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class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="অৱয়ব"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="পৃষ্ঠাৰ পাঠ্যৰ আকাৰ, প্ৰস্থ আৰু ৰং পৰিবৰ্তন কৰক" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="অৱয়ব" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">অৱয়ব</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div 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href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF&returnto=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="আপোনাক এটা একাউণ্ট সৃষ্টি কৰি প্ৰৱেশ কৰিবলৈ অনুৰোধ জনোৱা হৈছে, কিন্তু এয়া বাধ্যতামূলক নহয়" class=""><span>একাউণ্ট সৃষ্টি কৰক</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6&returnto=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="বাধ্যতামূলক নহ'লেও প্ৰৱেশ কৰাটো বাঞ্চনীয় [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>প্ৰৱেশ</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="অধিক বিকল্প" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="ব্যক্তিগত সৰঞ্জাম" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">ব্যক্তিগত সৰঞ্জাম</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_as.wikipedia.org&uselang=as"><span>দান কৰক</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF&returnto=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="আপোনাক এটা একাউণ্ট সৃষ্টি কৰি প্ৰৱেশ কৰিবলৈ অনুৰোধ জনোৱা হৈছে, কিন্তু এয়া বাধ্যতামূলক নহয়"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>একাউণ্ট সৃষ্টি কৰক</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6&returnto=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="বাধ্যতামূলক নহ'লেও প্ৰৱেশ কৰাটো বাঞ্চনীয় [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>প্ৰৱেশ</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> লগ-আউট কৰা সদস্যৰ বাবে পৃষ্ঠাসমূহ <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC:%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" aria-label="সম্পাদনাৰ বিষয়ে অধিক জানক"><span>অধিক শিকক</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%99%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>বৰঙণি</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%A8" title="এই আই.পি. ঠিকনাৰ পৰা কৰা সম্পাদনাসমূহৰ আলোচনা [n]" accesskey="n"><span>এই IPটোৰে যোগাযোগ কৰক</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><div id="mw-dismissablenotice-anonplace"></div><script>(function(){var node=document.getElementById("mw-dismissablenotice-anonplace");if(node){node.outerHTML="\u003Cdiv class=\"mw-dismissable-notice\"\u003E\u003Cdiv 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class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="সূচী" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">সূচী</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">পাৰ্শ্বদণ্ডলৈ যাওক</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">লুকুৱাওক</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">পাতনি</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-প্ৰাথমিক_বনাম_সুযোগ_সন্ধানী" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#প্ৰাথমিক_বনাম_সুযোগ_সন্ধানী"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>প্ৰাথমিক বনাম সুযোগ সন্ধানী</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-প্ৰাথমিক_বনাম_সুযোগ_সন্ধানী-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-সংক্ৰমণ_হয়_নে_নহয়" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#সংক্ৰমণ_হয়_নে_নহয়"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>সংক্ৰমণ হয় নে নহয়</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-সংক্ৰমণ_হয়_নে_নহয়-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-সোঁচৰা" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#সোঁচৰা"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>সোঁচৰা</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-সোঁচৰা-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-শৰীৰৰ_স্থান_অনুসৰি" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#শৰীৰৰ_স্থান_অনুসৰি"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>শৰীৰৰ স্থান অনুসৰি</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-শৰীৰৰ_স্থান_অনুসৰি-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-লক্ষণ_আৰু_চিহ্ন" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#লক্ষণ_আৰু_চিহ্ন"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>লক্ষণ আৰু চিহ্ন</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-লক্ষণ_আৰু_চিহ্ন-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>লক্ষণ আৰু চিহ্ন উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-লক্ষণ_আৰু_চিহ্ন-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত_বা_ভাইৰাছজনিত" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত_বা_ভাইৰাছজনিত"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত বা ভাইৰাছজনিত</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত_বা_ভাইৰাছজনিত-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ৰোগ_প্ৰক্ৰিয়া" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ৰোগ_প্ৰক্ৰিয়া"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>ৰোগ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ৰোগ_প্ৰক্ৰিয়া-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>ৰোগ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ৰোগ_প্ৰক্ৰিয়া-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Colonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ৰোগ_নিৰ্ণয়" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ৰোগ_নিৰ্ণয়"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>ৰোগ নিৰ্ণয়</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ৰোগ_নিৰ্ণয়-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>ৰোগ নিৰ্ণয় উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ৰোগ_নিৰ্ণয়-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symptomatic_diagnostics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symptomatic_diagnostics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Symptomatic diagnostics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symptomatic_diagnostics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbial_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbial_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Microbial culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbial_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Microscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biochemical_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochemical_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Biochemical tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biochemical_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PCR-based_diagnostics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PCR-based_diagnostics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>PCR-based diagnostics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PCR-based_diagnostics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metagenomic_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metagenomic_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Metagenomic sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metagenomic_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indication_of_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indication_of_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Indication of tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indication_of_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-নিবাৰণ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#নিবাৰণ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>নিবাৰণ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-নিবাৰণ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>নিবাৰণ উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-নিবাৰণ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Immunity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Host_genetic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Host_genetic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Host genetic factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Host_genetic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-চিকিৎসা" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#চিকিৎসা"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>চিকিৎসা</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-চিকিৎসা-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ৰোগ_বিতৰণ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ৰোগ_বিতৰণ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>ৰোগ বিতৰণ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ৰোগ_বিতৰণ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>ৰোগ বিতৰণ উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ৰোগ_বিতৰণ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historic_pandemics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_pandemics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Historic pandemics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_pandemics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emerging_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Emerging diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ইতিহাস" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ইতিহাস"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>ইতিহাস</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ইতিহাস-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>ইতিহাস উপ-অনুচ্ছেদ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ইতিহাস-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical_specialists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_specialists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Medical specialists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_specialists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outer_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outer_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Outer space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outer_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-আৰু_চাওক" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#আৰু_চাওক"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>আৰু চাওক</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-আৰু_চাওক-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-টোকা_আৰু_তথ্য_উৎস" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#টোকা_আৰু_তথ্য_উৎস"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>টোকা আৰু তথ্য উৎস</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-টোকা_আৰু_তথ্য_উৎস-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-বাহ্যিক_সংযোগ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#বাহ্যিক_সংযোগ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>বাহ্যিক সংযোগ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-বাহ্যিক_সংযোগ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="সূচী" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="সূচীপত্ৰ টগ'ল কৰক" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">সূচীপত্ৰ টগ'ল কৰক</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">সংক্ৰমণ</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="অন্য এটা ভাষাৰ প্ৰবন্ধলৈ যাওক। 96টা ভাষাত উপলব্ধ।" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">96টা ভাষা</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksie" title="Infeksie – আফ্ৰিকানছ্" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Infeksie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="আফ্ৰিকানছ্" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – ছুইচ জাৰ্মান" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="ছুইচ জাৰ্মান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – আৰ্গোনিজ" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="আৰ্গোনিজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89" title="عدوى – আৰবী" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عدوى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="আৰবী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7" title="عدوا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عدوا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1ata" title="Añata – আয়মাৰা" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Añata" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="আয়মাৰা" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nfeksiya" title="İnfeksiya – আজেৰবাইজানী" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnfeksiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="আজেৰবাইজানী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeksyon" title="Impeksyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Impeksyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Інфекцыя – বেলাৰুছীয়" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інфекцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="বেলাৰুছীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Інфэкцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Інфэкцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – বুলগেৰীয়" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="বুলগেৰীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="সংক্রমণ – বাংলা" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংক্রমণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="বাংলা" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="ভাল প্ৰবন্ধ"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – বছনীয়" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="বছনীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3" title="Infecció – কাতালান" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Infecció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="কাতালান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B4%DB%95%D9%86%D8%A7" title="تەشەنا – চেণ্ট্ৰেল কুৰ্ডিচ" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەشەنا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="চেণ্ট্ৰেল কুৰ্ডিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekce" title="Infekce – চেক" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Infekce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="চেক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haint" title="Haint – ৱেলচ" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Haint" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="ৱেলচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – ডেনিচ" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="ডেনিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – জাৰ্মান" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="জাৰ্মান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Λοίμωξη – গ্ৰীক" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λοίμωξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="গ্ৰীক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection – ইংৰাজী" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Infection" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="ইংৰাজী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekto" title="Infekto – এস্পেৰান্তো" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Infekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="এস্পেৰান্তো" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – স্পেনিচ" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="স্পেনিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektsioon" title="Infektsioon – এষ্টোনিয়" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Infektsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="এষ্টোনিয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekzio" title="Infekzio – বাস্ক" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Infekzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="বাস্ক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA" title="عفونت – ফাৰ্ছী" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عفونت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="ফাৰ্ছী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektio" title="Infektio – ফিনিচ" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Infektio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="ফিনিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauvitaki" title="Tauvitaki – ফিজিয়ান" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Tauvitaki" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="ফিজিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection – ফ্ৰেন্স" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Infection" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="ফ্ৰেন্স" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionfhabht%C3%BA" title="Ionfhabhtú – আইৰিচ" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ionfhabhtú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="আইৰিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – গেলিচিয়ান" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="গেলিচিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9D_(%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94)" title="זיהום (רפואה) – হিব্ৰু" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זיהום (רפואה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="হিব্ৰু" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3" title="संक्रमण – হিন্দী" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संक्रमण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="হিন্দী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaraza" title="Zaraza – ক্ৰোৱেচিয়ান" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zaraza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="ক্ৰোৱেচিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeksyon" title="Enfeksyon – হেইটিয়ান ক্ৰিয়ল" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Enfeksyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="হেইটিয়ান ক্ৰিয়ল" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fert%C5%91z%C3%A9s" title="Fertőzés – হাঙ্গেৰিয়ান" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fertőzés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="হাঙ্গেৰিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Վարակ – আৰ্মেনীয়" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վարակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="আৰ্মেনীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksi" title="Infeksi – ইণ্ডোনেচিয়" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Infeksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="ইণ্ডোনেচিয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekto" title="Infekto – ইডো" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Infekto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ইডো" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smitun" title="Smitun – আইচলেণ্ডিক" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Smitun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="আইচলেণ্ডিক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infezione" title="Infezione – ইটালিয়ান" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Infezione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="ইটালিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – জাপানী" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="জাপানী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინფექცია – জৰ্জিয়ান" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინფექცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="জৰ্জিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igem" title="Igem – কাবাইল" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Igem" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="কাবাইল" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83" title="Жұқтыру – কাজাখ" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жұқтыру" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="কাজাখ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81" title="ಸೋಂಕು – কানাড়া" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೋಂಕು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="কানাড়া" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EC%97%BC" title="감염 – কোৰিয়ান" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="কোৰিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – কিৰ্গিজ" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="কিৰ্গিজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagio" title="Contagio – লেটিন" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Contagio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="লেটিন" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeta" title="Infeta – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Infeta" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectie" title="Infectie – লিম্বুৰ্গিচ" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Infectie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="লিম্বুৰ্গিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – লিথুৱানিয়ান" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="লিথুৱানিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – লাটভিয়ান" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="লাটভিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Зараза – মেচিডোনীয়" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Зараза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="মেচিডোনীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A7" title="അണുബാധ – মালায়ালম" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണുബാധ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="মালায়ালম" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Халдвар – মংগোলীয়" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Халдвар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="মংগোলীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jangkitan" title="Jangkitan – মালয়" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jangkitan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="মালয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ရောဂါပိုးဝင်ရောက်ခြင်း – বাৰ্মীজ" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရောဂါပိုးဝင်ရောက်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="বাৰ্মীজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectie" title="Infectie – ডাচ" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Infectie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="ডাচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksjon" title="Infeksjon – নৰৱেজিয়ান নায়নোৰ্স্ক" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Infeksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="নৰৱেজিয়ান নায়নোৰ্স্ক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksjon" title="Infeksjon – নৰৱেজিয়ান বোকমাল" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Infeksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="নৰৱেজিয়ান বোকমাল" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacawwii" title="Bacawwii – ওৰোমো" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Bacawwii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="ওৰোমো" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaka%C5%BCenie" title="Zakażenie – প’লিচ" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zakażenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="প’লিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%86" title="انفیکشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انفیکشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA_(%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8D_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%90%D8%AF%D9%84_%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8D_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA)" title="عفونيت (په ناروغۍ اخته کېدل يا د ناروغۍ سرايت) – পুস্ত" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عفونيت (په ناروغۍ اخته کېدل يا د ناروغۍ سرايت)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="পুস্ত" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infec%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Infecção – পৰ্তুগীজ" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Infecção" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="পৰ্তুগীজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infec%C8%9Bie" title="Infecție – ৰোমানীয়" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Infecție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="ৰোমানীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – ৰাছিয়ান" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="ৰাছিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nfizzioni" title="Nfizzioni – ছিচিলিয়ান" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Nfizzioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="ছিচিলিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%84_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%9C" title="ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවීන් සහ රෝග – সিংহলা" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවීන් සහ රෝග" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="সিংহলা" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Infection" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcia" title="Infekcia – শ্লোভাক" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Infekcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="শ্লোভাক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oku%C5%BEba" title="Okužba – শ্লোভেনিয়ান" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Okužba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="শ্লোভেনিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caabuq" title="Caabuq – ছোমালি" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Caabuq" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="ছোমালি" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksioni" title="Infeksioni – আলবেনীয়" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Infeksioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="আলবেনীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Инфекција – ছাৰ্বিয়ান" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инфекција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="ছাৰ্বিয়ান" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafu_a_t%C5%A1oaetsanoang" title="Mafu a tšoaetsanoang – দাক্ষিণাত্য ছোথো" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Mafu a tšoaetsanoang" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="দাক্ষিণাত্য ছোথো" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – ছুইডিচ" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="ছুইডিচ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maambukizo" title="Maambukizo – স্বাহিলি" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maambukizo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="স্বাহিলি" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="நோய்த்தொற்று – তামিল" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோய்த்தொற்று" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="তামিল" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD" title="การติดเชื้อ – থাই" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การติดเชื้อ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="থাই" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkakahawa" title="Pagkakahawa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkakahawa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeksiyon" title="Enfeksiyon – তুৰ্কী" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Enfeksiyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="তুৰ্কী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Інфекція – ইউক্ৰেইনীয়" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інфекція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ইউক্ৰেইনীয়" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="مرض متعدی – উৰ্দু" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرض متعدی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="উৰ্দু" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksiya" title="Infeksiya – উজবেক" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Infeksiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="উজবেক" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infesion" title="Infesion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Infesion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhi%E1%BB%85m_tr%C3%B9ng" title="Nhiễm trùng – ভিয়েটনামী" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhiễm trùng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="ভিয়েটনামী" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infesyon" title="Infesyon – ৱাৰে" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Infesyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="ৱাৰে" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – ৱু চাইনিজ" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="ৱু চাইনিজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isifo_esosulelayo" title="Isifo esosulelayo – হোছা" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Isifo esosulelayo" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="হোছা" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინფექცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ინფექცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אינפעקציע – ইদ্দিছ" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אינפעקציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="ইদ্দিছ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – চীনা" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="চীনা" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – কেণ্টোনীজ" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="কেণ্টোনীজ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q166231#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="আন্তঃৱিকি লিংক সম্পাদনা কৰক" class="wbc-editpage">আন্তঃৱিকি লিংক সম্পাদনা কৰক</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="নামস্থান"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">অৱয়ব</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">পাৰ্শ্বদণ্ডলৈ যাওক</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">লুকুৱাওক</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">অসমীয়া ৱিকিপিডিয়াৰ পৰা</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="as" dir="ltr"><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice" style=""> <tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width: 52px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80:%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="শ্ৰেণী:অনুবাদ বিচৰা প্ৰবন্ধসমূহ"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg/50px-Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg/75px-Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg/100px-Translation_to_Assamese_arrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="19" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style=""><span class="mbox-text-span">এইটো এটা অনূদিত বা অনুবাদ চলি থকা প্ৰবন্ধ। ইয়াৰ তাৎপৰ্য্য কেইবাটাও হ'ব পাৰে। <br /> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;"><div class="NavHead" style="font-weight:bold; background:transparent; text-align:center; padding-right:3em; font-weight:normal; text-align:left;">অধিক জানিবৰ বাবে সোঁফালে থকা <span style="color:blue">[দেখুৱাওক]</span> লিংকটোত ক্লিক কৰক। </div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-weight:normal; background-color:transparent; text-align:left;"> <ul><li>এই সম্পূৰ্ণ প্ৰবন্ধটো বা ইয়াৰ অংশবিশেষ অসমীয়া ভাষাত লিখা হোৱা নাই। সেয়ে ইয়াক অসমীয়ালৈ অনুবাদ কৰাত <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://as.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit">সহায় কৰক</a>। <br /></span></li> <li>বিভিন্ন কাৰণত অনূদিত প্ৰবন্ধ অসম্পূৰ্ণ বা চমু হ'ব পাৰে। <ul><li>উচ্চতৰ বিষয়ৰ প্ৰবন্ধ: যেনে "আপেক্ষিকতাবাদৰ তত্ত্ব" - অসমীয়া সাধাৰণ পাঠকে বুজিব পৰাকৈ মোটামুটিকৈ লিখি থোৱাহে থাকিব পাৰে। কোনো পাঠকে ইয়াতকৈ দ কৈ জানিব বিচাৰিলে ইংৰাজী ৱিকিপিডিয়াৰ পৰা পঢ়ি ল'ব পাৰে।</li> <li>জনপ্ৰিয় বিষয়ৰ প্ৰবন্ধ: যেনে "শচীন টেণ্ডুলকাৰ" - মোটামুটিকৈ লিখি থোৱাহে থাকিব পাৰে। কোনো পাঠকে ইয়াতকৈ বিশদ কৈ জানিব বিচাৰিলে ইংৰাজী ৱিকিপিডিয়াৰ পৰা পঢ়ি ল'ব পাৰে।</li> <li>বিষয়টো জটিল বা সঁচাকৈয়ে দীঘল: এনে ক্ষেত্ৰত কেতিয়াবা অনুবাদৰ কাম বহুত দিন আধৰুৱা হৈয়েই থাকে। কিন্তু ইতিমধ্যে কেইবাজনেও লিখি ইমানখিনি কাম কৰি উলিয়াইছে যে পেলাই দিবলৈ বেয়া লাগে। আচলতে এনে হ'ব নালাগে যদিও প্ৰায়েই হয়গৈ আৰু প্ৰবন্ধটোৰ শেষৰফালে বহুত অনুবাদ প্ৰবন্ধ আপচু দেখা হয়গৈ।</li></ul></li></ul> <p>ওপৰত দিয়াৰ দৰে <span style="color:red"><i><b>বিভিন্ন কাৰণত অনুবাদ প্ৰবন্ধ এটা দেখাত আপচু বা চুটি দেখা যাব পাৰে। লগতে প্ৰবন্ধত সম্পূৰ্ণ তথ্য নাথাকিবও পাৰে। আধৰুৱা তথ্য ক্ষতিকাৰক হ'ব পাৰে। সেয়ে এনে প্ৰবন্ধ পঢ়োঁতে পঢ়ুৱৈক নিজৰ বিবেক ব্যৱহাৰ কৰি প্ৰয়োজন হ'লে আমাৰ ৱিকিপিডিয়াতে ক্ষান্ত নাথাকি মূল প্ৰবন্ধটোও বিচাৰি পঢ়ি ল'বলৈ অনুৰোধ কৰা হ'ল। </b></i></span> লগতে অনুবাদকসকলকো সাবধান হ'বলৈ অনুৰোধ কৰা হ'ল। </p> </div></div><span class="hide-when-compact"> </span><span class="hide-when-compact"> </span></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" cellspacing="5" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center; font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; background:#ccc">সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ</th></tr><tr class=""><td colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Malaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/300px-Malaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/450px-Malaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/600px-Malaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></td></tr><tr class=""><td colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center;">ৰং কৰা এক ইলেক্‌ট্ৰন মাইক্ৰ'গ্ৰাফত এটা মেলেৰিয়া স্প'ৰ'জইট পেটৰ ভিতৰৰ আৱৰণীৰ মাজেৰে পাৰ হোৱা দেখা গৈছে।</td></tr><tr class=""><th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Specialty_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Specialty (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">বিভাগ</a></th> <td class="" style=""><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%95_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97_(%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ (চিকিৎসা শাখা) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ</a></td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>সংক্ৰমণ</b> বুলিলে জীৱৰ দেহত <a href="/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="ৰোগ">ৰোগ</a> সৃষ্টিকাৰী বীজাণুৱে কৰা আক্ৰমণ, সংখ্যা বৃদ্ধি আৰু বীজাণু বা ইয়াৰ বিষাক্ত পদাৰ্থৰ প্ৰতি দেহৰ কলাৰ সঁহাৰিক বুজায়।<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-News_Ghana_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-News_Ghana-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> সংক্ৰমণৰ পৰা হোৱা ৰোগক <b>সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ</b> বোলে। </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B" title="ভাইৰাছ">ভাইৰাছ</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ভিৰইড (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">ভিৰইড</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="প্ৰিয়ন">প্ৰিয়ন</a>, ৰোগ সৃষ্টিকাৰী <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="বেক্টেৰিয়া">বেক্টেৰিয়া</a>, পৰজীৱী যেনে পেলু বা কৃমি, সন্ধিপদী প্ৰাণী যেনে <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="চিকৰা (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">চিকৰা</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="চাহী (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">চাহী</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%B0" title="ভেঁকুৰ">ভেঁকুৰ</a> যেনে খৰ আদিয়ে সংক্ৰমণ কৰে। </p><p>জীৱই নিজৰ <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালী (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালী</a> ব্যৱহাৰ কৰি সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিব পাৰে। <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80" title="স্তন্যপায়ী প্ৰাণী">স্তন্যপায়ী প্ৰাণী</a>য়ে <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="সহজাত প্ৰতিৰক্ষা (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">সহজাত প্ৰতিৰক্ষা</a>ৰে সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিবলৈ চেষ্টা কৰে যাৰ ফলত প্ৰায়েই <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="প্ৰদাহ">প্ৰদাহ</a> হৈ পাছলৈ <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="লব্ধ প্ৰতিৰক্ষা (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">লব্ধ প্ৰতিৰক্ষা</a> সক্ৰিয় হয়।<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>সংক্ৰমণৰ চিকিৎসাৰ বাবে নিৰ্দিষ্ট ঔষধ যেনে এণ্টিবায়'টিক, এণ্টিভাইৰেল, এণ্টিফাংগেল, এণ্টিপ্ৰট'জ'ৱেল আৰু এণ্টিহেল্মিন্‌থিক্‌ছ ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা হয়। ২০১৩ চনত সংক্ৰমণৰ ফলত প্ৰায় ৯২ লাখ মানুহৰ মৃত্যু হৈছিল (সকলো মৃত্যুৰ প্ৰয় ১৭%)।<sup id="cite_ref-GDB2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GDB2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> সংক্ৰমণক প্ৰাধান্য দিয়া চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞানৰ শাখাটোক সংক্ৰামক ৰোগ বোলে।<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <p><br /> কম সময়ৰ বাবে হোৱা সংক্ৰমণক "একিউট" (acute) বা হস্ৰম্যাদী সংক্ৰমণ বোলে। বেছি দিনৰ বাবে হোৱা সংক্ৰমণক "ক্ৰ'নিক" (chronic) বা দীৰ্ঘম্যাদী সংক্ৰমণ বোলে। কাৰকৰ ওপৰত ভিত্তি কৰি (যেনে বেক্টেৰিয়া, ভাইৰাছ, ভেঁকুৰ, পৰজীৱী) আৰু প্ৰণালীগত লক্ষণ থকা-নথকাক লৈও সংক্ৰমণৰ শ্ৰেণীবিভাজন কৰিব পাৰি। </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="প্ৰাথমিক_বনাম_সুযোগ_সন্ধানী"><span id=".E0.A6.AA.E0.A7.8D.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.A5.E0.A6.AE.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.95_.E0.A6.AC.E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.AE_.E0.A6.B8.E0.A7.81.E0.A6.AF.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.97_.E0.A6.B8.E0.A6.A8.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.A7.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.A8.E0.A7.80"></span>প্ৰাথমিক বনাম সুযোগ সন্ধানী</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=1" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: প্ৰাথমিক বনাম সুযোগ সন্ধানী"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span id="Primary_versus_secondary"></span> জীৱাণু অসংখ্য প্ৰকাৰ থাকিলেও সুস্থ মানুহৰ দেহত কেইটামানেহে ৰোগৰ সৃষ্টি কৰিব পাৰে।<sup id="cite_ref-Baron_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> জীৱাণুবিধে দেহত কৰা আক্ৰমণ আৰু প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীৰ প্ৰত্যাক্ৰমণৰ ওপৰত সংক্ৰমণৰ প্ৰাবল্য নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে। প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীয়েও সংক্ৰমণ ৰোধ কৰিবলৈ গৈ দেহৰ ক্ষতি কৰিব পাৰে। সেয়েহে প্ৰতিৰক্ষা প্ৰণালীৰ স্থিতিলৈ চাই জীৱাণুবোৰক <i>প্ৰাথমিক জীৱাণু</i> আৰু <i>সুযোগ সন্ধানী জীৱাণু</i> বুলি ভাগ কৰা হয়। </p> <dl><dt>প্ৰাথমিক জীৱাণু</dt> <dd>প্ৰাথমিক জীৱাণুবোৰে সুস্থ প্ৰাণীৰ দেহত ৰোগৰ সৃষ্টি কৰিব পাৰে। এনে ৰোগৰ তীব্ৰতা সেই বীজাণুবোৰৰ সংখ্যা-বৃদ্ধি আৰু ব্যাপ্তিৰ ওপৰত নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে। মানুহৰ বহু প্ৰাথমিক বীজাণুৱে কেৱল মানুহকে সংক্ৰমিত কৰে। কিন্তু পৰিবেশ বা অন্য প্ৰাণীক সংক্ৰমণ কৰা বীজাণুৱেও মানুহৰ কেইবাটাও জটিল ৰোগ কৰিব পাৰে।</dd> <dt>সুযোগ সন্ধানী জীৱাণু</dt> <dd>সুযোগ সন্ধানী জীৱাণুৱে প্ৰতিৰোধ ক্ষমতা কম হ'লে বা অস্বাভাৱিক প্ৰক্ৰিয়াৰে শৰীৰত প্ৰৱেশ কৰিব পাৰিলে (যেনে আঘাত) ৰোগৰ সৃষ্টি কৰে। <a href="/w/index.php?title=Opportunistic_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opportunistic infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Opportunistic infection</a> may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathogenic_bacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pathogenic bacteria (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pathogenic bacteria</a> or fungi in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gastrointestinal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gastrointestinal (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">gastrointestinal</a> or the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_respiratory_tract&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper respiratory tract (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">upper respiratory tract</a>, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clostridium_difficile_(bacteria)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clostridium difficile (bacteria) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Clostridium difficile</a></i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Colitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">colitis</a>) or from the environment as a result of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_trauma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Physical trauma (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">traumatic</a> introduction (as in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Surgical (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">surgical</a> wound infections or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Compound_fracture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Compound fracture (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">compound fractures</a>). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_defect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetic defect (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">genetic defects</a> (such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chronic_granulomatous_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chronic granulomatous disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Chronic granulomatous disease</a>), exposure to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antimicrobial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antimicrobial (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antimicrobial</a> drugs or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunosuppressive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunosuppressive (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunosuppressive</a> chemicals (as might occur following <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poison (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">poisoning</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer">cancer</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemotherapy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">chemotherapy</a>), exposure to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionizing_radiation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ionizing radiation (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">ionizing radiation</a>, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with <a href="/wiki/Measles" class="mw-redirect" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria">malaria</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HIV disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">HIV disease</a>). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>প্ৰাথমিক সংক্ৰমণ বনাম গৌণ সংক্ৰমণ</dt> <dd>প্ৰাথমিক সংক্ৰমণক স্বাস্থ্যৰ সমস্যাৰ মূল কাৰণ হিচাপে গণ্য কৰিব পাৰি। ইয়াৰ বিপৰীতে অপ্ৰধান সংক্ৰমণ মূল কাৰণৰ জটিলতাৰ পাছতহে হয়। যেনে- হাওঁফাওঁৰ যক্ষ্মাৰ প্ৰায়েই এটা প্ৰাথমিক সংক্ৰমণ, কিন্তু জুই লগাৰ পাছত বা দ আঘাত পোৱাৰ পাছত বীজাণু গাত প্ৰৱেশ কৰিলে সেয়া গৌণ সংক্ৰমণ। প্ৰাথমিক জীৱাণুবোৰে প্ৰায়েই প্ৰাথমিক সংক্ৰমণ আৰু গৌণ সংক্ৰমণ দুয়োটাই কৰে। সাধাৰণতে সুযোগ সন্ধানী সংক্ৰমণক গৌণ সংক্ৰমণ বুলি গণ্য কৰা হয়।</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="সংক্ৰমণ_হয়_নে_নহয়"><span id=".E0.A6.B8.E0.A6.82.E0.A6.95.E0.A7.8D.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.AE.E0.A6.A3_.E0.A6.B9.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BC_.E0.A6.A8.E0.A7.87_.E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.B9.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BC"></span>সংক্ৰমণ হয় নে নহয়</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=2" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: সংক্ৰমণ হয় নে নহয়"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koch%27s_postulates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koch's postulates (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Koch's postulates</a> (first proposed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Koch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Koch (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Robert Koch</a>), which demands that the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_agent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infectious agent (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">infectious agent</a> be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycobacteria (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Mycobacteria</a> species cause <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treponema_pallidum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treponema pallidum (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Treponema pallidum</a></i>, the causative <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirochete&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spirochete (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">spirochete</a> of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, cannot be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbiological_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microbiological culture (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">cultured</a> <i>in vitro</i> – however the organism can be cultured in rabbit <a href="/w/index.php?title=Testes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Testes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">testes</a>. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidemiology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Epidemiology</a> is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease <a href="/w/index.php?title=Outbreak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Outbreak (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">outbreak</a> is sporadic (occasional occurrence), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Endemic_(epidemiology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Endemic (epidemiology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">endemic</a> (regular cases often occurring in a region), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidemic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">epidemic</a> (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> (a global epidemic). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="সোঁচৰা"><span id=".E0.A6.B8.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.81.E0.A6.9A.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BE"></span>সোঁচৰা</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=3" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: সোঁচৰা"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infectious diseases are sometimes called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contagious_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contagious disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">contagious disease</a> when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quarantine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quarantine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">quarantine</a>) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="শৰীৰৰ_স্থান_অনুসৰি"><span id=".E0.A6.B6.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.80.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.B0_.E0.A6.B8.