</a> the term derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word literatura<i>/litteratura</i> which means "writing formed with letters", although some definitions include <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">spoken or sung texts</a>. Literature can be classified as <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">non-fiction</a>; <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short story</a> or <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>; and works are often categorised according to historical periods, or according to their adherence to certain <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> features or expectations (<a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/220px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>The works of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> overlap into many fields of the humanities, such as philosophy, literature, theology, music, and classical studies.</figcaption></figure> <p>Philosophy—etymologically, the "love of wisdom"—is generally the study of problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, justification, truth, justice, right and wrong, beauty, validity, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing these issues by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on reasoned argument, rather than experiments (<a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">experimental philosophy</a> being an exception).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophy used to be a very comprehensive term, including what have subsequently become separate disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. (As <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> noted, "Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic.")<sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, the main fields of philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>. Still, it continues to overlap with other disciplines. The field of <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, for example, brings philosophy into contact with <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. </p><p>Since the early twentieth century, philosophy in English-speaking <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> has moved away from the humanities and closer to the <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_formal_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of formal science">formal sciences</a>, becoming much more <i>analytic.</i> <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a> is marked by emphasis on the use of logic and formal methods of reasoning, conceptual analysis, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic logic">symbolic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>, as contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental style of philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method of inquiry is largely indebted to the work of philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/G.E._Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="G.E. Moore">G.E. Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Religious_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Studies">Religious Studies</a></i> is commonly regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>. Based on current knowledge, it seems that all known cultures, both in the past and present, have some form of belief system or religious practice. While there may be isolated individuals or groups who do not practice any form of religion, it is not known if there has ever been a society that was entirely devoid of religious belief. The definition of religion is not universal, and different cultures may have different ideas about what constitutes religion. Religion may be characterized with a <b>community</b> since humans are <a href="/wiki/The_Social_Animal_(Aronson_book)" title="The Social Animal (Aronson book)">social animals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Rituals</a></b> are used to bound the community together.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social animals require rules. <b><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></b> is a requirement of society, but not a requirement of religion. Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes. While some religions do include the concept of deities, others do not. Therefore, the supernatural does not necessarily require the existence of deities. Rather, it can be broadly defined as any phenomena that cannot be explained by science or reason.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></b> creates explanations not available for empirical verification. <b>Stories</b> or <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a> are narratives being both didactic and entertaining.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are necessary for understanding the human predicament. Some other possible characteristics of religion are pollutions and purification,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the sacred and the profane,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sacred texts,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> religious institutions and organizations,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sacrifice and prayer. Some of the major problems that religions confront, and attempts to answer are chaos, suffering, evil,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and death.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The non-founder religions are <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">native or folk religions</a>. Founder religions are <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Daoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>. Religions must adapt and change through the generations because they must remain relevant to the adherents. When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performing_arts">Performing arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Performing arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Performing_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Performing art">performing arts</a> differ from the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> in that the former uses the artist's own body, face, and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as clay, metal, or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create some <a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">art object</a>. Performing arts include <a href="/wiki/Acrobatics" title="Acrobatics">acrobatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Busking" class="mw-redirect" title="Busking">busking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">comedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magic_(illusion)" title="Magic (illusion)">magic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juggling" title="Juggling">juggling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marching_arts" title="Marching arts">marching arts</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Brass_band" title="Brass band">brass bands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatre</a>. </p><p>Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, <a href="/wiki/Comedian" title="Comedian">comedians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dancer">dancers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musician" title="Musician">musicians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Singer" class="mw-redirect" title="Singer">singers</a>. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Songwriting" class="mw-redirect" title="Songwriting">songwriting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">stagecraft</a>. Performers often adapt their <a href="/wiki/Physical_appearance" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical appearance">appearance</a>, such as with <a href="/wiki/Costume" title="Costume">costumes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">stage makeup</a>, etc. There is also a specialized form of <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine art</a> in which the artists <i>perform</i> their work live to an audience. This is called <a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a>. