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class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Vietnam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></div> <p>Shaped <a href="/wiki/Pan-Asianism" title="Pan-Asianism">Pan-Asianism</a> and nationalism in the the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in East Asia. </p><p>Social Darwinism was the first Western intellectual theory to make a strong impact on China.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Background of rapid social change, political unrest, and foreign encroachment. </p><p>Was a crucial intellectual movement with cross-regional ramifications, since East Asian intellectuals traveled between countries and read and translated each other's works. The cross-regional ramifications of social Darwinism in East Asia can be illustrated by Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a>'s <i>History of the Loss of Vietnam</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_vong_qu%E1%BB%91c_s%E1%BB%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Nam vong quốc sử">Việt Nam vong quốc sử</a></i>), which Phan wrote and published in Japan under the encouragement of Liang Qichao, an exiled Chinese intellectual, and which was later widely read in Korea, first in classical Chinese, and then in vernacular Korean translation.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The common point of East Asian Social Darwinism was the emphasis on the interests of the group above those of the individual. This was taken as the pre-requisite of a successful national struggle. In East Asian countries, Social Darwinism provided intellectuals with a powerful tool to understand why their nation either had fallen or was in danger of falling to more powerful nations. Thinkers thought that the west had temporarily proven its superiority in the "struggle between races," but that it could be overtaken through emulation. Starting in the 1920s, however, other intellectuals started to criticize Social Darwinian ideas, arguing that they were exploitative for the masses, and could lead to collaboration with imperialist powers in the name of progress. </p><p>Enthusastic advocates used Darwinian to support their own agendas, which spanned from authoritarian statism to cooperative socialism. Eugenicists, laissez-faire economists, and advocates of a strong state all found Spencerian ideas attractive. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations_and_reinterpretations">Translations and reinterpretations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Translations and reinterpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Because East Asian interpretations of Spencer's thought often downplayed its relentless determininism in favor of a more optimistic voluntarism, social Darwinism as the Vietnamese received it also presented a path to national revival.... This recasting of the transcendent power of the human will allowed East Asian reformers and, later, their Vietnamese counterparts to look past the deterministic and impersonal socio-historical forces fundamental to Western conceptions of social Darwinism and formulate a voluntarist Darwinian prescription for social evolution."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Japan">Japan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soon after the beginning of the Meiji reforms in 1868, Japan created institutions modeled after European universities.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the year of its foundation in 1877, <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Imperial University">Tokyo Imperial University</a> invited American zoologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sylvester_Morse" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Sylvester Morse">Edward Sylvester Morse</a> (1838–1925) to teach modern biology.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1877 to 1879 and again in 1882 and 1883, Morse disseminated Darwin's new evolutionary theories in Japan through both formal classes and public lectures.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morse's lectures were transcribed and translated by <a href="/wiki/Ishikawa_Chiyomatsu" title="Ishikawa Chiyomatsu">Ishikawa Chiyomatsu</a> (1861–1935), who published them as <i>Animal Evolutionism</i> (<i>Dōbutsu shinkaron</i> 動物進化論) in 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On Morse's initiative, the young <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Fenollosa" title="Ernest Fenollosa">Ernest Fenollosa</a> (1853–1908) was invited to teach political science, philosophy, and economics at the university in 1878.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fenollosa gave a central place in his teaching to Herbert Spencer's ideas, of which he was very fond.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social scientist and dean of Tokyo University <a href="/wiki/Kat%C5%8D_Hiroyuki" title="Katō Hiroyuki">Katō Hiroyuki</a> (1836–1916) heard Morse's lectures and was attracted to the social implications of Darwin's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had supported the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_and_People%27s_Rights_Movement" title="Freedom and People's Rights Movement">Freedom and People's Rights Movement</a> in the 1870s, but after the Meiji government suppressed it, Katō used Social Darwinian doctrines to argue that the interests of the group should be put above those of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_45_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_45-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>New Theory of Human Rights</i> (<i>Jinken Shinsetsu</i> 人權新說; 1882), he advocated strengthening the Japanese state to make it the "fittest."<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_45_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_45-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has been called "the leading social Darwinist in Meiji Japan."