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.A5.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.A8_.E0.A6.85.E0.A6.A8.E0.A7.81.E0.A6.B8.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BF"></span>শৰীৰৰ স্থান অনুসৰি</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=4" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: শৰীৰৰ স্থান অনুসৰি"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infections can be classified by the anatomic location or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Organ system (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">organ system</a> infected, including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urinary_tract_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urinary tract infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skin_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skin infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Skin infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Respiratory_tract_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Respiratory tract infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Respiratory tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Odontogenic_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Odontogenic infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Odontogenic infection</a> (an infection that originates within a <a href="/wiki/Tooth" class="mw-redirect" title="Tooth">tooth</a> or in the closely surrounding tissues)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vaginal_infections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaginal infections (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Vaginal infections</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intra-amniotic_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intra-amniotic infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Intra-amniotic infection</a></li></ul> <p>In addition, locations of <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> where infection is the most common cause include <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meningitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meningitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">meningitis</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Salpingitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salpingitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">salpingitis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="লক্ষণ_আৰু_চিহ্ন"><span id=".E0.A6.B2.E0.A6.95.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.B7.E0.A6.A3_.E0.A6.86.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.81_.E0.A6.9A.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.B9.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.A8"></span>লক্ষণ আৰু চিহ্ন</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=5" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: লক্ষণ আৰু চিহ্ন"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fatigue_(medical)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fatigue (medical) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fatigue</a>, loss of appetite, weight loss, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fever&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fever (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fevers</a>, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Skin_rash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skin rash (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">skin rashes</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coughing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coughing (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">coughing</a>, or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Runny_nose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Runny nose (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">runny nose</a>. </p><p>In certain cases, infectious diseases may be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asymptomatic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asymptomatic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">asymptomatic</a> for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত_বা_ভাইৰাছজনিত"><span id=".E0.A6.AC.E0.A7.87.E0.A6.95.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.9F.E0.A7.87.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BC.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.9C.E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.A4_.E0.A6.AC.E0.A6.BE_.E0.A6.AD.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.87.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.9B.E0.A6.9C.E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.A4"></span>বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত বা ভাইৰাছজনিত</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=6" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: বেক্টেৰিয়াজনিত বা ভাইৰাছজনিত"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms. It can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It's important to distinguish, because viral infections cannot be cured by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibiotics (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antibiotics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparison of viral and bacterial infection </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Characteristic </th> <th><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viral_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viral infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Viral infection</a> </th> <th><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bacterial_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bacterial infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Bacterial infection</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Typical symptoms </td> <td>In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conjunctivitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conjunctivitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">conjunctivitis</a> or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like herpes. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection. Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ear_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ear infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">ear infection</a> is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" title="The text in the vicinity of this tag needs clarification or removal of jargon from October 2017" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE:Please_clarify" title="ৱিকিপিডিয়া:Please clarify">স্পষ্টীকৰণৰ প্ৰয়োজন</a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cause</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathogenic_viruses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pathogenic viruses (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Pathogenic viruses</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathogenic_bacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pathogenic bacteria (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Pathogenic bacteria</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ৰোগ_প্ৰক্ৰিয়া"><span id=".E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.97_.E0.A6.AA.E0.A7.8D.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.95.E0.A7.8D.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BC.E0.A6.BE"></span>ৰোগ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=7" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: ৰোগ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a general chain of events that applies to infections.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chain of events involves several steps—which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization">Colonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=8" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Colonization"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/220px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/330px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/440px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Infection of a toe with an ingrown toenail; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail).</figcaption></figure> <p>Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune system">immune system</a> are particularly susceptible to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Opportunistic_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opportunistic infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">opportunistic infections</a>. Entrance to the host at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Host-pathogen_interface&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Host-pathogen interface (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">host-pathogen interface</a>, generally occurs through the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mucous_membrane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mucous membrane (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">mucosa</a> in orifices like the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oral_cavity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oral cavity (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">oral cavity</a>, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wound&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wound (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wound</a> colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All <a href="/w/index.php?title=Multicellular_organism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Multicellular organism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">multicellular organisms</a> are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mutualism_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mutualism (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">mutualistic</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Commensal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commensal (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">commensal</a> relationship with the host. An example of the former is the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaerobic_organism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaerobic organism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">anaerobic bacteria</a> species, which colonizes the <a href="/wiki/Mammal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Colon_(anatomy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colon (anatomy) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">colon</a>, and an example of the latter is various species of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Staphylococcus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staphylococcus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">staphylococcus</a> that exist on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human skin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">human skin</a>. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virulent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virulent (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulent</a> organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Corynebacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Corynebacteria (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Corynebacteria</a> sp.</i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viridans_streptococci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viridans streptococci (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">viridans streptococci</a></i>, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wound_healing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wound healing (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">wound healing</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Pathogenic_Infection.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/220px-Pathogenic_Infection.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/330px-Pathogenic_Infection.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/440px-Pathogenic_Infection.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This image depicts the steps of pathogenic infection.</figcaption></figure> <p>The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: </p> <ul><li>the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains</li> <li>the intrinsic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virulence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virulence (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulence</a> of the particular organism</li> <li>the quantity or load of the initial inoculant</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune system">immune</a> status of the host being colonized</li></ul> <p>As an example, several <a href="/w/index.php?title=Staphylococcus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staphylococcus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">staphylococcal</a> species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sterile_technique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sterile technique (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">sterile</a> space, such as in the capsule of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joint&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joint (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">joint</a> or the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peritoneum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peritoneum (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">peritoneum</a>, multiply without resistance and cause harm. </p><p>An interesting fact that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">gas chromatography–mass spectrometry</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=16S_ribosomal_RNA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="16S ribosomal RNA (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">16S ribosomal RNA</a> analysis, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Omics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omics (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">omics</a>, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asepsis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asepsis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">sterile</a>. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=9" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Disease"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Disease">Disease</a> can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microorganism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microorganism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Microorganisms</a> can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clostridium_tetani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clostridium tetani (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Clostridium tetani</a> releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Staphylococcus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staphylococcus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">staphylococcus</a> releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with <a href="/wiki/Polio" class="mw-redirect" title="Polio">polio</a> develop disease.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The <a href="/wiki/Prion" class="mw-redirect" title="Prion">prion</a> causing <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">mad cow disease</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> invariably kills all animals and people that are infected. </p><p>Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise. </p><p>Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=10" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Transmission"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transmission_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transmission (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Transmission (medicine)</a></div> <p>For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes: </p> <ul><li><b>Droplet contact</b>, also known as the <i>respiratory route</i>, and the resultant infection can be termed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Airborne_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Airborne disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">airborne disease</a>. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces.</li> <li><b>Fecal-oral transmission</b>, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common fecal-oral transmitted pathogens include <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vibrio_cholerae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vibrio cholerae (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Vibrio cholerae</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giardia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giardia (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Giardia</a></i> species, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotavirus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotavirus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">rotaviruses</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Entameba_histolytica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Entameba histolytica (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Entameba histolytica</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Escherichia_coli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Escherichia coli (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Escherichia coli</a></i>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tape_worm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tape worm (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">tape worms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these pathogens cause <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gastroenteritis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gastroenteritis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">gastroenteritis</a>.</li> <li><b>Sexual transmission</b>, with the resulting disease being called <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">sexually transmitted disease</a></li> <li><b>Oral transmission</b>, Diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kiss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kiss (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">kissing</a>, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette.</li> <li><b>Transmission by direct contact</b>, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Athlete%27s_foot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Athlete's foot (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">athlete's foot</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Impetigo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Impetigo (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">impetigo</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wart (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">warts</a></li> <li><b>Vehicle Transmission,</b> transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vertically_transmitted_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vertically transmitted infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Vertical transmission</a></b>, directly from the mother to an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Embryo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Embryo (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">embryo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fetus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fetus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fetus</a> or baby during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>. It can occur when the mother gets an infection as an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Intercurrent_disease_in_pregnancy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intercurrent disease in pregnancy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">intercurrent disease in pregnancy</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iatrogenic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iatrogenic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Iatrogenic</a> transmission</b>, due to medical procedures such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Injection_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Injection (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">injection</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Organ_transplant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Organ transplant (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">transplantation</a> of infected material.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:CulexNil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/220px-CulexNil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/330px-CulexNil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/440px-CulexNil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>Culex mosquitos (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Culex_quinquefasciatus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Culex quinquefasciatus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Culex quinquefasciatus</a></i> shown) are biological vectors that transmit <a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Nile_Virus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Nile Virus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">West Nile Virus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b>Vector-borne transmission</b>, transmitted by a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vector_(epidemiology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vector (epidemiology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vector</a>, which is an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Organism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Organism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">organism</a> that does not cause <a href="/wiki/Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Disease">disease</a> itself but that transmits infection by conveying <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> from one <a href="/w/index.php?title=Host_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Host (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">host</a> to another.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The relationship between <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Optimal_virulence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optimal virulence (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulence versus transmissibility</a></i> is complex; if a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can be passed along to another host. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ৰোগ_নিৰ্ণয়"><span id=".E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.97_.E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.BF.