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Theatrical_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical property">props</a>. Dance was often referred to as a <i>plastic art</i> during the <a href="/wiki/Modern_dance" title="Modern dance">Modern dance</a> era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Musicology">Musicology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Musicology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg/220px-Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg/330px-Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg/440px-Mozarteum_grosser_saal_buehne_mit_orchester.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A concert at <a href="/wiki/Mozarteum_University_Salzburg" title="Mozarteum University Salzburg">Mozarteum University Salzburg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Salzburg" title="Salzburg">Salzburg</a>, Austria</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Musicology</a> as an academic discipline can take a number of different paths, including <a href="/wiki/Historical_musicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical musicology">historical musicology</a>, music literature, <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">ethnomusicology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>. Undergraduate music majors generally take courses in all of these areas, while graduate students focus on a particular path. In the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> tradition, musicology is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills, including concentration and listening. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theatre">Theatre</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a> (or theater) (Greek "theatron", <i>θέατρον</i>) is the branch of the <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing arts</a> concerned with <a href="/wiki/Acting" title="Acting">acting</a> out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">mime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabuki" title="Kabuki">kabuki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Indian_dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Indian dance">classical Indian dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mummers%27_play" title="Mummers' play">mummers' plays</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pantomime" title="Pantomime">pantomime</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dance">Dance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dance (from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <i>dancier</i>, perhaps from <a href="/wiki/Old_Frankish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frankish language">Frankish</a>) generally refers to human <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">movement</a> either used as a form of <a href="/wiki/Emotional_expression" title="Emotional expression">expression</a> or presented in a <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">performance</a> setting. Dance is also used to describe methods of <a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-verbal communication">non-verbal communication</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">body language</a>) between humans or <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waggle_dance" title="Waggle dance">bee dance</a>, mating dance), and <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> in inanimate objects (<i>the <a href="/wiki/Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">leaves</a> danced in the <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Choreography" title="Choreography">Choreography</a> is the process of creating dances, and the people who create choreography are known as choreographers. Choreographers use movement, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, and other elements to create expressive and artistic dances. They may work alone or with other artists to create new works, and their work can be presented in a variety of settings, from small dance studios to large theaters. </p><p>Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">social</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic">artistic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moral" title="Moral">moral</a> constraints and range from functional movement (such as <a href="/wiki/Folk_dance" title="Folk dance">Folk dance</a>) to codified, <a href="/wiki/Virtuoso" title="Virtuoso">virtuoso</a> techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_art">Visual art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Visual art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_of_visual_arts">History of visual arts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History of visual arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg/220px-Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg/330px-Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg/440px-Quatrain_on_Heavenly_Mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption><i>Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain</i> by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song China">Emperor Gaozong</a> (1107–1187) of <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>; fan mounted as album leaf on silk, four columns in cursive script.</figcaption></figure> <p>The great traditions in <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> have a foundation in the art of one of the ancient civilizations, such as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Japan">Ancient Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Nepal" title="Greater Nepal">Greater Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>. </p><p>Ancient Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty and anatomically correct proportions. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Ancient Roman</a> art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>' thunderbolt).<sup id="cite_ref-Prentice_Hall_Professional_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prentice_Hall_Professional-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emphasis on spiritual and religious themes in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic</a> art of the Middle Ages reflected the dominance of the church. However, in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, a renewed focus on the physical world was reflected in art forms that depicted the human body and landscape in a more naturalistic and three-dimensional way.<sup id="cite_ref-Prentice_Hall_Professional_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prentice_Hall_Professional-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">Eastern art</a> has generally worked in a style akin to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Western medieval art</a>, namely a concentration on surface patterning and local colour (meaning the plain colour of an object, such as basic red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan. </p><p>Religious <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical and rational certainties depicted by the 19th-century Enlightenment were shattered not only by new discoveries of relativity by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of unseen psychology by <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freud</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also by unprecedented technological development. Increasing <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global</a> interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media_types">Media types</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Media types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Drawing">Drawing</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Drawing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">Drawing</a> is a means of making a <a href="/wiki/Image" title="Image">picture</a>, using a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite <a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">pencils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pen_and_ink" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen and ink">pen and ink</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inked</a> <a href="/wiki/Brush" title="Brush">brushes</a>, wax <a href="/wiki/Color_pencil" class="mw-redirect" title="Color pencil">color pencils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crayon" title="Crayon">crayons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pastel" title="Pastel">pastels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marker_pen" title="Marker pen">markers</a>. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, <a href="/wiki/Hatching" title="Hatching">hatching</a>, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, <a href="/wiki/Stippling" title="Stippling">stippling</a>, and blending. A computer aided designer who excels in <a href="/wiki/Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">technical drawing</a> is referred to as a <i>draftsman</i> or <i>draughtsman</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Painting">Painting</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Painting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/220px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/330px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/440px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7479" data-file-height="11146" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a></i>, by Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>Literally, <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a> is the practice of applying <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> suspended in a carrier (or <a href="/wiki/Paint#Components" title="Paint">medium</a>) and a binding agent (a <a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">glue</a>) to a surface (support) such as <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canvas" title="Canvas">canvas</a> or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense, it means the use of this activity in combination with <a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">drawing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">composition</a> and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. Painting has been used throughout history to express spiritual and religious ideas, from mythological scenes on pottery to the frescoes of the <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel" title="Sistine Chapel">Sistine Chapel</a>, to body art. </p><p>Colour is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be. Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Kandinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, have written their own <a href="/wiki/Colour_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour theory">colour theories</a>. Moreover, the use of language is only a generalization for a colour equivalent. The word "<a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a>", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum. Unlike music, where notes such as C or C# are universally accepted, there is no formalized register of colors. However, the <a href="/wiki/Pantone_448_C" title="Pantone 448 C">Pantone</a> system is widely used in the printing and design industry to standardize color reproduction. </p><p>Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, for example, <a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">collage</a>. This began with <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">cubism</a> and is not painting in strict sense. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Straw" title="Straw">straw</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> for their texture. Examples of these are the works of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dubuffet" title="Jean Dubuffet">Jean Dubuffet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anselm_Kiefer" title="Anselm Kiefer">Anselm Kiefer</a>. Modern and contemporary art has moved away from the historic value of craft in favour of <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">conceptual art</a>); this has led some e.g. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kosuth" title="Joseph Kosuth">Joseph Kosuth</a> to say that painting, as a serious art form, is dead, although this has not deterred the majority of artists from continuing to practise it either as whole or part of their work. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a> involves creating three-dimensional forms out of various materials. These typically include malleable substances like clay and metal but may also extend to material that is cut or shaved down to the desired form, like stone and wood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_2">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the West, the history of the humanities can be traced to ancient Greece, as the basis of a broad education for citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Roman times, the concept of the seven <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> evolved, involving <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a>), along with <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These subjects formed the bulk of <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> education, with the emphasis being on the humanities as skills or "ways of doing". </p><p>A major shift occurred with the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> of the fifteenth century, when the humanities began to be regarded as subjects to study rather than practice, with a corresponding shift away from traditional fields into areas such as literature and history (<i>studia humaniora</i>). In the 20th century, this view was in turn challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> movement, which sought to redefine the humanities in more <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> terms suitable for a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> society since the Greek and Roman societies in which the humanities originated were elitist and aristocratic.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A distinction is usually drawn between the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> and the humanities. Classicist <a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a> writes in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> (1987): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as <a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">philistine</a>. […] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Today">Today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_employment">Education and employment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Education and employment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For many decades, there has been a growing public perception that a humanities education inadequately prepares graduates for employment.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common belief is that graduates from such programs face underemployment and that incomes are too low for a humanities education to be worth the investment.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humanities graduates find employment in a wide variety of management and professional occupations. In Britain, for example, over 11,000 humanities majors found employment in the following occupations:<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Education (25.8%)</li> <li>Management (19.8%)</li> <li>Media/literature/arts (11.4%)</li> <li>Law (11.3%)</li> <li>Finance (10.4%)</li> <li>Civil service (5.8%)</li> <li>Not-for-profit (5.2%)</li> <li>Marketing (2.3%)</li> <li>Medicine (1.7%)</li> <li>Other (6.4%)</li></ul> <p>Many humanities graduates may find themselves with no specific career goals upon graduation, which can lead to lower incomes in the early stages of their career. On the other hand, graduates from more career-oriented programs often find jobs more quickly. However, the long-term career prospects of humanities graduates may be similar to those of other graduates, as research shows that by five years after graduation, they generally find a career path that appeals to them.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is empirical evidence that graduates from humanities programs earn less than graduates from other university programs.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humanities graduates also earn more as their careers progress; ten years after graduation, the income difference between humanities graduates and graduates from other university programs is no longer statistically significant.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (September 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> Humanities graduates can boost their incomes if they obtain advanced or professional degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humanities majors are sought after in many areas of business, specifically for their critical thinking and problem-solving skills.