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Korea">Korea</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Darwinian">Social Darwinian</a> ideas were introduced to Korea in the 1880s by intellectuals who had studied in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Shin_29-30_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shin_29-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their first two proponents were <a href="/wiki/Yu_Kil-chun" title="Yu Kil-chun">Yu Kil-chun</a> (1856–1914) and <a href="/wiki/Yun_Chi-ho" title="Yun Chi-ho">Yun Chi-ho</a> (1864–1945), who both went to Japan in the spring of 1881 as members of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eo_Yun-jung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eo Yun-jung (page does not exist)">Eo Yun-jung</a>'s (<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EC%9C%A4%EC%A4%91" class="extiw" title="ko:어윤중">어윤중</a>, 魚允中; 1848–1896) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Courtiers%27_Observation_Mission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Courtiers' Observation Mission (page does not exist)">Courtiers' Observation Mission</a> (<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%AC_%EC%8B%9C%EC%B0%B0%EB%8B%A8" class="extiw" title="ko:조사 시찰단">조사 시찰단</a>, 朝士視察團) the Korean royal court dispatched to observe the Meiji reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both adopted Social Darwinism in different ways, Yun from a Christian point of view, and Yu by integrating ideas of struggle into his Confucian worldview.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 1883 Yu Kil-chun wrote <i>Treatise on the Main Tendencies of the World</i> [Segye daese pyeon, 세계대세편, 世界大勢編] and a <i>Treatise on Competition</i> [Gyeongjaengron, 경쟁론, 競爭論] both of which were imbued with Social Darwinist ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these works remained unpublished.<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_58_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the thought of Katō Hiroyuki, Yu understood "state, nation, and race as social organisms" that struggled with other nations for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Shin_29-30_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shin_29-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yu and Yun did not manage to popularize Social Darwinism in Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_58_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yun mentioned such ideas in editorials published in <i><a href="/wiki/Tongnip_Sinmun" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongnip Sinmun">The Independent</a></i> (1896–1899), but not enough to disseminate these ideas widely.<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_58_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Liang Qichao was first mentioned in the 15 February 1898 issue of the <i>Journal of Great Joseon's Independence Club</i> (Daejoseon Tongnip Hyeophoe Hoebo, 大朝鮮獨立協會會報), a monthly published in classical Chinese by the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Club" title="Independence Club">Independence Club</a> (1896–1898).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An eloquent editorial "On Patriotism" that Liang wrote for the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qingyibao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qingyibao (page does not exist)">Qingyibao</a></i> (清議報) – a magazine he edited in <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a> from December 1898 to December 1901 – was published in its original classical Chinese in the moderate <i><a href="/wiki/Hwangseong_Sinmun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwangseong Sinmun">Hwangseong Sinmun</a></i> in March 1899, and in vernacular Korean in the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tonging_Sinmun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tonging Sinmun (page does not exist)">Tonging Sinmun</a></i> in July of the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201083_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201083-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until 1906, few of Liang's other writings were translated. From 1906 to 1910, however, Korean monthly journals run by academic societies published 33 of his texts, mostly in mixed Chinese and Korean scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201085_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201085-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these articles were selected from Liang's newspaper articles and editorials that he wrote between 1896 and 1898 – which had been made available by the publication of his <i>Yingbingshi wenji</i> in Shanghai in 1902 – when his thinking was less seeped by Social Darwinian ideas than it later would.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201086_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201086-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social Darwinian ideas became popular among Korean intellectuals starting with the publication of Liang Qichao's <i>Selected Writings from the Ice-Drinker's Studio</i> (<i>Yinbingshi zhuanji</i>) in 1904 (?).<sup id="cite_ref-Huh_58_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huh_58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liang's works, many of which were translated into vernacular Korean, became the most popular source of information on Social Darwinism for Korean intellectuals in the first decade of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikhonov_81-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1910 the Japanese colonial government banned Liang's works as "potentially subversive."<sup id="cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikhonov_81-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a rising number of Koreans—especially Christian converts and students in Japan—mastered Western languages and Japanese, they started to read European and American works in the original or in Japanese translation.<sup id="cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikhonov_81-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="China">China</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social Darwinian ideas were first introduced into China by <a href="/wiki/Yan_Fu" title="Yan Fu">Yan Fu</a>'s (1854–1921) translation of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a>'s <i>Evolution and Ethics</i> (1893) as <i>Tianyan lun</i> 天演論 ("On Evolution") in 1898.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz196498–99_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz196498–99-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this short work, Huxley had criticized Herbert Spencer's application of an evolutionary logic to human ethics. Yet because Yan Fu was primarily concerned with the wealth and power of the Chinese nation, he tried "to find in the Darwinian cosmos prescriptions for human behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964101_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964101-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout his translation, Yan inserted his own defense of Spencer's ideas against Huxley's points.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964103_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964103-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He used Huxley's pamphlet to convince his readers of the unity of mankind rather than a world radiating around Confucian civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964102_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964102-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yan thus committed himself to the social values implicit in Darwinism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These values were of course revolutionary to China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111–12_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111–12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yan's translation was to be "his most resounding success" and had a "resounding impact" on young Chinese thinkers of the turn of the century, who were attracted by the "strident slogans of social Darwinism" and by the book's concern for "self-strengthening and the preservation of the race."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz196499–100_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz196499–100-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vietnam">Vietnam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vietnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social Darwinism arrived in Vietnam "around the end of the nineteenth century" through Chinese writings, notably those of Chinese reformers Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_(quotation)Bradley200917_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_(quotation)Bradley200917-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%C3%B4ng_Du" title="Đông Du">movement for "Eastern study"</a> encouraged Vietnamese youth to study in Japan, where they also got into contact with Chinese works that promoted social Darwinian ideas, as well as the ideas of Japanese thinkers who had led their country to rapid modernization in the past decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200917-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon.">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As in other East Asian countries, the doctrine's portrayal of national struggle caught the imagination of Vietnamese intellectuals, notably revolutionaries <a href="/wiki/Phan_Chu_Trinh" class="mw-redirect" title="Phan Chu Trinh">Phan Chu Trinh</a> (1872–1926) and <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a> (1867–1940).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112–13_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112–13-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Far from seeing Social Darwinism in fatalistic terms, they used it to understand "the rules of the game by which nations who sought to survive had to play."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spencer's critique of traditional society gave these reformers tools to understand why Vietnam was dominated by France and how they could get out of this predicament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200917-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>The Civilization of New Learning</i> (<i>Van minh tan hoc sach</i>), an anonymous manifesto that launched the Vietnamese Reform movement in 1904, was the first Vietnamese document to mention Herbert Spencer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_(launched_reform_movement,_first_Vietnamese_work_to_mention_Spencer)Bradley200917_(launched_Vietnam's_reform_movement)_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_(launched_reform_movement,_first_Vietnamese_work_to_mention_Spencer)Bradley200917_(launched_Vietnam's_reform_movement)-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deploying "Spencerian rhetoric" and themes typical of Chinese and Japanese reformers, this <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlet</a> sharply criticized Vietnamese society's failure to innovate, yet remained optimistic about the future, proposing to emulate the achievements of the West as a way to get rid of French colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917–19_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200917–19-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This spirit shaped much of the activities of Vietnamese reformers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200918_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200918-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1905 one of these reformers, Phan Bội Châu, met with Liang Qichao in Tokyo, where they discussed the plight of Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saddened to hear how Vietnam had fallen to France, Liang encouraged Phan to write about this loss.