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.A3.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BC"></span>ৰোগ নিৰ্ণয়</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=11" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: ৰোগ নিৰ্ণয়"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wart (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">warts</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cutaneous&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cutaneous (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">cutaneous</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abscesses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abscesses (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">abscesses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a> infections and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diarrheal_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diarrheal diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">diarrheal diseases</a> are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benign&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benign (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">benign</a>. </p><p>Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medical history (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">medical history</a> and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as <a href="/wiki/X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=CAT_scans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CAT scans (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">CAT scans</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=PET_scan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PET scan (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PET scans</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=NMR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NMR (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">NMR</a>) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abscess&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abscess (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">abscess</a> or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spongiform_encephalopathy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spongiform encephalopathy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">spongiform encephalopathy</a> produced by a <a href="/wiki/Prion" class="mw-redirect" title="Prion">prion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symptomatic_diagnostics">Symptomatic diagnostics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=12" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Symptomatic diagnostics"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathognomonic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pathognomonic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pathognomonic</a> signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternak_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternak-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In children the presence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanosis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanosis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">cyanosis</a>, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petechial_rash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petechial rash (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">petechial rash</a> increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancet10_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancet10-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancet10_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancet10-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbial_culture">Microbial culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=13" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Microbial culture"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/200px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/300px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/400px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Four <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nutrient_agar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nutrient agar (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">nutrient agar</a> plates growing colonies of common <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gram_negative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gram negative (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Gram negative</a> bacteria.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbiological_culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microbiological culture (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Microbiological culture</a> is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Growth_medium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Growth medium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">growth medium</a> is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agar (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">agar</a>, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bacterium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bacterium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">bacterium</a>, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Colony_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colony (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">colony</a>, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its <a href="/w/index.php?title=Strain_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strain (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">strain</a>), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of <a href="/wiki/Virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Virus">viruses</a>: the medium in this case being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eukaryotic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eukaryotic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Eukaryotic</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parasites (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">parasites</a> may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent. </p><p>In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_leprae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycobacterium leprae (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Mycobacterium leprae</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treponema_pallidum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treponema pallidum (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Treponema pallidum</a></i> can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Embryo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Embryo (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">embryonated</a> eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chagas_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chagas disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Chagas disease</a> is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trypanosoma_cruzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trypanosoma cruzi (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Trypanosoma cruzi</a></i> in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vector_(epidemiology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vector (epidemiology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vector</a> of the Chagas agent <i>T. cruzi</i>, an uninfected <a href="/w/index.php?title=Triatominae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triatominae (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">triatomine</a> bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of <i>T. cruzi</i> within its gut. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=14" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Microscopy"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microscopy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microscopy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">microscopy</a>. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound <a href="/w/index.php?title=Light_microscope&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Light microscope (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">light microscope</a>, or with instruments as complex as an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron_microscope&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electron microscope (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">electron microscope</a>. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biochemical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biochemical (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">biochemical</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Staining&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staining (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">staining</a> techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibody&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibody (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antibody</a> based techniques. For example, the use of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibody&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibody (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antibodies</a> made artificially <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fluorescent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fluorescent (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fluorescent</a> (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific <a href="/wiki/Antigen" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigen">antigens</a> present on a pathogen. A <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fluorescence_microscope&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fluorescence microscope (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fluorescence microscope</a> is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly. </p><p>Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dye&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dye (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">dyes</a> due to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrostatic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrostatic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">electrostatic</a> attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giemsa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giemsa (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Giemsa</a> stain or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crystal_violet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crystal violet (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">crystal violet</a> allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomic_classification&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taxonomic classification (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">taxonomic classification</a> of microbes as well. Two methods, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gram_stain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gram stain (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Gram stain</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acid-fast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acid-fast (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">acid-fast</a> stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups <a href="/w/index.php?title=Firmicutes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firmicutes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Firmicutes</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinobacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Actinobacteria (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Actinobacteria</a>, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinobacterial genera <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycobacterium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Mycobacterium</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nocardia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nocardia (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Nocardia</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical_tests">Biochemical tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=15" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Biochemical tests"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metabolic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metabolic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">metabolic</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enzymatic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enzymatic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">enzymatic</a> products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> in patterns characteristic of their <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">genus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species" class="mw-redirect" title="Species">species</a>, the detection of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fermentation_(biochemistry)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fermentation (biochemistry) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fermentation</a> products is commonly used in bacterial identification. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acids (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Acids</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alcohols&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alcohols (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">alcohols</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">gases</a> are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Growth_medium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Growth medium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">selective</a> liquid or solid media. </p><p>The isolation of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enzymes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enzymes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">enzymes</a> from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither <a href="/w/index.php?title=RNA_replicase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RNA replicase (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">RNA replicases</a> nor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reverse_transcriptase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reverse transcriptase (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">reverse transcriptase</a>, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hemagglutinin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hemagglutinin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">hemagglutinin</a> to bind <a href="/w/index.php?title=Red_blood_cells&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Red blood cells (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">red blood cells</a> together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an <i>enzyme</i> and has no metabolic function. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serological&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serological (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Serological</a> methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Strep_throat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strep throat (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Strep throat</a>" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=S._pyogenes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S. pyogenes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">S. pyogenes</a></i>, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require <a href="/w/index.php?title=Refrigeration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Refrigeration (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">refrigeration</a>. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunoassays&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunoassays (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Immunoassays</a>. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus. </p><p>Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PCR-based_diagnostics">PCR-based diagnostics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=16" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: PCR-based diagnostics"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Technologies based upon the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymerase_chain_reaction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polymerase chain reaction (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Primer_(molecular_biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primer (molecular biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">primers</a>, are derived from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genomes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">genomes</a> of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already. </p><p>Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clostridia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clostridia (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">clostridial</a> diseases (<a href="/wiki/Tetanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Botulism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Botulism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">botulism</a>). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurotoxin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neurotoxin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">neurotoxins</a>. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metagenomic_sequencing">Metagenomic sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=17" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Metagenomic sequencing"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given the wide range of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illness, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metagenomics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metagenomics (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Metagenomics</a> is currently being researched for clinical use, and shows promise as a sensitive and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, amplification of genetic material is unbiased rather than using <a href="/w/index.php?title=Primer_(molecular_biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primer (molecular biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">primers</a> for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by next-generation sequencing and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sequence_alignment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sequence alignment (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">alignment comparisons</a> using large databases of thousands of organismic and viral genomes. </p><p>Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunocompromised&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunocompromised (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunocompromised</a>. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A broad, sensitive test for pathogens that detects the presence of infectious material rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indication_of_tests">Indication of tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=18" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Indication of tests"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is usually an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indication_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indication (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">indication</a> for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zidovudine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zidovudine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">AZT</a> for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of <a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HIV (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">HIV</a> in specific communities permitted the advancement of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypotheses&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hypotheses (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">hypotheses</a> as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific <a href="/w/index.php?title=Serological&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serological (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">serological</a> diagnostic identification, and later <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genotypic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genotypic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">genotypic</a> or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the <a href="/wiki/Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Time">temporal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic">geographical</a> origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-retroviral_drugs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anti-retroviral drugs (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">anti-retroviral drugs</a>. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="নিবাৰণ"><span id=".E0.A6.A8.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.AC.E0.A6.BE.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.A3"></span>নিবাৰণ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=19" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: নিবাৰণ"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:OCD_handwash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/220px-OCD_handwash.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/330px-OCD_handwash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/440px-OCD_handwash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Washing one's hands, a form of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hygiene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hygiene (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">hygiene</a>, is an effective way to prevent the spread of infectious disease.