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While often considered "soft skills",<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="dangling modifier (November 2024)"><i>non sequitur</i></span></a></i>]</sup> humanities majors gain skills such as "include persuasive written and oral communication, creative problem-solving, teamwork, decision-making, self-management, and critical analysis".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_United_States">In the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Humanities_Indicators">The Humanities Indicators</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Humanities Indicators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Humanities_Indicators" title="Humanities Indicators">Humanities Indicators</a>, unveiled in 2009 by the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>, are the first comprehensive compilation of data about the humanities in the United States, providing scholars, policymakers and the public with detailed information on humanities education from primary to higher education, the humanities workforce, humanities funding and research, and public humanities activities.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modeled after the National Science Board's Science and Engineering Indicators, Humanities Indicators are a source of reliable benchmarks to guide analysis of the state of the humanities in the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Humanities_in_American_Life"><i>The Humanities in American Life</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The Humanities in American Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1980 United States Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities described the humanities in its report "The Humanities in American Life": </p> <blockquote> <p>Through the humanities we reflect on the fundamental question: What does it mean to be human? The humanities offer clues but never a complete answer. They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual, and intellectual sense of a world where irrationality, despair, loneliness, and death are as conspicuous as birth, friendship, hope, and reason. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_liberal_arts_education">In liberal arts education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In liberal arts education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/The_Commission_on_the_Humanities_and_Social_Sciences" title="The Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences">The Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences</a> 2013 report "The Heart of the Matter" supports the notion of a broad "<a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_colleges" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts colleges">liberal arts education</a>", which includes study in disciplines from the natural sciences to the arts as well as the humanities.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Colleges" class="mw-redirect" title="Colleges">colleges</a> provide such an education; some require it. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> were among the first schools to require an extensive <a href="/wiki/Core_curriculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Core curriculum">core curriculum</a> in philosophy, literature, and the arts for all students.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other colleges with nationally recognized, mandatory programs in the liberal arts are <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis/Santa_Fe)" title="St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe)">St. John's College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Anselm_College" title="Saint Anselm College">Saint Anselm College</a> and <a href="/wiki/Providence_College" title="Providence College">Providence College</a>. Prominent proponents of liberal arts in the United States have included <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Mortimer J. Adler</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._D._Hirsch,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="E. D. Hirsch, Jr.">E. D. Hirsch, Jr.</a></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_a_major">As a major</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: As a major"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1950, 1.2% of Americans aged 22 had earned a degree in the humanities. By 2010, this figure had risen to 2.6%. This represents a doubling of the number of Americans with degrees in the humanities over a 60-year period.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in the number of Americans with humanities degrees is in part due to the overall rise in college enrollment in the United States. In 1940, 4.6% of Americans had a four-year degree, but by 2016, this figure had risen to 33.4%. This means that the total number of Americans with college degrees has increased significantly, resulting in a greater number of people with degrees in the humanities as well.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proportion of degrees awarded in the humanities has declined in recent decades, even as the overall number of people with humanities degrees has increased. In 1954, 36% of Harvard undergraduates majored in the humanities, but in 2012, only 20% took that course of study.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As recently as 1993, the humanities accounted for 15% of the bachelor's degrees awarded by colleges and universities in the United States. As of 2022, they accounted for less than 9%.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_the_digital_age">In the digital age</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In the digital age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers in the humanities have developed numerous large- and small-scale digital corporations, such as digitized collections of historical texts, along with the digital tools and methods to analyze them. Their aim is both to uncover new knowledge about corpora and to visualize research data in new and revealing ways. Much of this activity occurs in a field called the <a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">digital humanities</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="STEM">STEM</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: STEM"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Politicians in the United States currently espouse a need for increased funding of the <a href="/wiki/STEM_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="STEM fields">STEM fields</a>, science, technology, engineering, mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such as STEM or medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-bi_26Jun2013_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bi_26Jun2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was a decline of quality in both college and pre-college education in the humanities field.<sup id="cite_ref-bi_26Jun2013_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bi_26Jun2013-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three-term Louisiana Governor <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Edwards" title="Edwin Edwards">Edwin Edwards</a> acknowledged the importance of the humanities in a 2014 video address<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the academic conference "Revolutions in Eighteenth-Century Sociability",<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edwards said:<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>Without the humanities to teach us how history has succeeded or failed in directing the fruits of technology and science to the betterment of our tribe of <i>homo sapiens</i>, without the humanities to teach us how to frame the discussion and to properly debate the uses-and the costs-of technology, without the humanities to teach us how to safely debate how to create a more just society with our fellow man and woman, technology and science would eventually default to the ownership of—and misuse by—the most influential, the most powerful, the most feared among us. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_value_of_the_humanities_debate">The value of the humanities debate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: The value of the humanities debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The contemporary debate in the field of <a href="/wiki/Critical_university_studies" title="Critical university studies">critical university studies</a> centers around the declining value of the humanities.