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was Phan's <i>History of the Loss of Vietnam</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_vong_qu%E1%BB%91c_s%E1%BB%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Nam vong quốc sử">Việt Nam vong quốc sử</a></i>), which Liang published in his journal <i>Xinmin Congbao</i> later in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221–22_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221–22-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Check sources in <a href="#CITEREFMarr1981">Marr 1981</a>, survival of the fittest: 61, 92, 103, 107, 117, 118, 213, 233-34, 255, 256, 273, 321, 414; pp. 128 (Nguyen An Ninh attacks SD), 128-29 (SD fails to condemn oppression), 315-16 (Marxism-Leninism oppose SD); Tran Huu Do relies on: 127, 289-90; Vietnamese collaborators employ: 294-95; perceived differently from European variety: 297-302 (includes bourgeois Vietnamese interpret); Vietnamese uncomfortable about: 317, 414, 415. Herbert Spencer: 256, 316, 317n, 356. </p><p>Relevant links: <a href="/wiki/Duy_T%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="Duy Tân hội">Duy Tân hội</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations">Translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <th scope="col">Year </th> <th scope="col" width="23%">Japan </th> <th scope="col" width="23%">Korea </th> <th scope="col" width="23%">China </th> <th scope="col" width="23%">Vietnam </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1870s</b> </td> <td> <ul><li>1877: zoologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Morse" title="Edward S. Morse">Edward S. Morse</a> introduces ideas of natural selection to Japan in a series of lectures on Darwinian evolutionary theory at <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo Imperial University">Tokyo Imperial University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1879: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a>'s <i>Lectures on the Origin of Species</i> (1859–1860) are published in a Japanese edition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1880s</b> </td> <td> <ul><li>1881: the Japanese translation of Edward Morse's 1877 lectures is published and brings Darwinian ideas to a broader audience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1884: the first Japanese translation of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s works appears.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>1882: <a href="/wiki/Yu_Kil-chun" title="Yu Kil-chun">Yu Kil-chun</a> (1856–1914) returns from Japan and introduces Social Darwinist ideas to Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200629–30_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200629–30-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1890s</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1900s</b> </td> <td> <ul><li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a> meets with Liang Qichao in Tokyo, where they discuss the plight of Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1906: Phan writes the <i>History of the Loss of Vietnam</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_vong_qu%E1%BB%91c_s%E1%BB%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Nam vong quốc sử">Việt Nam vong quốc sử</a></i>), which Liang publishes in his journal <i>Xinmin Congbao</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221–22_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221–22-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>1904–1907: the works of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Huxley">Thomas Huxley</a> are translated into Korean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200630_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200630-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Phan_B%E1%BB%99i_Ch%C3%A2u" title="Phan Bội Châu">Phan Bội Châu</a>'s <i>History of the Loss of Vietnam</i> is widely read by educated Koreans; it is translated into a mixed Sino-Korean script later that year, and into vernacular Korean in late 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov2010150–51_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov2010150–51-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1907: translation into Korean of Liang Qichao's <i>Biography of Three Heroes who Restored Italy</i> (意大利建國三傑傳), a work on heroes of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian Revolution</a> that Liang had published in 1902 in the <i>New Citizen</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200630_(Korean_translation)Tang199688_(date_and_place_of_original_publication)_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200630_(Korean_translation)Tang199688_(date_and_place_of_original_publication)-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td> <td> </td> <td> <ul><li>1904: an anonymous pamphlet titled <i>The Civilization of New Learning</i> (<i>Van minh tan hoc sach</i>), which launched the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnames_Reform_Movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vietnames Reform Movement (page does not exist)">Reform Movement</a>, is the first Vietnamese document to mention Herbert Spencer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199220–21-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1910s</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td scope="row"><b>1920s</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPusey1983">Pusey 1983</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears.">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTai1992">Tai 1992</a>, pp. 21–22 (publication of Phan's book and link with Liang Qichao); <a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, pp. 150–51 (popularity of Phan's book in Korea).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSvarverud2001">Svarverud 2001</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSvarverud2001">Svarverud 2001</a>, pp. 108–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeech1990">Meech 1990</a>, p. 1 (dates); <a href="#CITEREFSvarverud2001">Svarverud 2001</a>, p. 109 (rest of the information).