<sup id="cite_ref-handhygiene_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handhygiene-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asepsis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asepsis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Aseptic technique</a> was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hand_washing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hand washing (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">hand washing</a> remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antimicrobials&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antimicrobials (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Antimicrobial substances</a> used to prevent transmission of infections include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antiseptics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antiseptics (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antiseptics</a>, which are applied to living <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_tissue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biological tissue (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">tissue</a>/<a href="/wiki/Skin" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin">skin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disinfectant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disinfectant (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">disinfectants</a>, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prophylactic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prophylactic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">prophylactic</a> when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance.</li></ul> <p>One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virulence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virulence (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulence</a>, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of <a href="/wiki/Ebola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of <a href="/wiki/Ebola" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Immunodeficiency_Virus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human Immunodeficiency Virus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Human Immunodeficiency Virus</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HIV (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">HIV</a>) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidemic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">epidemic</a>. </p><p>Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Small-world_networks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Small-world networks (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">small-world networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. <sup>[6]</sup> Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Foot-and-mouth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foot-and-mouth (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">foot-and-mouth</a> virus in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A general method to prevent transmission of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vector_(epidemiology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vector (epidemiology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vector</a>-borne pathogens is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pest_control&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pest control (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pest control</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunity">Immunity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=20" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Immunity"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Mallon-Mary_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/220px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/330px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/440px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2843" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Mallon">Mary Mallon</a> (a.k.a. Typhoid Mary) was an asymptomatic carrier of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Typhoid_fever&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Typhoid fever (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">typhoid fever</a>. Over the course of her career as a cook, she infected 53 people, three of whom died.</figcaption></figure> <p>Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned.<sup id="cite_ref-Baron_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process requires <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune system">immune mechanisms</a> to kill or inactivate the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Inoculation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inoculation (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">inoculum</a> of the pathogen. Specific acquired <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunity_(medical)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunity (medical) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunity</a> against infectious diseases may be mediated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibody&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibody (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antibodies</a> and/or <a href="/w/index.php?title=T_lymphocyte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T lymphocyte (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">T lymphocytes</a>. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by: </p> <ul><li>a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated <a href="/w/index.php?title=Complement_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Complement system (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">complement</a>-dependent bacteriolysis, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Opsonin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opsonin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">opsonoization</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phagocytosis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phagocytosis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">phagocytosis</a> and killing, as occurs for some bacteria,</li> <li>neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,</li> <li>or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.</li></ul> <p>The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fever&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fever (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Resistance to infection (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunity_(medical)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunity (medical) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunity</a>) may be acquired following a disease, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asymptomatic_carrier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asymptomatic carrier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">asymptomatic carriage</a> of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vaccination&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaccination (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vaccination</a>. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Opportunistic_pathogen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opportunistic pathogen (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">opportunistic pathogens</a>. There is also the phenomenon of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herd_immunity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herd immunity (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">herd immunity</a> which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections. </p><p>Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural <a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood_plasma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blood plasma (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">serum</a> antibodies to the surface <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polysaccharide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polysaccharide (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">polysaccharides</a> of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Passive_immunization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Passive immunization (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">passively transmitted</a> to newborns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Host_genetic_factors">Host genetic factors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=21" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Host genetic factors"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbors and agent in a mature, or sexually active stage phase called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pegylated_interferon-alpha-2a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pegylated_interferon-alpha-2b&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b</a> (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ribavirin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ribavirin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">ribavirin</a>, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="চিকিৎসা"><span id=".E0.A6.9A.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.95.E0.A6.BF.E0.A7.8E.E0.A6.B8.E0.A6.BE"></span>চিকিৎসা</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=22" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: চিকিৎসা"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When infection attacks the body, <i>anti-infective</i> drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (<a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a>; including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycobacterium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antitubercular</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antiviral_drug&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antiviral drug (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antiviral</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antifungal_medication&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antifungal medication (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antifungal</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antiparasitic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antiparasitic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antiparasitic</a> (including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antiprotozoal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antiprotozoal (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antiprotozoal</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antihelminthic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antihelminthic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">antihelminthic</a>) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied <a href="/w/index.php?title=Topical&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Topical (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">topically</a>. Severe infections of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_brain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human brain (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">brain</a> are usually treated with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Intravenous_therapy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intravenous therapy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">intravenous</a> antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic_resistance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antibiotic resistance (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">resistance</a> to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cephalosporin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cephalosporin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">cephalosporins</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aminoglycoside&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aminoglycoside (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">aminoglycosides</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Macrolide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macrolide (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">macrolides</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quinolone antibiotic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">quinolones</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tetracycline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetracycline (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">tetracyclines</a>.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE:%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8" title="ৱিকিপিডিয়া:উদ্ধৃতিৰ প্ৰয়োজন">উদ্ধৃতিৰ প্ৰয়োজন</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Not all infections require treatment, and for many <a href="/w/index.php?title=Self-limiting_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Self-limiting (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">self-limiting</a> infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antimicrobial_stewardship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antimicrobial stewardship (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Antimicrobial stewardship</a> is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ৰোগ_বিতৰণ"><span id=".E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.97_.E0.A6.AC.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.A4.E0.A7.B0.E0.A6.A3"></span>ৰোগ বিতৰণ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=23" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: ৰোগ বিতৰণ"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/435px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/580px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases per million persons in 2012 <div class="refbegin references references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffff20; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 28-81</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffe820; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 82-114</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffd820; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 115-171</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffc020; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 172-212</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffa020; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 213-283</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff9a20; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 284-516</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #f08015; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 517-1,193</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #e06815; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 1,194-2,476</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #d85010; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 2,477-3,954</div><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #d02010; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 3,955-6812</div></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/435px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/580px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disability-adjusted_life_year&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disability-adjusted life year (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for infectious and parasitic diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><div class="refbegin references references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #b3b3b3; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> no data</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffff65; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> ≤250</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #fff200; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 250–500</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffdc00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 500–1000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffc600; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 1000–2000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ffb000; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 2000–3000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff9a00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 3000–4000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff8400; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 4000–5000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff6e00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 5000–6250</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff5800; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 6250–12,500</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff4200; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 12,500–25,000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #ff2c00; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> 25,000–50,000</div> <div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #cb0000; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> ≥50,000</div> </div></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2010 about 10 million people died of an infectious disease.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> collects information on global deaths by <a href="/wiki/ICD" class="mw-redirect" title="ICD">International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories</a>. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:80%;"> <caption><b>Worldwide mortality due to infectious diseases</b><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Rank</th> <th>Cause of death</th> <th>Deaths 2002<br /> (in millions)</th> <th>Percentage of<br /> all deaths</th> <th>Deaths 1993<br /> (in millions)</th> <th>1993 Rank </th></tr> <tr style="background:#ffdead;"> <td>N/A</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">All infectious diseases</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">14.7</td> <td style="background:#ffdead; text-align:center;">25.9%</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">16.4</td> <td style="background:#ffdead; text-align:center;">32.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lower_respiratory_tract_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lower respiratory tract infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Lower respiratory infections</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>3.9</td> <td style="text-align:center;">6.9%</td> <td>4.1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HIV (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a></td> <td>2.8</td> <td style="text-align:center;">4.9%</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gastroenteritis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gastroenteritis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Diarrheal diseases</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>1.8</td> <td style="text-align:center;">3.2%</td> <td>3.0</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> (TB)</td> <td>1.6</td> <td style="text-align:center;">2.7%</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></td> <td>1.3</td> <td style="text-align:center;">2.2%</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Measles" class="mw-redirect" title="Measles">Measles</a></td> <td>0.6</td> <td style="text-align:center;">1.1%</td> <td>1.1</td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pertussis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pertussis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Pertussis</a></td> <td>0.29</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.5%</td> <td>0.36</td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanus">Tetanus</a></td> <td>0.21</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.4%</td> <td>0.15</td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meningitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meningitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Meningitis</a></td> <td>0.17</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.3%</td> <td>0.25</td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syphilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Syphilis">Syphilis</a></td> <td>0.16</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.3%</td> <td>0.19</td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.2%</td> <td>0.93</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12-17</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropical disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Tropical diseases</a> (6)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>0.13</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.2%</td> <td>0.53</td> <td>9, 10, 16–18 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;" colspan="6"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>Note: Other causes of death include maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%),<br /> noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The top three single agent/disease killers are <a href="/w/index.php?title=HIV&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HIV (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculosis">TB</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pertussis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pertussis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pertussis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">poliomyelitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" class="mw-redirect" title="Measles">measles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_pandemics">Historic pandemics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=24" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Historic pandemics"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/220px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/330px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/440px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Plague_of_Marseille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Great Plague of Marseille (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Great Plague of Marseille</a> in 1720 killed 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding provinces</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> (or global <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidemic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">epidemic</a>) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plague_of_Justinian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plague of Justinian (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Plague of Justinian</a>, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Death&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Death (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Black Death</a> of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over 5 years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.</li> <li>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, measles, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Typhus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Typhus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">typhus</a> to the areas of Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> to fall from 20 million to 3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobson_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobson-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The first European <a href="/wiki/Influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza">influenza</a> epidemic occurred between 1556 and 1560, with an estimated mortality rate of 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobson_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobson-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> killed an estimated 60 million Europeans during the 18th century<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (approximately 400,000 per year).