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in America, there is a perceived decline in interest within higher education policy in research that is qualitative and does not produce marketable products. This threat can be seen in a variety of forms across Europe, but much critical attention has been given to the field of research assessment in particular. For example, the UK [Research Excellence Framework] has been subject to criticism due to its assessment criteria from across the humanities, and indeed, the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the notion of "impact" has generated significant debate.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_history">Philosophical history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Philosophical history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizenship_and_self-reflection">Citizenship and self-reflection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citizenship and self-reflection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the late 19th century, a central justification for the humanities has been that it aids and encourages self-reflection—a self-reflection that, in turn, helps develop personal consciousness or an active sense of civic duty. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gadamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a> centered the humanities' attempt to distinguish itself from the natural sciences in <a href="/wiki/Humankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Humankind">humankind</a>'s urge to understand its own experiences. This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars in the late 20th and early 21st centuries extended that "narrative imagination"<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the ability to understand the records of lived experiences outside of one's own individual social and cultural context. Through that narrative <a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, it is claimed, humanities scholars and students develop a <a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a> more suited to the multicultural world we live in.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That conscience might take the form of a passive one that allows more effective <a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">self-reflection</a><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or extend into active empathy that facilitates the dispensation of civic duties a responsible world citizen must engage in.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is disagreement, however, on the level of influence humanities study can have on an individual and whether or not the understanding produced in humanistic enterprise can guarantee an "identifiable positive effect on people".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanistic_theories_and_practices">Humanistic theories and practices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Humanistic theories and practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three major branches of knowledge: <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, and the humanities. <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> is the practical extension of the natural sciences, as <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> is the extension of the social sciences. Similarly, the humanities have their own practical extension, sometimes called "transformative humanities" (transhumanities) or "culturonics" (<a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Epstein" title="Mikhail Epstein">Mikhail Epstein</a>'s term): </p> <ul><li>Nature – natural sciences – technology –  transformation of nature</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>Society – social sciences –  politics – transformation of society</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>Culture – <a href="/wiki/Human_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sciences">human sciences</a> – culturonics – transformation of culture<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Technology, politics and culturonics are designed to transform what their respective disciplines study<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (May 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Humanities#Dubious" title="Talk:Humanities">discuss</a></i>]</sup>: nature, society, and culture. The field of transformative humanities includes various practicies and technologies, for example, <a href="/wiki/Language_planning" title="Language planning">language planning</a>, the construction of new languages, like <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>, and invention of new artistic and literary genres and movements in the genre of <a href="/wiki/Manifesto" title="Manifesto">manifesto</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truth_and_meaning">Truth and meaning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Truth and meaning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The divide between humanistic study and natural sciences informs arguments of meaning in humanities as well. What distinguishes the humanities from the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> is not a certain subject matter, but rather the mode of approach to any question. Humanities focuses on understanding meaning, purpose, and goals and furthers the appreciation of singular historical and social phenomena—an interpretive method of finding "truth"—rather than explaining the causality of events or uncovering the truth of the natural world.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from its societal application, narrative imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of understood meaning in history, culture and literature. </p><p>Imagination, as part of the tool kit of artists or scholars, helps create meaning that invokes a response from an audience. Since a humanities scholar is always within the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nexus" class="extiw" title="wikt:nexus">nexus</a> of lived experiences, no "absolute" knowledge is theoretically possible; knowledge is instead a ceaseless procedure of inventing and reinventing the context a text is read in. <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralism">Poststructuralism</a> has problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2010)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Humanities#Dubious" title="Talk:Humanities">discuss</a></i>]</sup> In the wake of <a href="/wiki/Death_of_the_author" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of the author">the death of the author</a> proclaimed by <a href="/wiki/Barthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Barthes">Roland Barthes</a>, various theoretical currents such as <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> analysis seek to expose the ideologies and rhetoric operative in producing both the purportedly meaningful objects and the <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> subjects of humanistic study. This exposure has opened up the interpretive structures of the humanities to criticism that humanities scholarship is "unscientific" and therefore unfit for inclusion in modern university curricula because of the very nature of its changing contextual meaning.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2010)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Humanities#Dubious" title="Talk:Humanities">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pleasure,_the_pursuit_of_knowledge_and_scholarship"><span id="Pleasure.2C_the_pursuit_of_knowledge_and_scholarship"></span>Pleasure, the pursuit of knowledge and scholarship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pleasure, the pursuit of knowledge and scholarship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some, like <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fish" title="Stanley Fish">Stanley Fish</a>, have claimed that the humanities can defend themselves best by refusing to make any claims of utility.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Fish may well be thinking primarily of literary study, rather than history and philosophy.) Any attempt to justify the humanities in terms of outside benefits such as social usefulness (say increased productivity) or in terms of ennobling effects on the individual (such as greater wisdom or diminished prejudice) is ungrounded, according to Fish, and simply places impossible demands on the relevant academic departments. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a>, while arguably a result of humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And the humanities do not even provide any more the kind of social cachet (what sociologists sometimes call "<a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a>") that was helpful to succeed in Western society before the age of mass education following World War II. </p><p>Instead, scholars like Fish suggest that the humanities offer a unique kind of pleasure, a pleasure based on the common pursuit of knowledge (even if it is only disciplinary knowledge). Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>' requirements for the disregard of social status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>. In this argument, then, only the academic pursuit of pleasure can provide a link between the private and the public realm in modern Western consumer society and strengthen that public sphere that, according to many theorists,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (May 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> is the foundation for modern democracy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Others, like <a href="/wiki/Mark_Bauerlein" title="Mark Bauerlein">Mark Bauerlein</a>, argue that professors in the humanities have increasingly abandoned proven methods of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> (<i>I care only about the quality of your arguments, not your conclusions.</i>) in favor of <a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">indoctrination</a> (<i>I care only about your conclusions, not the quality of your arguments.</i>). The result is that professors and their students adhere rigidly to a limited set of viewpoints, and have little interest in, or understanding of, opposing viewpoints. Once they obtain this intellectual self-satisfaction, persistent lapses in learning, research, and evaluation are common.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticization_and_rejection">Romanticization and rejection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Romanticization and rejection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Implicit in many of these arguments supporting the humanities are the makings of arguments against public support of the humanities. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Carroll_(scholar)" title="Joseph Carroll (scholar)">Joseph Carroll</a> asserts that we live in a changing world, a world where "cultural capital" is replaced with <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">scientific literacy</a></i>, and in which the romantic notion of a Renaissance humanities scholar is obsolete. Such arguments appeal to judgments and anxieties about the essential uselessness of the humanities, especially in an age when it is seemingly vitally important for scholars of literature, history and the arts to engage in "collaborative work with experimental scientists or even simply to make "intelligent use of the findings from empirical science."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite many humanities based arguments against the humanities some within the exact sciences have called for their return. In 2017, Science popularizer <a href="/wiki/Bill_Nye" title="Bill Nye">Bill Nye</a> retracted previous claims about the supposed 'uselessness' of philosophy. As Bill Nye states, "People allude to Socrates and Plato and Aristotle all the time, and I think many of us who make those references don't have a solid grounding," he said. "It's good to know the history of philosophy."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars, such as biologist <a href="/wiki/Scott_F._Gilbert" title="Scott F. Gilbert">Scott F. Gilbert</a>, make the claim that it is in fact the increasing predominance, leading to exclusivity, of scientific ways of thinking that need to be tempered by historical and social context. Gilbert worries that the commercialization that may be inherent in some ways of conceiving science (pursuit of funding, academic prestige etc.) need to be examined externally. Gilbert argues: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>First of all, there is a very successful alternative to science as a commercialized march to 'progress.' This is the approach taken by the liberal arts college, a model that takes pride in seeing science in context and in integrating science with the humanities and social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_school" title="Art school">Art school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a> (humanities topics)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Books">Great Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Books_programs_in_Canada" title="Great Books programs in Canada">Great Books programs in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">Liberal arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">Social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">List of academic disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEAM_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="STEAM fields">STEAM fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinbergen%27s_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">Tinbergen's four questions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_humanities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological humanities">Environmental humanities</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oed-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oed_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Humanity" 2.b, <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, 3rd ed. (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bigfuture.collegeboard.org/explore-careers/majors/arts-humanities">"Arts and Humanities Majors and Degrees"</a>. <i>BigFuture</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shc.stanford.edu/what-are-the-humanities">the original</a> on 2014-03-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University+Humanities+Center&rft.atitle=What+are+the+Humanities&rft.date=2013-12-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshc.stanford.edu%2Fwhat-are-the-humanities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/89273">"Humanist"</a>, Oxford English Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200616034110/https://oed.com/start;jsessionid=C09401B8C0D601AEA8C2CFCB5E8FF5D4?authRejection=true&url=%2Fviewdictionaryentry%2FEntry%2F89273">Archived</a> 2020-06-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace2008p28-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wallace2008p28_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallace and Gach (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=64Y6wtqzs7IC&pg=PA28">p. 28</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206150116/https://books.google.com/books?id=64Y6wtqzs7IC&pg=PA28">Archived</a> 2022-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/275932/humanism">"humanism"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 11 Apr. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150605043400/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/275932/humanism">Archived</a> 2015-06-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacey2004" class="citation book cs1">Macey, David (2004-12-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/38271/the-penguin-dictionary-of-critical-theory-by-david-macey/9780140513691"><i>The Penguin Dictionary of Critical Theory</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Dictionary+of+Critical+Theory&rft.date=2004-12-02&rft.aulast=Macey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.penguin.co.uk%2Fbooks%2F38271%2Fthe-penguin-dictionary-of-critical-theory-by-david-macey%2F9780140513691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906113657/http://artsandscience.usask.ca/arts-science/socialsciences.php">"Social Science Majors, University of Saskatchewan"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://artsandscience.usask.ca/arts-science/socialsciences.php">the original</a> on 2015-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Social+Science+Majors%2C+University+of+Saskatchewan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartsandscience.usask.ca%2Farts-science%2Fsocialsciences.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoeckx" class="citation web cs1">Boeckx, Cedric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100723173105/http://dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/~massimo/publications/PDF/BoeckxMPPLingReview2005.pdf">"Language as a Natural Object; Linguistics as a Natural Science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/~massimo/publications/PDF/BoeckxMPPLingReview2005.