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTerazawa2005">Terazawa 2005</a>, p. 98, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeech1990">Meech 1990</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenesch2011">Benesch 2011</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSvarverud2001">Svarverud 2001</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huh_45-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_45_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_45_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuh2001">Huh 2001</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavis1996">Davis 1996</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shin_29-30-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shin_29-30_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shin_29-30_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShin2006">Shin 2006</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuh2001">Huh 2001</a>, pp. 41 (Yu and Yun as "the first to receive — and more deeply than other Korean contemporaries [to be] influenced by — Social Darwinism") and 43 (mission to Japan).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuh2001">Huh 2001</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuh2001">Huh 2001</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huh_58-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_58_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_58_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_58_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huh_58_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuh2001">Huh 2001</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, pp. 19–20 (mention of Liang Qichao) and 226 (characteristics of the <i>Journal</i> as a publication).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201083-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201083_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201085-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201085_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov201086-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov201086_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tikhonov_81-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tikhonov_81_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2001">Tikhonov 2001</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz196498–99-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz196498–99_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, pp. 98–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964101-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964101_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964103-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964103_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964102-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964102_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111–12-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1964111–12_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, pp. 111–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz196499–100-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz196499–100_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1964">Schwartz 1964</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_(quotation)Bradley200917-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_(quotation)Bradley200917_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, p. 12 (quotation); <a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200917-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112–13-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112–13_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200112-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200112_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2001">Taylor 2001</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_(launched_reform_movement,_first_Vietnamese_work_to_mention_Spencer)Bradley200917_(launched_Vietnam's_reform_movement)-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_(launched_reform_movement,_first_Vietnamese_work_to_mention_Spencer)Bradley200917_(launched_Vietnam's_reform_movement)_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTai1992">Tai 1992</a>, pp. 20–21 (launched reform movement, first Vietnamese work to mention Spencer); <a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, p. 17 (launched Vietnam's reform movement).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200917–19-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200917–19_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, pp. 17–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200918-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley200918_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2009">Bradley 2009</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTai1992">Tai 1992</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199221–22-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221–22_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199221–22_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTai1992">Tai 1992</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiner1997105_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiner1997">Weiner 1997</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200629–30-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200629–30_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShin2006">Shin 2006</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200630-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200630_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShin2006">Shin 2006</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETikhonov2010150–51-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETikhonov2010150–51_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTikhonov2010">Tikhonov 2010</a>, pp. 150–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShin200630_(Korean_translation)Tang199688_(date_and_place_of_original_publication)-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShin200630_(Korean_translation)Tang199688_(date_and_place_of_original_publication)_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShin2006">Shin 2006</a>, p. 30 (Korean translation); <a href="#CITEREFTang1996">Tang 1996</a>, p. 88 (date and place of original publication).