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went blind.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe;<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.</li> <li>The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 (or the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_Flu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish Flu (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Spanish Flu</a>) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today <a href="/wiki/Influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza">Influenza</a> kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emerging_diseases">Emerging diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=25" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Emerging diseases"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mutualism_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mutualism (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">mutual</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Commensalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commensalism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">commensal</a> interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host. </p> <ol><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coevolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coevolution (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Coevolution</a> between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parasite (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">parasite</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Host_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Host (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">host</a> can lead to hosts becoming <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_tolerance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immune tolerance (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">resistant</a> to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virulence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virulence (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulence</a>, leading to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunopathology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunopathology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunopathological disease</a>.</li> <li>Human activity is involved with many <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emerging_infectious_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emerging infectious disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">emerging infectious diseases</a>, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Environment_(ecology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Environment (ecology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">environmental change</a> enabling a parasite to occupy new <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecological_niche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ecological niche (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">niches</a>. When that happens, a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new <a href="/w/index.php?title=Host_(biology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Host (biology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">host organism</a>. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoonosis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">zoonoses</a>. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host.<sup id="cite_ref-Krauss_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krauss-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Several human activities have led to the emergence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonotic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoonotic (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">zoonotic</a> human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spread of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vector_(epidemiology)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vector (epidemiology) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vector-borne</a> diseases,<sup id="cite_ref-Krauss_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krauss-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Globalization_and_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Globalization and disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">globalization and disease</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wildlife_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wildlife disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">wildlife disease</a>: </p> <ul><li>Encroachment on wildlife <a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Habitat (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">habitats</a>. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Changes in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agriculture (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">agriculture</a>. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.</li> <li>The destruction of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rain_forests&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rain forests (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">rain forests</a>. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms.</li> <li>Uncontrolled <a href="/w/index.php?title=Urbanization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urbanization (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">urbanization</a>. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases.</li> <li>Modern <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transport&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transport (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">transport</a>. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ইতিহাস"><span id=".E0.A6.87.E0.A6.A4.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.B9.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.B8"></span>ইতিহাস</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=26" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: ইতিহাস"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renaissance (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Renaissance</a>, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician <a href="/w/index.php?title=Girolamo_Fracastoro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Girolamo Fracastoro (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Girolamo Fracastoro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> (1632–1723) advanced the science of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microscopy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microscopy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">microscopy</a> by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria. </p><p>In the mid-19th century <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Snow_(physician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Snow (physician) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">John Snow</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Budd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Budd (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">William Budd</a> did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Pasteur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis Pasteur (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Louis Pasteur</a> proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for <a href="/wiki/Rabies" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabies">rabies</a>. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Koch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Koch (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Robert Koch</a>, provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koch%27s_postulates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koch's postulates (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Koch's postulates</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jonas_Salk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jonas Salk (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Jonas Salk</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_Sabin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert Sabin (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Albert Sabin</a> developed effective vaccines for <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polio" class="mw-redirect" title="Polio">polio</a>, which would later result in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eradication_of_infectious_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eradication of infectious diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">eradication</a> and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Fleming (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Alexander Fleming</a> discovered the world's first <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a>, which Florey and Chain then developed. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerhard_Domagk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerhard Domagk (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Gerhard Domagk</a> developed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfonamide_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfonamide (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">sulphonamides</a>, the first broad spectrum <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synthesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemical synthesis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">synthetic</a> antibacterial drugs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_specialists">Medical specialists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=27" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Medical specialists"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine">medical treatment</a> of infectious diseases falls into the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Specialty_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Specialty (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">medical field</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Infectious Disease</a> and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidemiology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidemiology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Epidemiology</a>. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Primary_care&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Primary care (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">primary care</a> physicians or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Internal medicine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">internal medicine</a> specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> will generally be treated by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Internist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Internist (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">internist</a> or the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pulmology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pulmology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pulmonologist</a> (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Research&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Research (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">laboratory scientists</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunologists</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bacteriology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bacteriology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">bacteriologists</a> and other specialists. </p><p>An infectious disease team may be alerted when: </p> <ul><li>The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup</li> <li>The patient is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunocompromised&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immunocompromised (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">immunocompromised</a> (for example, in <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> or after <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemotherapy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemotherapy (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">chemotherapy</a>);</li> <li>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_agent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infectious agent (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">infectious agent</a> is of an uncommon nature (e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropical disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">tropical diseases</a>);</li> <li>The disease has not responded to first line <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>;</li> <li>The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=28" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Society and culture"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fertility_rate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fertility rate (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">fertility rates</a> and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygyny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polygyny (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">polygyny</a> which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19683831_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19683831-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossil_record">Fossil record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=29" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Fossil record"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleopathology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paleopathology (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Paleopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0:Herrerasaurus1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Skull of dinosaur with long jaws and teeth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/150px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/225px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/300px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herrerasaurus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herrerasaurus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Herrerasaurus</a></i> skull.</figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleopathologists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paleopathologists (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">paleopathologists</a>, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Herrerasaurus_ischigualastensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis</a></i> exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were afflicted by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another <i>Herrerasaurus</i>. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acrocanthosaurus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acrocanthosaurus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Acrocanthosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Allosaurus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allosaurus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Allosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tyrannosaurus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tyrannosaurus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Tyrannosaurus</a></i> and a tyrannosaur from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kirtland_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kirtland Formation (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Kirtland Formation</a>. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the <i>Herrerasaurus</i> specimen.<sup id="cite_ref-molnar-pathology_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-molnar-pathology-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outer_space">Outer space</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=30" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: Outer space"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">প্ৰধান প্ৰবন্ধ: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_treatment_during_spaceflight&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medical treatment during spaceflight (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Medical treatment during spaceflight</a>, আৰু <a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Space medicine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Space medicine</a></div> <p>A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salmonella_typhimurium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salmonella typhimurium (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Salmonella typhimurium</a></i>, a bacterium that can cause <a href="/w/index.php?title=Food_poisoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Food poisoning (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">food poisoning</a>, became more virulent when cultivated in space.<sup id="cite_ref-ASU-20070923_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASU-20070923-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=NASA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NASA (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">NASA</a>, reported that, during <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microbes (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">microbes</a> seem to adapt to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_environment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Space environment (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">space environment</a> in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virulence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virulence (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">virulence</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-PLos-20130429_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLos-20130429-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, in 2017, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> were found to be more resistant to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.<sup id="cite_ref-GZM-20170913_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GZM-20170913-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microorganism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Microorganism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Microorganisms</a> have been observed to survive the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vacuum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vacuum (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">vacuum</a> of outer space.<sup id="cite_ref-Dose_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dose-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horneck_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horneck-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="আৰু_চাওক"><span id=".E0.A6.86.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.81_.E0.A6.9A.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.93.E0.A6.95"></span>আৰু চাওক</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=31" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: আৰু চাওক"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioinformatics_Resource_Centers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioinformatics Resource Centers (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Bioinformatics Resource Centers</a> for Infectious Diseases</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_hazard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biological hazard (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Blood-borne_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blood-borne disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coinfection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coinfection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Coinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copenhagen_Consensus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Copenhagen Consensus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Copenhagen Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cordon_sanitaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cordon sanitaire (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Disease_diffusion_mapping&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disease diffusion mapping (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Disease diffusion mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foodborne_illness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foodborne illness (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Foodborne illness</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of medicine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hospital-acquired_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hospital-acquired infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Hospital-acquired infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eradication_of_infectious_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eradication of infectious diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Eradication of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Microbiome_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human Microbiome Project (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Human Microbiome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection_control&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infection control (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isolation_(health_care)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isolation (health care) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Isolation (health care)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_bacterial_vaginosis_microbiota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of causes of death by rate (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">List of causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_diseases_caused_by_insects&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of diseases caused by insects (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">List of diseases caused by insects</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_epidemics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of epidemics (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">List of epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_infectious_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of infectious diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">List of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Mathematical modelling of infectious disease</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Membrane_vesicle_trafficking&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Membrane vesicle trafficking (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Membrane vesicle trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multiplicity_of_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Multiplicity of infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neglected_tropical_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neglected tropical diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" class="mw-redirect" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spatiotemporal_Epidemiological_Modeler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler</a> (STEM)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spillover_infection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spillover infection (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Threshold_host_density&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Threshold host density (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Threshold host density</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Transmission_(medicine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transmission (medicine) (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Transmission (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ubi_pus,_ibi_evacua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ubi pus, ibi evacua (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Ubi pus, ibi evacua</a> (Latin: "where there is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pus (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">pus</a>, there evacuate it")</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vaccine-preventable_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaccine-preventable diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Vaccine-preventable diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterborne_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waterborne diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Waterborne diseases</a></li></ul> </div> <pre>--> </pre> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="টোকা_আৰু_তথ্য_উৎস"><span id=".E0.A6.9F.