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-07-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Language+as+a+Natural+Object%3B+Linguistics+as+a+Natural+Science&rft.aulast=Boeckx&rft.aufirst=Cedric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dingo.sbs.arizona.edu%2F~massimo%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FBoeckxMPPLingReview2005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stanford1_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thagard, Paul, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/">Cognitive Science</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180715135221/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/">Archived</a> 2018-07-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Robertson" title="Geoffrey Robertson">Robertson, Geoffrey</a> (2006). <i>Crimes Against Humanity</i>. Penguin. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102463-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102463-9"><bdi>978-0-14-102463-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-14-102463-9&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none">"Etymonline Dictionary"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702150018/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-07-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymonline+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dlaw%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal">"Merriam-Webster's Dictionary"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230025618/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-12-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-08-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.m-w.com%2Fdictionary%2Flegal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Nagel (1987). <i>What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. Oxford University Press, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, Immanuel (1785). <i>Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</i>, the first line.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., Brian Leiter <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061115002425/http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/analytic.asp">[1]</a> "'Analytic' philosophy today names a style of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics than with the humanities."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckfordDemerath2007" class="citation book cs1">Beckford, James A.; Demerath, Jay (2007-10-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8edg7bv0kC&dq=religion+and+sociology+SAGE+publications&pg=PR5"><i>The SAGE Handbook of the Sociology of Religion</i></a>. SAGE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0652-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-0652-2"><bdi>978-1-4462-0652-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Handbook+of+the+Sociology+of+Religion&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2007-10-29&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-0652-2&rft.aulast=Beckford&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Demerath%2C+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvA8edg7bv0kC%26dq%3Dreligion%2Band%2Bsociology%2BSAGE%2Bpublications%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1941" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1941). <i>Politica</i>. New York: Oxford. pp. 1253a.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1253a&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1941&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1969" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Peter (1969). <i>The Sacred Canopy</i>. New York: Doubleday and Company. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385073059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385073059"><bdi>978-0385073059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacred+Canopy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Doubleday+and+Company&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0385073059&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson2015" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Barry (2015). <i>Rituals</i>. New York: Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199943524" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199943524"><bdi>978-0199943524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rituals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0199943524&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2009" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Catherine (2009). <i>Ritual</i>. New York: Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199735105" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199735105"><bdi>978-0199735105</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ritual&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0199735105&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHood2010" class="citation book cs1">Hood, Bruce (2010). <i>The Science of Superstition</i>. New York: HarperOne. pp. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061452659" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061452659"><bdi>978-0061452659</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Superstition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=HarperOne&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0061452659&rft.aulast=Hood&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowie2000" class="citation book cs1">Bowie, Fiona (2000-02-29). <i>The Anthropology of Religion: An Introduction</i>. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20848-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20848-8"><bdi>978-0-631-20848-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Religion%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2000-02-29&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20848-8&rft.aulast=Bowie&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegal2015" class="citation book cs1">Segal, Robert (2015). <i>Myth</i>. New York: Oxford. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198724704" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198724704"><bdi>978-0198724704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0198724704&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas2002" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Mary (2002). <i>Purity and Danger</i>. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415289955" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415289955"><bdi>978-0415289955</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purity+and+Danger&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415289955&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliade1959" class="citation book cs1">Eliade, Mircea (1959). <i>The Sacred and the Profane</i>. New York: Harvest.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacred+and+the+Profane&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harvest&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Eliade&rft.aufirst=Mircea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoward1988" class="citation book cs1">Coward, Harold (1988). <i>Sacred Word and Sacred Text</i>. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0883446041" title="Special:BookSources/978-0883446041"><bdi>978-0883446041</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Word+and+Sacred+Text&rft.place=Maryknoll%2C+NY&rft.pub=Orbis+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0883446041&rft.aulast=Coward&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1990" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Peter (1990). <i>The Sacred Canopy</i>. New York: Anchor. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385073059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385073059"><bdi>978-0385073059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacred+Canopy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Anchor&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0385073059&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGuire2002" class="citation book cs1">McGuire, Meredith (2002). <i>Religion: The Social Context</i>. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-54126-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-54126-7"><bdi>0-534-54126-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%3A+The+Social+Context&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-534-54126-7&rft.aulast=McGuire&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1989" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Joseph (1989). <i>The Problem of Evil in the Western Tradition</i>. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8146-5104-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8146-5104-6"><bdi>0-8146-5104-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Evil+in+the+Western+Tradition&rft.place=Collegeville%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Liturgical+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8146-5104-6&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker2009" class="citation cs2">Becker, Ernest (2009), <i>The denial of death</i>, Macmillan, pp. ix, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0029023105" title="Special:BookSources/978-0029023105"><bdi>978-0029023105</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+denial+of+death&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0029023105&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prentice_Hall_Professional-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Prentice_Hall_Professional_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Prentice_Hall_Professional_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansonJanson2004" class="citation book cs1">Janson, Horst Woldemar; Janson, Anthony F. 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"Beneath and Beyond the Crisis of the Humanities". <i><a href="/wiki/New_Literary_History" title="New Literary History">New Literary History</a></i>. <b>36</b>: 21–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fnlh.2005.0022">10.1353/nlh.2005.0022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144177169">144177169</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Literary+History&rft.atitle=Beneath+and+Beyond+the+Crisis+of+the+Humanities&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=21-36&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fnlh.2005.0022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144177169%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Harpham&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harpham, 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mikhail Epstein. <i>The Transformative Humanities: A Manifesto</i>. New York and London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012, p.12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey, Wilhelm</a>. <i>The Formation of the Historical World in the Human Sciences</i>, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFish2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fish" title="Stanley Fish">Fish, Stanley</a> (January 6, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090507015746/http://fish.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/will-the-humanities-save-us/#more-81">"Will the Humanities Save Us?"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fish.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/will-the-humanities-save-us/#more-81">the original</a> on 2009-05-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Will+the+Humanities+Save+Us%3F&rft.date=2008-01-06&rft.aulast=Fish&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffish.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F01%2F06%2Fwill-the-humanities-save-us%2F%23more-81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/the-laws-of-cool-knowledge-work-and-the-culture-of-information-catalogue-copy-and-table-of-contents/">Alan Liu, "<i>The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information</i> (Catalogue Copy & Table of Contents)", 2004</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130828143856/http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/the-laws-of-cool-knowledge-work-and-the-culture-of-information-catalogue-copy-and-table-of-contents/">Archived</a> 2013-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauerlein2014" class="citation web cs1">Bauerlein, Mark (13 November 2014). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2014/11/13/essay-critiques-role-theory-humanities">"Theory and the Humanities, Once More"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Inside_Higher_Ed" title="Inside Higher Ed">Inside Higher Ed</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2016</span>. <q>Jay treats it [theory] as transformative progress, but it impressed us as hack philosophizing, amateur social science, superficial learning, or just plain gamesmanship.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inside+Higher+Ed&rft.atitle=Theory+and+the+Humanities%2C+Once+More&rft.date=2014-11-13&rft.aulast=Bauerlein&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fviews%2F2014%2F11%2F13%2Fessay-critiques-role-theory-humanities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">""Theory," Anti-Theory, and Empirical Criticism", <i>Biopoetics: Evolutionary Explorations in the Arts</i>, Brett Cooke and Frederick Turner, eds., Lexington, Kentucky: ICUS Books, 1999, pp. 144–145. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhill2017" class="citation web cs1">Goldhill, Olivia (2017-04-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/960303/bill-nye-on-philosophy-the-science-guy-says-he-has-changed-his-mind">"Bill Nye says I convinced him that philosophy is not just a load of self-indulgent crap"</a>. <i>Quartz</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191210213752/https://qz.com/960303/bill-nye-on-philosophy-the-science-guy-says-he-has-changed-his-mind/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quartz&rft.atitle=Bill+Nye+says+I+convinced+him+that+philosophy+is+not+just+a+load+of+self-indulgent+crap&rft.date=2017-04-15&rft.aulast=Goldhill&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F960303%2Fbill-nye-on-philosophy-the-science-guy-says-he-has-changed-his-mind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHumanities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilbert, S. F. (n.d.). 'Health Fetishism among the Nacirema: A fugue on Jenny Reardon's The Postgenomic Condition: Ethics, Justice, and Knowledge after the Genome (Chicago University Press, 2017) and Isabelle Stengers' Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science (Polity Press, 2018). Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ojs.uniroma1.it/index.php/Organisms/article/view/14346/14050.'">https://ojs.uniroma1.it/index.php/Organisms/article/view/14346/14050.'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191210213724/https://ojs.uniroma1.it/index.php/Organisms/article/view/14346/14050.%27">Archived</a> 2019-12-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanities&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Humanities</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Humanities" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Humanities">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Humanities" class="extiw" title="q:Humanities">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Humanities" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Humanities">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" 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US</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanitiesindicators.org/">Humanities Indicators – US</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070707222602/http://www.nhc.rtp.nc.us/">National Humanities Center – US</a> (archived 7 July 2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hums.org.uk/">The Humanities Association – UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhalliance.org/">National Humanities Alliance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neh.gov/">National Endowment for the Humanities – US</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.org.au/">Australian Academy of the Humanities</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhinet.org/">National </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanitiescommission.org/">American Academy <i>Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170504000637/http://www.humanitiescommission.org/">Archived</a> 2017-05-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-2/games-and-historical-narratives-by-jeremy-antley/">"Games and Historical Narratives" by Jeremy Antley – Journal of Digital Humanities</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thevalueofthehumanities.com">Film about the Value of the Humanities</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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