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETai199220–21-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETai199220–21_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTai1992">Tai 1992</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradley2009" class="citation cs2">Bradley, Mark Philip (2009), <i>Vietnam at War</i>, Oxford and London: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam+at+War&rft.place=Oxford+and+London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Mark+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenesch2011" class="citation cs2">Benesch, Oleg (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/31136/ubc_2011_spring_benesch_oleg.pdf"><i><span></span></i>"Bushido: The Creation of a Martial Ethic in Late Meiji Japan"<i><span></span></i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, PhD diss., University of British Columbia</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Bushido%3A+The+Creation+of+a+Martial+Ethic+in+Late+Meiji+Japan%22&rft.pub=PhD+diss.%2C+University+of+British+Columbia&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Benesch&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcircle.ubc.ca%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2429%2F31136%2Fubc_2011_spring_benesch_oleg.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1996" class="citation cs2">Davis, Winston (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/1280628/the-moral-and-political-naturalism-of-baron-kato-hiroyuki"><i>The Moral and Political Naturalism of Baron Katō Hiroyuki</i></a>, Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1557290520" title="Special:BookSources/1557290520"><bdi>1557290520</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moral+and+Political+Naturalism+of+Baron+Kat%C5%8D+Hiroyuki&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=Institute+of+East+Asian+Studies&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1557290520&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Winston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2F1280628%2Fthe-moral-and-political-naturalism-of-baron-kato-hiroyuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span> (paperback).  – via <a href="/wiki/Questia" class="mw-redirect" title="Questia">Questia</a> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuh2001" class="citation cs2">Huh, Dong-hyun (2001), "Forms of Acceptance of Social Darwinism by the Korean Progressives of the 1880–1890s: on the Materials of Yu Giljun and Yun Ch'iho", <i>International Journal of Korean Studies</i>, <b>2</b>, translated by Vladimir Tikhonov: 41–63</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Forms+of+Acceptance+of+Social+Darwinism+by+the+Korean+Progressives+of+the+1880%E2%80%931890s%3A+on+the+Materials+of+Yu+Giljun+and+Yun+Ch%27iho&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=41-63&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Huh&rft.aufirst=Dong-hyun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarr1981" class="citation cs2">Marr, David G. (1981), <i>Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520050819" title="Special:BookSources/0520050819"><bdi>0520050819</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Tradition+on+Trial%2C+1920%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0520050819&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeech1990" class="citation cs2">Meech, Julia (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.oxy.edu/yuhas/articles/arth266/MeechFenollosa+Heiji.pdf">"Reflections on Fenollosa and the Heiji Battle Scrolls"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Orientations</i>, <b>21</b> (9): 1–9</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientations&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Fenollosa+and+the+Heiji+Battle+Scrolls&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Meech&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.oxy.edu%2Fyuhas%2Farticles%2Farth266%2FMeechFenollosa%2BHeiji.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPusey1983" class="citation cs2">Pusey, James Reeve (1983), <i>China and Charles Darwin</i>, Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University; distributed by Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674117352" title="Special:BookSources/0674117352"><bdi>0674117352</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+Charles+Darwin&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Council+on+East+Asian+Studies%2C+Harvard+University%3B+distributed+by+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0674117352&rft.aulast=Pusey&rft.aufirst=James+Reeve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1964" class="citation cs2">Schwartz, Benjamin I. (1964), <i>In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West</i>, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674446518" title="Special:BookSources/0674446518"><bdi>0674446518</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Wealth+and+Power%3A+Yen+Fu+and+the+West&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0674446518&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span> (cloth) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674446526" title="Special:BookSources/0674446526">0674446526</a> (paper).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShin2006" class="citation cs2">Shin, Gi-wook (2006), <i>Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804754071" title="Special:BookSources/0804754071"><bdi>0804754071</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Nationalism+in+Korea%3A+Genealogy%2C+Politics%2C+and+Legacy&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0804754071&rft.aulast=Shin&rft.aufirst=Gi-wook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span> (cloth); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/080475408X" title="Special:BookSources/080475408X">080475408X</a> (paperback).