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.95.E0.A6.BE_.E0.A6.86.E0.A7.B0.E0.A7.81_.E0.A6.A4.E0.A6.A5.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.AF_.E0.A6.89.E0.A7.8E.E0.A6.B8"></span>টোকা আৰু তথ্য উৎস</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=32" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: টোকা আৰু তথ্য উৎস"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r368696">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/infection">Definition of "infection" from several medical dictionaries</a> – Retrieved on 2012-04-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-News_Ghana-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-News_Ghana_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsghana.com.gh/?p=853675">"Utilizing antibiotics agents effectively will preserve present day medication"</a>. News Ghana. 21 November 2015<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://newsghana.com.gh/?p=853675">http://newsghana.com.gh/?p=853675</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 21 November 2015</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Utilizing+antibiotics+agents+effectively+will+preserve+present+day+medication&rft.atitle=&rft.date=21+November+2015&rft.pub=News+Ghana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsghana.com.gh%2F%3Fp%3D853675&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Alberto Signore (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejnmmires.com/content/pdf/2191-219X-3-8.pdf">"About inflammation and infection"</a>. <i>EJNMMI Research</i> খণ্ড <b>8</b> (3)<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ejnmmires.com/content/pdf/2191-219X-3-8.pdf">http://www.ejnmmires.com/content/pdf/2191-219X-3-8.pdf</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=About+inflammation+and+infection&rft.jtitle=EJNMMI+Research&rft.aulast=Alberto+Signore&rft.au=Alberto+Signore&rft.date=2013&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejnmmires.com%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2F2191-219X-3-8.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GDB2013-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GDB2013_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators (17 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=4340604">"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013."</a>. <i>Lancet</i> খণ্ড <b>385</b> (9963): 117–71. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2814%2961682-2">10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25530442">25530442</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Global%2C+regional%2C+and+national+age-sex+specific+all-cause+and+cause-specific+mortality+for+240+causes+of+death%2C+1990-2013%3A+a+systematic+analysis+for+the+Global+Burden+of+Disease+Study+2013.&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.aulast=GBD+2013+Mortality+and+Causes+of+Death&rft.aufirst=Collaborators&rft.au=GBD+2013+Mortality+and+Causes+of+Death%2C%26%2332%3BCollaborators&rft.date=17+December+2014&rft.volume=385&rft.issue=9963&rft.pages=117%E2%80%9371&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2814%2961682-2&rft_id=info:pmid/25530442&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206201010/https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html">"Infectious Disease, Internal Medicine"</a>. Association of American Medical Colleges. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html">the original</a> on 2015-02-06<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206201010/https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html">https://web.archive.org/web/20150206201010/https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2015-08-20</span>. "Infectious disease is the subspecialty of internal medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases of all types, in all organs, and in all ages of patients."</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Infectious+Disease%2C+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Association+of+American+Medical+Colleges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150206201010%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.aamc.org%2Fcim%2Fspecialty%2Flist%2Fus%2F339608%2Finfectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baron-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Baron_6-0">6.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Baron_6-1">6.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">This section incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">public domain</a> materials included in the text: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mmed.TOC&depth=10">Medical Microbiology</a> Fourth Edition: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.594">Chapter 8</a> (1996). Baron, Samuel MD. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. <span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132331/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">the original</a> on June 29, 2009<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132331/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132331/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2013-11-27</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft.atitle=&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090629132331%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dmmed&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sherris-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-0">7.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-1">7.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-2">7.2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-3">7.3</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-4">7.4</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_7-5">7.5</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) (2004). <i>Sherris Medical Microbiology</i> (4th সম্পাদনা). McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8/0-8385-8529-9" title="বিশেষ:গ্ৰন্থৰ উত্স/0-8385-8529-9">0-8385-8529-9</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sherris+Medical+Microbiology&rft.aulast=Ryan+KJ%3B+Ray+CG+%28editors%29&rft.au=Ryan+KJ%3B+Ray+CG+%28editors%29&rft.date=2004&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.isbn=0-8385-8529-9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">(Higurea & Pietrangelo 2016).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nipa-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-nipa_9-0">9.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-nipa_9-1">9.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-nipa_9-2">9.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antibiotics-info.org/bact02.asp">"Bacterial vs. Viral Infections – Do You Know the Difference?"</a> National Information Program on Antibiotics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Robert N. Golden; Fred Peterson. <i>The Truth About Illness and Disease</i>. Infobase Publishing, 2009. পৃষ্ঠা. 181. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8/1438126379" title="বিশেষ:গ্ৰন্থৰ উত্স/1438126379">1438126379</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Illness+and+Disease&rft.aulast=Robert+N.+Golden&rft.au=Robert+N.+Golden&rft.au=Fred+Peterson&rft.pages=%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE.%26nbsp%3B181&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing%2C+2009&rft.isbn=1438126379&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023556/http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/">"Infection"</a>. Rencare. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/">the original</a> on March 5, 2012<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023556/http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/">https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023556/http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 4 July 2013</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Infection&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Rencare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120305023556%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.rencareltd.com%2Fconditions%2Finfections%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infectioncycle.com/">Infection Cycle</a> – Retrieved on 2010-01-21 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140517095153/http://www.infectioncycle.com/">Archived</a> May 17, 2014, at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/understanding1.htm">Understanding Infectious Diseases</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924155111/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/understanding1.htm">Archived</a> 2009-09-24 at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a> Science.Education.Nih.Gov article – Retrieved on 2010-01-21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Duerkop, Breck A; Hooper, Lora V (2013-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/v14/n7/fig_tab/ni.2614_F2.html">"Resident viruses and their interactions with the immune system"</a> (en ভাষাত). <i>Nature Immunology</i> খণ্ড <b>14</b> (7): 654–59. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fni.2614">10.1038/ni.2614</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23778792">23778792</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Central&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Central (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3760236">3760236</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/v14/n7/fig_tab/ni.2614_F2.html">http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/v14/n7/fig_tab/ni.2614_F2.html</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Resident+viruses+and+their+interactions+with+the+immune+system&rft.jtitle=Nature+Immunology&rft.aulast=Duerkop&rft.aufirst=Breck+A&rft.au=Duerkop%2C%26%2332%3BBreck+A&rft.au=Hooper%2C%26%2332%3BLora+V&rft.date=2013-07-01&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=654%E2%80%9359&rft_id=info:doi/10.1038%2Fni.2614&rft_id=info:pmid/23778792&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fni%2Fjournal%2Fv14%2Fn7%2Ffig_tab%2Fni.2614_F2.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bacterial-pathogenesis/deck/11094651">"Bacterial Pathogenesis at Washington University"</a>. প্ৰকাশক St. Louis: StudyBlue<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bacterial-pathogenesis/deck/11094651">https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bacterial-pathogenesis/deck/11094651</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2016-12-02</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Bacterial+Pathogenesis+at+Washington+University&rft.atitle=&rft.place=St.+Louis&rft.pub=StudyBlue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studyblue.com%2Fnotes%2Fnote%2Fn%2Fbacterial-pathogenesis%2Fdeck%2F11094651&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2014/6/the-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections/page-01?p=1">"Print Friendly"</a>. www.lifeextension.com<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2014/6/the-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections/page-01?p=1">http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2014/6/the-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections/page-01?p=1</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2016-12-02</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Print+Friendly&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=www.lifeextension.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lifeextension.com%2Fmagazine%2F2014%2F6%2Fthe-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections%2Fpage-01%3Fp%3D1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">"Does this patient have an infection of a chronic wound?". <i>JAMA</i> খণ্ড <b>307</b> (6): 605–11. Feb 2012. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2012.98">10.1001/jama.2012.98</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22318282">22318282</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Does+this+patient+have+an+infection+of+a+chronic+wound%3F&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.date=Feb+2012&rft.volume=307&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=605%E2%80%9311&rft_id=info:doi/10.1001%2Fjama.2012.98&rft_id=info:pmid/22318282&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p4215.pdf">http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p4215.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persistentinfection.net/">Chronic Infection Information</a> Retrieved on 2010-01-14 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722065612/http://www.persistentinfection.net/">Archived</a> July 22, 2015, at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fungusfocus.com/html/flukes.htm">Intestinal Parasites and Infection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101028013944/http://fungusfocus.com/html/flukes.htm">Archived</a> 2010-10-28 at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a> fungusfocus.com – Retrieved on 2010-01-21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microbiologybook.org/Infectious%20Disease/Infectious%20Disease%20Introduction.htm">"Clinical Infectious Disease – Introduction"</a>. www.microbiologybook.org<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.microbiologybook.org/Infectious%20Disease/Infectious%20Disease%20Introduction.htm">http://www.microbiologybook.org/Infectious%20Disease/Infectious%20Disease%20Introduction.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2017-04-19</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Infectious+Disease+%E2%80%93+Introduction&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=www.microbiologybook.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microbiologybook.org%2FInfectious%2520Disease%2FInfectious%2520Disease%2520Introduction.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metapathogen.com/">Pathogens and vectors</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005150918/http://www.metapathogen.com/">Archived</a> 2017-10-05 at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>MetaPathogen.com</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sternak-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Sternak_23-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Ljubin-Sternak, Suncanica; Mestrovic, Tomislav (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=4295611">"Review: Clamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health"</a>. <i>Journal of Pathogens</i> খণ্ড <b>2014</b> (183167): 3. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1155%2F2014%2F183167">10.1155/2014/183167</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25614838">25614838</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Clamydia+trachonmatis+and+Genital+Mycoplasmias%3A+Pathogens+with+an+Impact+on+Human+Reproductive+Health&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pathogens&rft.aulast=Ljubin-Sternak&rft.aufirst=Suncanica&rft.au=Ljubin-Sternak%2C%26%2332%3BSuncanica&rft.au=Mestrovic%2C%26%2332%3BTomislav&rft.date=2014&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=183167&rft.pages=3&rft_id=info:doi/10.1155%2F2014%2F183167&rft_id=info:pmid/25614838&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lancet10-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Lancet10_24-0">24.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Lancet10_24-1">24.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">"Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review". <i>Lancet</i> খণ্ড <b>375</b> (9717): 834–45. March 2010. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2962000-6">10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62000-6</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20132979">20132979</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Diagnostic+value+of+clinical+features+at+presentation+to+identify+serious+infection+in+children+in+developed+countries%3A+a+systematic+review&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.date=March+2010&rft.volume=375&rft.issue=9717&rft.pages=834%E2%80%9345&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2962000-6&rft_id=info:pmid/20132979&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-handhygiene-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-handhygiene_25-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajicjournal.org/article/S0196-6553(07)00595-0/fulltext">"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures including hand-washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings"</a>. <i>American Journal of Infection Control</i> খণ্ড <b>35</b> (10): S27–S64. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajic.2007.07.001">10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ajicjournal.org/article/S0196-6553(07)00595-0/fulltext">http://www.ajicjournal.org/article/S0196-6553(07)00595-0/fulltext</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+effectiveness+of+hand+hygiene+procedures+including+hand-washing+and+alcohol-based+hand+sanitizers+in+reducing+the+risks+of+infections+in+home+and+community+settings&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Infection+Control&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=S27%E2%80%93S64&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.ajic.2007.07.001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajicjournal.org%2Farticle%2FS0196-6553%2807%2900595-0%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924155114/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm">""Generalized Infectious Cycle" Diagram Illustration"</a>. science.education.nih.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm">the original</a> on 2009-09-24<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924155114/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm">https://web.archive.org/web/20090924155114/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2010-01-21</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=%22Generalized+Infectious+Cycle%22+Diagram+Illustration&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=science.education.nih.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090924155114%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fscience.education.nih.gov%2Fsupplements%2Fnih1%2Fdiseases%2Fguide%2Ffig4-longdesc.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Watts_27-0">27.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Watts_27-1">27.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Watts, Duncan (2003). <i>Six degrees: the science of a connected age</i>. প্ৰকাশক London: William Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8/0-393-04142-5" title="বিশেষ:গ্ৰন্থৰ উত্স/0-393-04142-5">0-393-04142-5</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+degrees%3A+the+science+of+a+connected+age&rft.aulast=Watts%2C+Duncan&rft.au=Watts%2C+Duncan&rft.date=2003&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Heinemann&rft.isbn=0-393-04142-5&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Preston, Richard (1995). <i>The hot zone</i>. প্ৰকাশক Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8/0-385-49522-6" title="বিশেষ:গ্ৰন্থৰ উত্স/0-385-49522-6">0-385-49522-6</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+hot+zone&rft.aulast=Preston%2C+Richard&rft.au=Preston%2C+Richard&rft.date=1995&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.isbn=0-385-49522-6&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11303090">"The foot-and-mouth epidemic in Great Britain: pattern of spread and impact of interventions"</a>. <i>Science</i> খণ্ড <b>292</b> (5519): 1155–60. May 2001. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1061020">10.1126/science.1061020</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11303090">11303090</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11303090">http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11303090</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+foot-and-mouth+epidemic+in+Great+Britain%3A+pattern+of+spread+and+impact+of+interventions&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.date=May+2001&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=5519&rft.pages=1155%E2%80%9360&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126%2Fscience.1061020&rft_id=info:pmid/11303090&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D11303090&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2465549">"Infectious diseases epidemiology"</a>. <i>Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health</i> খণ্ড <b>60</b> (3): 192–95. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fjech.2003.011593">10.1136/jech.2003.011593</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16476746">16476746</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Infectious+diseases+epidemiology&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Epidemiology+and+Community+Health&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=192%E2%80%9395&rft_id=info:doi/10.1136%2Fjech.2003.011593&rft_id=info:pmid/16476746&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">"Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance". <i>Nature</i> খণ্ড <b>461</b> (7262): 399–401. 