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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Borujerdi&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Iranian language spoken by Iranian Jews</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Judeo-Hamadani<br />Judeo-Borujerdi</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Judeo-Persian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Iran</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">8 of Judeo-Hamadani (2001)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Northwestern Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Central Plateau<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Judeo-Hamadani<br />Judeo-Borujerdi</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew script">Hebrew script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/jude1268">jude1268</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/10502">Judeo-Hamadani</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Judeo-Hamadani</b> and <b>Judeo-Borujerdi</b> constitute a <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Iranian language">Northwestern Iranian language</a>, originally spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borujerd" title="Borujerd">Borujerd</a> in western Iran. Hamadanis refer to their language as <i>ebri</i> "Hebrew" or <i>zabān-e qadim</i> "old language". Though not Hebrew, the term <i>ebri</i> is used to distinguish Judeo-Hamadani from Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In 1920, Hamadan had around 13,000 Jewish residents, most can also be found in Israel, New York City, and most predominantly in Los Angeles.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica_Online-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judeo-Hamadani_Classification">Judeo-Hamadani Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Judeo-Hamadani Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Picture_of_Hamadan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Picture_of_Hamadan.png/400px-Picture_of_Hamadan.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Picture_of_Hamadan.png 1.5x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>From Journal of Jewish Languages. Picture of the map of Judeo-Median languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borjian_2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In western Iran, the district of Hamadan is split between <a href="/wiki/Tuyserkan" title="Tuyserkan">Tuyserkan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malayer" title="Malayer">Malayer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nahavand" title="Nahavand">Nahavand</a>. This district along with <a href="/wiki/Borujerd" title="Borujerd">Borujerd</a>, further<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> south in <a href="/wiki/Lorestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorestan Province">Lorestan Province</a>, forms a geographic cluster that was inhabited by a good portion of Iranian-Jewish communities until recently when those communities emigrated to <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. Already in 1701, Paul Lucas (cited by De Planhol 2003) wrote that Jews were more numerous in Hamadan than elsewhere in Persia. According to Encyclopedia Iranica, the Jewish community had dwindled from around 13,000 souls in 1920 to less than 1,000 by 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica_Online-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is hard to find people who still speak the Judeo-Hamadani language since only people born before the mid-1940s were raised speaking the dialect. Given the large diaspora population, few people today speak the Judeo-Hamadani language; it is unknown whether native speakers under the age of 50 exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica_Online-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of preservation of Judeo-Hamadani is primarily due to cultural, political, and economic marginalization of the Jewish community. Unlike Judeo-Hamadani, Persian carried prestige as the majority language, and by adopting it, Jews were afforded greater educational and employment opportunities, as well as social status. Persian's influence was not only cultural, but linguistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Habib Borjian points out, Hamadan was once the capital of <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a>, implying that a form of Northwestern Iranian <a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a> must have been spoken here before Southwestern Iranian Persian became the dominant language of the entire Iranian Plateau (Habib Borjian, 121).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habib Borjian explains that these moribund dialects show closest resemblance to the dialects spoken in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zanjan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanjan Province">Zanjan</a>, both north of Hamadan, and further northwest in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a> (Habib Borjian, 121). This suggests that migration from central Iran led to Jewish dialects in Hamadan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_Languages.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Comparison_of_Languages.png/400px-Comparison_of_Languages.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Comparison_of_Languages.png 1.5x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Language comparison taken from The Journal of Jewish Languages<sup id="cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borjian_2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>If we look at the chart above, we can see how Judeo-Hamadani is compared to some of the other Judeo-Median Languages. Judeo-Hamadani appears most similar to Kashani in terms of morphosyntax, evidenced by shared passive and imperfect markers. Judeo-Hamadani also shares many lexical items with Judeo-Isfahani, including "throw", "want", "cat", and "dog". This overlap, though notable and suggests similar origins or contact, is not significant enough for these languages to be mutually intelligible. In fact, due to language contact, dialectal shift, and diaspora, none of the Judeo-Median languages are mutually intelligible. According to Habib Borjian, "Tentative studies reveal that Tuyserkani agrees with Hamadani in all major grammatical points and lexical items (Stilo 2003), and that the dialects of Borujerd and Nehavand15 are close (Yarshater 1989)".