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvarverud2001" class="citation cs2">Svarverud, Rune (2001), "Social Darwinism and China's Relationship with Korea and Japan in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century", <i>International Journal of Korean Studies</i>, <b>2</b>: 99–122</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Social+Darwinism+and+China%27s+Relationship+with+Korea+and+Japan+in+the+Late+19th+and+Early+20th+Century&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=99-122&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Svarverud&rft.aufirst=Rune&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTai1992" class="citation cs2">Tai, Hue-Tam Ho (1992), <i>Radicalism and the Origins of the Vietnamese Revolution</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674746120" title="Special:BookSources/0674746120"><bdi>0674746120</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radicalism+and+the+Origins+of+the+Vietnamese+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0674746120&rft.aulast=Tai&rft.aufirst=Hue-Tam+Ho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTang1996" class="citation cs2">Tang, Xiaobing (1996), <i>Global Space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity: the Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804725837" title="Special:BookSources/0804725837"><bdi>0804725837</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Space+and+the+Nationalist+Discourse+of+Modernity%3A+the+Historical+Thinking+of+Liang+Qichao&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0804725837&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2001" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Philip (2001), <i>Fragments of the Present: Searching for Modernity in Vietnam's South</i>, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824824172" title="Special:BookSources/0824824172"><bdi>0824824172</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fragments+of+the+Present%3A+Searching+for+Modernity+in+Vietnam%27s+South&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0824824172&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerazawa2005" class="citation cs2">Terazawa, Yuki (2005), "Racializing Bodies Through Science in Meiji Japan: The Rise of Race-Based Research in Gynecology", in Low, Morris (ed.), <i>Building a Modern Japan: Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Meiji Era and Beyond</i>, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 83–102, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1403968322" title="Special:BookSources/1403968322"><bdi>1403968322</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Racializing+Bodies+Through+Science+in+Meiji+Japan%3A+The+Rise+of+Race-Based+Research+in+Gynecology&rft.btitle=Building+a+Modern+Japan%3A+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+the+Meiji+Era+and+Beyond&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=83-102&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1403968322&rft.aulast=Terazawa&rft.aufirst=Yuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTikhonov2001" class="citation cs2">Tikhonov, Vladimir (2001), "Social Darwinism in Korea and Its Influence on Early Modern Korean Buddhism", <i>International Journal of Korean Studies</i>, <b>2</b>: 65–97</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Social+Darwinism+in+Korea+and+Its+Influence+on+Early+Modern+Korean+Buddhism&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=65-97&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Tikhonov&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTikhonov2010" class="citation cs2">Tikhonov, Vladimir (2010), <i>Social Darwinism and Nationalism in Korea, the Beginnings (1880s–1910s): "Survival" as an Ideology of Korean Modernity</i>, Leiden and Boston: Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004185036" title="Special:BookSources/9789004185036"><bdi>9789004185036</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Darwinism+and+Nationalism+in+Korea%2C+the+Beginnings+%281880s%E2%80%931910s%29%3A+%22Survival%22+as+an+Ideology+of+Korean+Modernity&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789004185036&rft.aulast=Tikhonov&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner1997" class="citation cs2">Weiner, Michael (1997), "The Invention of Identity: Race and Nation in Pre-war Japan", <i>The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan</i>, London: C. Hurst & Co., pp. 96–117, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1850652872" title="Special:BookSources/1850652872"><bdi>1850652872</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Invention+of+Identity%3A+Race+and+Nation+in+Pre-war+Japan&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+Racial+Identities+in+China+and+Japan&rft.place=London&rft.pages=96-117&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1850652872&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span> (cased); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1850653534" title="Special:BookSources/1850653534">1850653534</a> (paper).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2001" class="citation cs2">Allen, J. Michael (2001), "Ambivalent Social Darwinism in Korea", <i>International Journal of Korean Studies</i>, <b>2</b>: 1–24</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Ambivalent+Social+Darwinism+in+Korea&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=J.+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross1996" class="citation cs2">Cross, Sherrie (1996), "Prestige and Comfort: The Development of Social Darwinism in Early Meiji Japan, and the Role of Edward Sylvester Morse", <i>Annals of Science</i>, <b>53</b> (4): 323–44, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033799608560820">10.1080/00033799608560820</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Prestige+and+Comfort%3A+The+Development+of+Social+Darwinism+in+Early+Meiji+Japan%2C+and+the+Role+of+Edward+Sylvester+Morse&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=323-44&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033799608560820&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Sherrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowland2000" class="citation cs2">Howland, Douglas (2000), "Society Reified: Herbert Spencer and Political Theory in Early Meiji Japan", <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i>, <b>42</b> (1): 