2009. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08309">10.1038/nature08309</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19684573">19684573</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Genetic+variation+in+IL28B+predicts+hepatitis+C+treatment-induced+viral+clearance&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7262&rft.pages=399%E2%80%93401&rft_id=info:doi/10.1038%2Fnature08309&rft_id=info:pmid/19684573&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3172006">"Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus"</a>. <i>Nature</i> খণ্ড <b>461</b> (7265): 798–801. 2009. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08463">10.1038/nature08463</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19759533">19759533</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Genetic+variation+in+IL28B+and+spontaneous+clearance+of+hepatitis+C+virus&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7265&rft.pages=798%E2%80%93801&rft_id=info:doi/10.1038%2Fnature08463&rft_id=info:pmid/19759533&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">O’Brien, Deirdre J.; Gould, Ian M. (August 2013). "Maximizing the impact of antimicrobial stewardship". <i>Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases</i> খণ্ড <b>26</b> (4): 352–58. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FQCO.0b013e3283631046">10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283631046</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23806898">23806898</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Maximizing+the+impact+of+antimicrobial+stewardship&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Infectious+Diseases&rft.aulast=O%E2%80%99Brien&rft.aufirst=Deirdre+J.&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Brien%2C%26%2332%3BDeirdre+J.&rft.au=Gould%2C%26%2332%3BIan+M.&rft.date=August+2013&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=352%E2%80%9358&rft_id=info:doi/10.1097%2FQCO.0b013e3283631046&rft_id=info:pmid/23806898&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls">"Age-standardized DALYs per 100,000 by cause, and Member State, 2004"</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls">http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Age-standardized+DALYs+per+100%2C000+by+cause%2C+and+Member+State%2C+2004&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=World+Health+Organization&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=February+2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fentity%2Fhealthinfo%2Fglobal_burden_disease%2Fgbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/1.2802071">"Could Ebola rank among the deadliest communicable diseases?"</a>. CBC News. 20 October 2014<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/1.2802071">http://www.cbc.ca/news/1.2802071</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Could+Ebola+rank+among+the+deadliest+communicable+diseases%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.date=20+October+2014&rft.pub=CBC+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2F1.2802071&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf">"The World Health Report (Annex Table 2)"</a> (PDF). 2004<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf">http://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+World+Health+Report+%28Annex+Table+2%29&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwhr%2F2004%2Fannex%2Ftopic%2Fen%2Fannex_2_en.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/whr/1995/en/whr95_ch1_en.pdf">"Table 5"</a> (PDF). 1995<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.who.int/whr/1995/en/whr95_ch1_en.pdf">http://www.who.int/whr/1995/en/whr95_ch1_en.pdf</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Table+5&rft.atitle=&rft.date=1995&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwhr%2F1995%2Fen%2Fwhr95_ch1_en.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lower respiratory infections include various <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumonia">pneumonias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Influenza">influenzas</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acute_bronchitis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acute bronchitis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">acute bronchitis</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diarrheal diseases are caused by many different organisms, including <a href="/wiki/Cholera" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Botulism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Botulism (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">botulism</a>, and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Escherichia_coli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Escherichia coli (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">E. coli</a></i> to name a few. See also: <a href="/w/index.php?title=ICD-10_Chapter_I:_Certain_infectious_and_parasitic_diseases&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ICD-10 Chapter I: Certain infectious and parasitic diseases (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Intestinal infectious diseases</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tropical diseases include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chagas_disease&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chagas disease (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Chagas disease</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dengue_fever&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dengue fever (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Filariasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Filariasis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">lymphatic filariasis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leishmaniasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leishmaniasis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Onchocerciasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Onchocerciasis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">onchocerciasis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schistosomiasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schistosomiasis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">schistosomiasis</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trypanosomiasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trypanosomiasis (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">trypanosomiasis</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/">"WHO | The top 10 causes of death"</a>. WHO<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/">http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2015-09-24</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=WHO+%7C+The+top+10+causes+of+death&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=WHO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Ffactsheets%2Ffs310%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/PlaguesandPeople/lecture3.html">"Infectious and Epidemic Disease in History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20120712145547/http://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/PlaguesandPeople/lecture3.html">Archived</a> July 12, 2012, at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Archive.today&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archive.today (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Archive.today</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobson-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_43-0">43.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_43-1">43.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231520/http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf">"Infectious Diseases and Human Population History"</a>. <i>BioScience</i> খণ্ড <b>46</b> (2): 115–26. 1996. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1312814">10.2307/1312814</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf">the original</a> on 2016-03-03<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231520/http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231520/http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2018-02-28</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Infectious+Diseases+and+Human+Population+History&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.date=1996&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=115%E2%80%9326&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307%2F1312814&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160303231520%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.erin.utoronto.ca%2F%7Ew3gwynne%2FBIO418%2FDobson1996.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-twoworlds/1696">"Smallpox"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129000337/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-twoworlds/1696">Archived</a> 2018-01-29 at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>North Carolina Digital History.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=vacc.chapter.3">Smallpox and Vaccinia</a>. <i>National Center for Biotechnology Information.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090601172056/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=vacc.chapter.3">Archived</a> June 1, 2009, at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/127/8_Part_1/635">"Smallpox: The Triumph over the Most Terrible of the Ministers of Death"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm">Multidrug-Resistant "Tuberculosis"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100309043219/http://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm">Archived</a> March 9, 2010, at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wayback_Machine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wayback Machine (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060220113240/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/influenza_main.htm">"Influenza of 1918 (Spanish Flu) and the US Navy"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krauss-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Krauss_49-0">49.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Krauss_49-1">49.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Krauss H; Weber A; Appel M (2003). <i>Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans</i> (3rd সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7:%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8/1-55581-236-8" title="বিশেষ:গ্ৰন্থৰ উত্স/1-55581-236-8">1-55581-236-8</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoonoses%3A+Infectious+Diseases+Transmissible+from+Animals+to+Humans&rft.aulast=Krauss+H&rft.au=Krauss+H&rft.au=Weber+A&rft.au=Appel+M&rft.date=2003&rft.edition=3rd&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=ASM+Press&rft.isbn=1-55581-236-8&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Potter P (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/7/ac-1907_article.htm?s_cid=eid_cover_img#suggestedcitation">"Summer buzz"</a>. <i>Emerg Infect Dis</i> খণ্ড <b>19</b> (3): 1184. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1907.AC1907">10.3201/eid1907.AC1907</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Central&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Central (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3903457">3903457</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/7/ac-1907_article.htm?s_cid=eid_cover_img#suggestedcitation">http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/7/ac-1907_article.htm?s_cid=eid_cover_img#suggestedcitation</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Summer+buzz&rft.jtitle=Emerg+Infect+Dis&rft.aulast=Potter+P&rft.au=Potter+P&rft.date=July+2013&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1184&rft_id=info:doi/10.3201%2Feid1907.AC1907&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwnc.cdc.gov%2Feid%2Farticle%2F19%2F7%2Fac-1907_article.htm%3Fs_cid%3Deid_cover_img%23suggestedcitation&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Peter Daszak; Andrew A. Cunningham; Alex D. Hyatt (27 January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/287/5452/443.full">"Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife—Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health"</a>. <i>Science</i> খণ্ড <b>287</b> (5452): 443–49. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.287.5452.443">10.1126/science.287.5452.443</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10642539">10642539</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/287/5452/443.full">http://science.sciencemag.org/content/287/5452/443.full</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases+of+Wildlife%E2%80%94Threats+to+Biodiversity+and+Human+Health&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.aulast=Peter+Daszak&rft.au=Peter+Daszak&rft.au=Andrew+A.+Cunningham&rft.au=Alex+D.+Hyatt&rft.date=27+January+2000&rft.volume=287&rft.issue=5452&rft.pages=443%E2%80%9349&rft_id=info:doi/10.1126%2Fscience.287.5452.443&rft_id=info:pmid/10642539&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F287%2F5452%2F443.full&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Beretta M (2003). "The revival of Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance". <i>Medicina nei secoli</i> খণ্ড <b>15</b> (2): 129–54. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15309812">15309812</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+Lucretian+atomism+and+contagious+diseases+during+the+renaissance&rft.jtitle=Medicina+nei+secoli&rft.aulast=Beretta+M&rft.au=Beretta+M&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129%E2%80%9354&rft_id=info:pmid/15309812&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Moorhead Robert (November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1279260">"William Budd and typhoid fever"</a>. <i>J R Soc Med</i> খণ্ড <b>95</b> (11): 561–64. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1258%2Fjrsm.95.11.561">10.1258/jrsm.95.11.561</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12411628">12411628</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=William+Budd+and+typhoid+fever&rft.jtitle=J+R+Soc+Med&rft.aulast=Moorhead+Robert&rft.au=Moorhead+Robert&rft.date=November+2002&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=561%E2%80%9364&rft_id=info:doi/10.1258%2Fjrsm.95.11.561&rft_id=info:pmid/12411628&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid19683831-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid19683831_54-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Nettle D (2009). "Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity: a review of recent findings". <i>Trends Ecol. Evol.</i> খণ্ড <b>24</b> (11): 618–24. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2009.05.013">10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19683831">19683831</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ecological+influences+on+human+behavioural+diversity%3A+a+review+of+recent+findings&rft.jtitle=Trends+Ecol.+Evol.&rft.aulast=Nettle+D&rft.au=Nettle+D&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=618%E2%80%9324&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2009.05.013&rft_id=info:pmid/19683831&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-molnar-pathology-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-molnar-pathology_55-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Molnar, R. E., 2001, "Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey": In: <i>Mesozoic Vertebrate Life</i>, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 337–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASU-20070923-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-ASU-20070923_56-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Caspermeyer, Joe (23 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170914172718/https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease">"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arizona_State_University&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arizona State University (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Arizona State University</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease">the original</a> on 14 September 2017<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170914172718/https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease">https://web.archive.org/web/20170914172718/https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 14 September 2017</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Space+flight+shown+to+alter+ability+of+bacteria+to+cause+disease&rft.atitle=%5B%5BArizona+State+University%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Caspermeyer&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Caspermeyer%2C%26%2332%3BJoe&rft.date=23+September+2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170914172718%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fnews%2Fspace-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PLos-20130429-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-PLos-20130429_57-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437">"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=PLOS_One&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PLOS One (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PLOS One</a></i> খণ্ড <b>8</b> (4): e6237. April 29, 2013. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437">10.1371/journal.pone.0062437</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437">http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: July 5, 2013</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spaceflight+Promotes+Biofilm+Formation+by+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa&rft.jtitle=%5B%5BPLOS+One%5D%5D&rft.date=April+29%2C+2013&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e6237&rft_id=info:doi/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0062437&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GZM-20170913-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-GZM-20170913_58-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Dvorsky, George (13 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249">"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gizmodo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gizmodo (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">Gizmodo</a></i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249">https://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 14 September 2017</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Alarming+Study+Indicates+Why+Certain+Bacteria+Are+More+Resistant+to+Drugs+in+Space&rft.atitle=%5B%5BGizmodo%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Dvorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Dvorsky%2C%26%2332%3BGeorge&rft.date=13+September+2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Falarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dose-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Dose_59-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Dose, K.; Bieger-Dose, A.; Dillmann, R.; Gill, M.; Kerz, O.; Klein, A.; Meinert, H.; Nawroth, T. <i>et al</i>. (1995). "ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"". <i>Advances in Space Research</i> খণ্ড <b>16</b> (8): 119–29. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900280-R">10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11542696">11542696</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ERA-experiment+%22space+biochemistry%22&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Space+Research&rft.aulast=Dose&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Dose%2C%26%2332%3BK.&rft.au=Bieger-Dose%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.au=Dillmann%2C%26%2332%3BR.&rft.au=Gill%2C%26%2332%3BM.&rft.au=Kerz%2C%26%2332%3BO.&rft.au=Klein%2C%26%2332%3BA.&rft.au=Meinert%2C%26%2332%3BH.&rft.au=Nawroth%2C%26%2332%3BT.&rft.au=Risi%2C%26%2332%3BS.&rft.date=1995&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=119%E2%80%9329&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900280-R&rft_id=info:pmid/11542696&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horneck-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Horneck_60-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Vaisberg, Horneck G.; Eschweiler, U.; Reitz, G.; Wehner, J.; Willimek, R.; Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I". <i>Adv Space Res.</i> খণ্ড <b>16</b> (8): 105–18. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900279-N">10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=PubMed_Identifier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PubMed Identifier (পৃষ্ঠা নাই)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11542695">11542695</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Biological+responses+to+space%3A+results+of+the+experiment+%22Exobiological+Unit%22+of+ERA+on+EURECA+I&rft.jtitle=Adv+Space+Res.&rft.aulast=Vaisberg&rft.aufirst=Horneck+G.&rft.au=Vaisberg%2C%26%2332%3BHorneck+G.&rft.au=Eschweiler%2C+U.&rft.au=Reitz%2C+G.&rft.au=Wehner%2C+J.&rft.au=Willimek%2C+R.&rft.au=Strauch%2C+K.&rft.date=1995&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=105%E2%80%9318&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900279-N&rft_id=info:pmid/11542695&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="বাহ্যিক_সংযোগ"><span id=".E0.A6.AC.E0.A6.BE.E0.A6.B9.E0.A7.8D.E0.A6.AF.E0.A6.BF.E0.A6.95_.E0.A6.B8.E0.A6.82.E0.A6.AF.E0.A7.8B.E0.A6.97"></span>বাহ্যিক সংযোগ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3&action=edit&section=33" title="শাখা সম্পাদনা: বাহ্যিক সংযোগ"><span>সম্পাদনা কৰক</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="infobox" cellspacing="5" style="width:22em; width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;"><tbody><tr class=""><th style="text-align:left;">বৰ্গীকৰণ</th> <td class="" style="text-align:left;"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166231" class="extiw" title="d:Q166231">D</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r431467">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="extiw" title="en:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10" class="extiw" title="en:ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/A00">A00</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B99">B99</a></li><li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="extiw" title="en:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" class="extiw" title="en:List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=001-139">001-139</a></li><li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" class="extiw" title="en:Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2015/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D003141">D003141</a></li><li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_Database" class="extiw" title="en:Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28832.htm">28832</a></li></ul></div></td></tr> </tbody></table> <table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="border:1px solid #aaa; 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