<sup id="cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borjian_2014-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm/326px--Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="326" height="183" data-durationhint="1521" data-mwtitle="Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="av1, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4b/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm/Pouran_speaking_Judeo-Hamedani.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Oral history of Judeo-Hamedani-Borujerdi.</figcaption></figure> <p>The consonant inventory of Judeo-Hamadani is: /p, b, t, d, č, ǰ, ž, k, g, q~γ, f, v, s, z, š, x, h, m, n, r, l, y/<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. There may also be a pharyngeal /ħ/ especially in words borrowed from Hebrew and Arabic. </p><p>Its vowel inventory is /i, e, ə, a, u, ō, o, ā/<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Stilo states that <i>ə</i> is probably a variant of <i>e</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Judeo-Hamadani also has diphthongs, including <i>āā, ao, uā, ayi, āy, ey, iye, av</i>, and <i>āv</i>. The suprasegmentals of the language, including rhythm, tone, intonation, and stress, are influenced by the Persian Hamadani dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judeo-Hamadani contains many loanwords from Hebrew, standard Persian, and Hamadani Persian. Loanwords provide insight into language contact and historical cultural overlap. For example, the term <i>venadig</i> "window glass" appears in Judeo-Hamadani, spelled <i>venedig</i> in Hamadani, identical to the German <i>Venedig</i> "Venice." The Hamadani word likely originally referred to glass imported from Venice and used in windows. Like <i>venedig</i>, other loanwords were likely transferred to Judeo-Hamadani from Hamadani proper, or through direct contact with speakers of other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judeo-Hamadani's morphology is similar to Persian's. Below is a list of nominal morphological characteristics of Judeo-Hamadani: </p> <ul><li>substantives have no distinction of grammatical gender;</li> <li>numbers have no distinction between the direct and oblique case;</li> <li>postpositional <i>rā/ro</i> mark definite direct objects;</li> <li>the plural suffix <i>-(h)ā</i> marks substantives that are both inanimate or animate;</li> <li>indefinite markers commonly occur together, and appear as <i>ye(y)</i> "one" and an unstressed <i>-i</i> (<a href="/wiki/Judeo-Esfahani" title="Judeo-Esfahani">Judeo-Esfahani</a> also possesses this characteristic); and,</li> <li>modifiers follow the noun.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Personal pronouns in Judeo-Hamadani are identical to those in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> save for two differences: Judeo-Hamadani has the <i>-ā-</i> vowel in <i>mān</i> "I," and uses the form <i>hāmā</i> "we" as opposed to the Persian <i>mā</i>. Clitics in Judeo-Hamadani are mobile, and there is a general tendency for movement forward, to the left. They can also appear inside the verb when it is possible. Like other <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>, Judeo-Hamadani only has one pronominal clitic form for all cases: the oblique.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preverbs">Preverbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Preverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judeo-Hamadani commonly uses preverbs <i>he-, vā</i> and <i>vor-</i>. Often, preverbs cause no semantic change in the verb root. However, in cases like <i>vā-ker-ān</i> "I open," there is a meaning change of "ker". In general, preverbs precede any negative particle, clitics, and durative particle, and always occur in the initial position.<sup id="cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <pre> <i>he-ne=m-e-gefte</i> PV-NEG=1S.OBL-DUR-take.PP "I have not bought" </pre> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tenses">Tenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judeo-Hamadani has eight tenses, present, imperfect, subjunctive, imperative, preterit, present perfect, past perfect, and progressive. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Judeo-Hamadani Verb Formation </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tense</th> <th>Formation</th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>present</td> <td>by suffixed and unstressed <i>e-</i> (durative marker)</td> <td><i>e-ker-u</i> "makes, does" </td></tr> <tr> <td>imperfect</td> <td>by suffixed and unstressed <i>e-</i> (durative marker)</td> <td><i>e-ker-u</i> "makes, does" </td></tr> <tr> <td>subjunctive</td> <td>prefix <i>be-</i></td> <td><i>be-š-im</i> "we would go" </td></tr> <tr> <td>imperative</td> <td>prefix <i>be-</i></td> <td><i>be-gir</i> "take it!" </td></tr> <tr> <td>preterit</td> <td>prefix <i>be-</i></td> <td><i>be=m-vād</i> "I told" </td></tr> <tr> <td>present perfect</td> <td>prefix <i>be-</i></td> <td><i>be=m-e-šnofte</i> "I have heard") </td></tr> <tr> <td>past perfect</td> <td>prefix <i>be-</i></td> <td><i>be=m-xorte bo</i> "I had eaten" </td></tr> <tr> <td>progressive</td> <td>on the basis of the colloquial Persian construction with the modal verb <i>dāštan</i></td> <td><i>mān dār-ān bar-gard-ān az kenisā</i> "I am returning from synagogue" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gholami_2022-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gholami_2022_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGholami2022" class="citation journal cs1">Gholami, Saloumeh (January 2022). <a href="/wiki/Sussan_Siavoshi" title="Sussan Siavoshi">Siavoshi, Sussan</a> (ed.). "Judeo-Hamadani: The Language of Jews in Hamadan and Its Origins". <i><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Studies_(journal)" title="Iranian Studies (journal)">Iranian Studies</a></i>. <b>54</b> (5–6). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Iranian_Studies" title="Association for Iranian Studies">Association for Iranian Studies</a>: 769–805. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1848420">10.1080/00210862.2020.1848420</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4819">1475-4819</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/sn85060395">sn85060395</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1753915">1753915</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234006069">234006069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=Judeo-Hamadani%3A+The+Language+of+Jews+in+Hamadan+and+Its+Origins&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=769-805&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234006069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1848420&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1753915&rft.issn=1475-4819&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fsn85060395&rft.aulast=Gholami&rft.aufirst=Saloumeh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranica_Online-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_Online_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hamadan-ix">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borjian_2014-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borjian_2014_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorjian2014" class="citation journal cs1">Borjian, Habib (2014). "What is Judeo-Median and how does it differ from Judeo-Persian?". <i>The Journal of Jewish Languages</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 117–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134638-12340026">10.1163/22134638-12340026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=What+is+Judeo-Median+and+how+does+it+differ+from+Judeo-Persian%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-142&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134638-12340026&rft.aulast=Borjian&rft.aufirst=Habib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorjian2014" class="citation journal cs1">Borjian, Habib (2014). "What is Judeo-Median and how does it differ from Judeo-Persian?". <i>Journal of Jewish Languages</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 117–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134638-12340026">10.1163/22134638-12340026</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=What+is+Judeo-Median+and+how+does+it+differ+from+Judeo-Persian%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-142&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134638-12340026&rft.aulast=Borjian&rft.aufirst=Habib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGholami2021" class="citation journal cs1">Gholami, Saloumeh (2021). "Judeo-Hamadani: The Language of Jews in Hamadan and Its Origins". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>54</b> (5–6): 769–805. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1848420">10.1080/00210862.2020.1848420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=Judeo-Hamadani%3A+The+Language+of+Jews+in+Hamadan+and+Its+Origins&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=769-805&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1848420&rft.aulast=Gholami&rft.aufirst=Saloumeh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006093028/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/languages.htm">Omniglot.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061022024550/http://www.mazdapub.com/Comprehensive-History-Jews.htm">Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranianamericanjews.blogspot.com/">Iranian American Jews</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501014751/http://www.iranianamericanjews.blogspot.com/">Archived</a> 2011-05-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070706140351/http://ijchronicle.com/">Iranian Jewish Chronicle Magazine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=orwVuIpcIl4">Judeo Hamadani Speech</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-iranian">Jewish Languages Project</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_News_Articles">Related News Articles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Related News Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120516012949/http://www.jta.org/news/article/1999/11/30/13288/Ancientlanguagecom">Ancient Judeo-Persian Language Kept Alive</a></li></ul> <div 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iranian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iranian_languages" title="Template:Iranian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iranian_languages" title="Template talk:Iranian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iranian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#Old_Iranian" title="Iranian languages">Old Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#Middle_Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Middle Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages#New_Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">New Iranian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pamir_languages" title="Pamir languages">Pamir</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishkashimi_language" title="Ishkashimi language">Ishkashimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufi_language" title="Khufi language">Khufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munji_language" title="Munji language">Munji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rushani_language" title="Rushani language">Rushani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanglechi_language" title="Sanglechi language">Sanglechi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shughni_language" title="Shughni language">Shughni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bartangi_language" title="Bartangi