67–86, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0010417500002607">10.1017/S0010417500002607</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Society+Reified%3A+Herbert+Spencer+and+Political+Theory+in+Early+Meiji+Japan&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-86&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0010417500002607&rft.aulast=Howland&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2001" class="citation cs2">Kim, Gi-seung (2001), "Embracing and Overcoming Social Darwinism by Confucian Intellectuals in the [<i>sic</i>] Early 20th Century Korea", <i>International Journal of Korean History</i>, <b>2</b>: 25–40</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Korean+History&rft.atitle=Embracing+and+Overcoming+Social+Darwinism+by+Confucian+Intellectuals+in+the+%5Bsic%5D+Early+20th+Century+Korea&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=25-40&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Gi-seung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumika2013a" class="citation cs2">Sumika, Masayoshi (2013a), "Nationalism, Religion, and Social Darwinism: Nation and Religion in the Works of Kato Genchi and Liang Qichao", <i>Journal of Religious Studies (Shūkyō Kenkyū 宗教研究)</i>, <b>87</b> (376): 1–25</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religious+Studies+%28Sh%C5%ABky%C5%8D+Kenky%C5%AB+%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%29&rft.atitle=Nationalism%2C+Religion%2C+and+Social+Darwinism%3A+Nation+and+Religion+in+the+Works+of+Kato+Genchi+and+Liang+Qichao&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=376&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Sumika&rft.aufirst=Masayoshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Italic or bold markup not allowed in: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#apostrophe_markup" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumika2013b" class="citation cs2">Sumika, Masayoshi (2013b), "Social Darwinism and Religion: The Cross-Cultural Experiences of Liang Qichao and Nitobe Inazo", <i>Comparative Studies on Regional Powers</i>, <b>13</b>: 185–95</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+on+Regional+Powers&rft.atitle=Social+Darwinism+and+Religion%3A+The+Cross-Cultural+Experiences+of+Liang+Qichao+and+Nitobe+Inazo&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=185-95&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Sumika&rft.aufirst=Masayoshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagai1954" class="citation cs2">Nagai, Michio (1954), "Herbert Spencer in Early Meiji Japan", <i>The Far Eastern Quarterly</i>, <b>14</b> (1): 55–64, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2942228">10.2307/2942228</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2942228">2942228</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Far+Eastern+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Herbert+Spencer+in+Early+Meiji+Japan&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-64&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2942228&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2942228%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nagai&rft.aufirst=Michio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagazumi1983" class="citation cs2">Nagazumi, Akira (1983), "The Diffusion of the Idea of Social Darwinism in East and Southeast Asia", <i>Historia Scientiarum</i>, <b>24</b>: 1–18</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia+Scientiarum&rft.atitle=The+Diffusion+of+the+Idea+of+Social+Darwinism+in+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Nagazumi&rft.aufirst=Akira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShimao1981" class="citation cs2">Shimao, Eikoh (1981), "Darwinism in Japan: 1877-1927", <i>Annals of Science</i>, <b>38</b> (1): 93–102, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033798100200131">10.1080/00033798100200131</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Darwinism+in+Japan%3A+1877-1927&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-102&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033798100200131&rft.aulast=Shimao&rft.aufirst=Eikoh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2001" class="citation cs2">Thomas, Julie A. (2001), <i>Reconfiguring Modernity: Concepts of Nature in Japanese Political Ideology</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520228545" title="Special:BookSources/0520228545"><bdi>0520228545</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconfiguring+Modernity%3A+Concepts+of+Nature+in+Japanese+Political+Ideology&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0520228545&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Julie+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnoura1999" class="citation cs2">Unoura, Hiroshi (1999), "Samurai Darwinism: Hiroyuki Katō and the reception of Darwin's theory in modern Japan from the 1880s to the 1900s", <i>History and Anthropology</i>, <b>11</b> (2–3): 235–55, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02757206.1999.9960914">10.1080/02757206.1999.9960914</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Samurai+Darwinism%3A+Hiroyuki+Kat%C5%8D+and+the+reception+of+Darwin%27s+theory+in+modern+Japan+from+the+1880s+to+the+1900s&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=235-55&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02757206.1999.9960914&rft.aulast=Unoura&rft.aufirst=Hiroshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AMadalibi%2FSocial+Darwinism+in+East+Asia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&oldid=1025911598">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Madalibi/Social_Darwinism_in_East_Asia&oldid=1025911598</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks catlinks-allhidden" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Subscription_required_using_via" title="Category:Subscription required using via">Subscription required using via</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 30 May 2021, at 08:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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