language">Bartangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufi_language" title="Khufi language">Khufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oroshori_dialect" title="Oroshori dialect">Oroshori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarikoli_language" title="Sarikoli language">Sarikoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vanji_language" title="Vanji language">Vanji</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakhi_language" title="Wakhi language">Wakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazghulami_language" title="Yazghulami language">Yazghulami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yidgha_language" title="Yidgha language">Yidgha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Khwarezmian_language" title="Khwarezmian language">Khwarezmian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parachi_language" title="Parachi language">Parachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Pashto" title="Central Pashto">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Pashto" title="Northern Pashto">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Pashto" title="Southern Pashto">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanetsi" title="Wanetsi">Wanetsi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ormuri" title="Ormuri">Ormuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarghulami" title="Sarghulami">Sarghulami</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scythian_languages" title="Scythian languages">Scythian</a></i> <ul><li><i>Alanian</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_language" title="Ossetian language">Ossetian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digor_Ossetian" title="Digor Ossetian">Digor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Ossetian" title="Iron Ossetian">Iron</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jassic_dialect" title="Jassic dialect">Jassic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yaghnobi_language" title="Yaghnobi language">Yaghnobi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Iranian_languages" title="Western Iranian languages">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashtiani_language" title="Ashtiani language">Ashtiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makrani_dialect" title="Makrani dialect">Makrani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daylami_language" title="Daylami language">Daylami</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Fars" title="Dialects of Fars">Fars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilaki_language" title="Gilaki language">Gilaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorani_language" title="Gorani language">Gorani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgani_language" title="Gorgani language">Gorgani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karingani_language" title="Karingani language">Karingani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorani" title="Sorani">Sorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kurdish" title="Southern Kurdish">Xwarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kordali_language" title="Kordali language">Kordali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laki_language" title="Laki language">Laki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazanderani_language" title="Mazanderani language">Mazanderani</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabaroid_dialects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabaroid dialects (page does not exist)">Tabaroid</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Azeri" title="Old Azeri">Old Azeri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnani_languages" title="Semnani languages">Semnani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lasgerdi_language" title="Lasgerdi language">Lasgerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangsari_language" title="Sangsari language">Sangsari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnani_language" title="Semnani language">Semnani proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorkhei_language" title="Sorkhei language">Sorkhei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talysh_language" title="Talysh language">Talysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tati_language_(Iran)" title="Tati language (Iran)">Tati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tatoid_dialects" title="Tatoid dialects">Tatoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaza_language" title="Zaza language">Zaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari_language" title="Zoroastrian Dari language">Zoroastrian Dari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achomi_language" title="Achomi language">Achomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkardi_language" title="Bashkardi language">Bashkardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garmsiri_language" title="Garmsiri language">Garmsiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhmareyi_language" title="Kuhmareyi language">Kuhmareyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumzari_language" title="Kumzari language">Kumzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luri_language" title="Luri language">Luri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakhtiari_dialect" title="Bakhtiari dialect">Bakhtiari</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pahlavani_language" title="Pahlavani language">Pahlavani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tat_language_(Caucasus)" title="Tat language (Caucasus)">Caucasian Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaragi_dialect" title="Hazaragi dialect">Hazaragi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badeshi" title="Badeshi">Badeshi</a> (unknown further classification)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct</a> or <a href="/wiki/Historical_language" title="Historical language">historical languages</a>.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on 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