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0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Citation_metrics" title="Category:Citation metrics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Citation_impact" title="Citation impact">Citation metrics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif/lossy-page1-110px-Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif/lossy-page1-165px-Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Locations_of_papers_in_a_map_of_science_and_locations_of_the_key_papers_for_Nobel_prizes.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="1356" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altmetrics" title="Altmetrics">Altmetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article-level_metrics" title="Article-level metrics">Article-level</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Author-level</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eigenfactor" title="Eigenfactor">Eigenfactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-index" title="G-index">G-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">H-index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliographic_coupling" title="Bibliographic coupling">Bibliographic coupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Citation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citation_analysis" title="Citation analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_dynamics" title="Citation dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_index" title="Citation index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_graph" title="Citation graph">Graph</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-citation" title="Co-citation">Co-citation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-citation_Proximity_Analysis" title="Co-citation Proximity Analysis">Proximity Analysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercive_citation" title="Coercive citation">Coercive citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_cartel" title="Citation cartel">Citation cartel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Open_Citations" title="Initiative for Open Citations">I4OC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_ranking" title="Journal ranking">Journal-level</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CiteScore" title="CiteScore">CiteScore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">Impact factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCImago_Journal_Rank" title="SCImago Journal Rank">SCImago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardashian_Index" title="Kardashian Index">Kardashian Index</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Citation_metrics" title="Template:Citation metrics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Citation_metrics" title="Template talk:Citation metrics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Citation_metrics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Citation metrics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Author-level metrics</b> are <a href="/wiki/Citation_metrics" class="mw-redirect" title="Citation metrics">citation metrics</a> that measure the <a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">bibliometric impact</a> of individual authors, researchers, academics, and scholars. Many metrics have been developed that take into account varying numbers of factors (from only considering the total number of citations, to looking at their distribution across papers or <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journals</a> using statistical or <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph-theoretic</a> principles). </p><p>These quantitative comparisons between researchers are mostly done to distribute resources (such as money and academic positions). However, there is still debate in the academic world about how effectively author-level metrics accomplish this objective.<sup id="cite_ref-hirsch_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirsch-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Author-level metrics differ from <a href="/wiki/Journal-level_metrics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal-level metrics">journal-level metrics</a>, which attempt to measure the bibliometric impact of academic journals rather than individuals, and from <a href="/wiki/Article-level_metrics" title="Article-level metrics">article-level metrics</a>, which attempt to measure the impact of individual articles. However, metrics originally developed for academic journals can be reported at researcher level, such as the author-level eigenfactor<sup id="cite_ref-wiley_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiley-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the author impact factor.<sup id="cite_ref-nature_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_metrics">List of metrics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: List of metrics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="''h''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>h</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>Formally, if <i>f</i> is the function that corresponds to the number of citations for each publication, the <a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index"><i>h</i>-index</a> is computed as follows. First, we order the values of <i>f</i> from the largest to the lowest value. Then, we look for the last position in which <i>f</i> is greater than or equal to the position (we call <i>h</i> this position). For example, if we have a researcher with 5 publications A, B, C, D, and E with 10, 8, 5, 4, and 3 citations, respectively, the <i>h</i>-index is equal to 4 because the 4th publication has 4 citations and the 5th has only 3. In contrast, if the same publications have 25, 8, 5, 3, and 3 citations, then the index is 3 because the fourth paper has only 3 citations.<sup id="cite_ref-hirsch_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirsch-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Individual_''h''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Individual <i>h</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>An individual <i>h</i>-index normalized by the number of authors has been proposed: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{I}=h^{2}/N_{a}^{(T)}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>I</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{I}=h^{2}/N_{a}^{(T)}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ede51ac06c9292d63e7de018fc9f195122de7ad2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.846ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{I}=h^{2}/N_{a}^{(T)}}"></span>, with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{a}^{(T)}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{a}^{(T)}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2d91e21cd430127e14d98e58d7b65f8ec941c1ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.792ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{a}^{(T)}}"></span> being the number of authors considered in the <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b26be3e694314bc90c3215047e4a2010c6ee184a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h}"></span> papers.<sup id="cite_ref-BatistaEtal2006_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BatistaEtal2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was found that the distribution of the <i>h</i>-index, although it depends on the field, can be normalized by a simple rescaling factor. For example, assuming as standard the <i>h</i>s for biology, the distribution of <i>h</i> for mathematics collapses with it if this <i>h</i> is multiplied by three, that is, a mathematician with <i>h</i> = 3 is equivalent to a biologist with <i>h</i> = 9. This method has not been readily adopted, perhaps because of its complexity. </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Fractional_''h''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Fractional <i>h</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>To avoid incentivizing hyperautorship with more than 100 coauthors per paper it might be simpler to divide citation counts by the number of authors before ordering the papers and obtaining the <i>fractional h-index</i>, as originally suggested by Hirsch. This index, also called h-frac, is not highly correlated with <i>h</i>-index and is currently correlated with scientific awards.<sup id="cite_ref-h-frac_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h-frac-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b> <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> </b></td> <td>Three additional metrics have been proposed: <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> lower, <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> center, and <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> upper, to give a more accurate representation of the distribution shape. The three <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> metrics measure the relative area within a scientist's citation distribution in the low impact area, <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> lower, the area captured by the <i>h</i>-index, <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> center, and the area from publications with the highest visibility, <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> upper. Scientists with high <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> upper percentages are perfectionists, whereas scientists with high <i>h</i><sup>2</sup> lower percentages are mass producers. As these metrics are percentages, they are intended to give a qualitative description to supplement the quantitative <i>h</i>-index.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Normalized_''h''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Normalized <i>h</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The <i>h</i>-index has been shown to have a strong discipline bias. However, a simple normalization <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h/\langle h\rangle _{d}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨</mo> <mi>h</mi> <msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h/\langle h\rangle _{d}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4a3961e9b48b20f29bb5372946014bf56f9113a2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.742ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h/\langle h\rangle _{d}}"></span> by the average <i>h</i> of scholars in a discipline <i>d</i> is an effective way to mitigate this bias, obtaining a universal impact metric that allows comparison of scholars across different disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Author-level_Eigenfactor"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Author-level Eigenfactor</span></span></b></td> <td>Author-level Eigenfactor is a version of <a href="/wiki/Eigenfactor" title="Eigenfactor">Eigenfactor</a> for single authors.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eigenfactor regards authors as nodes in a network of citations. The score of an author according to this metric is his or her <a href="/wiki/Eigenvector_centrality" title="Eigenvector centrality">eigenvector centrality</a> in the network. </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Erdős_number"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Erdős number</span></span></b></td> <td>It has been argued that "For an individual researcher, a measure such as <a href="/wiki/Erd%C5%91s_number" title="Erdős number">Erdős number</a> captures the structural properties of the network whereas the <i>h</i>-index captures the citation impact of the publications. One can be easily convinced that ranking in coauthorship networks should take into account both measures to generate a realistic and acceptable ranking." Several author ranking systems have been proposed already, for instance the Phys Author Rank Algorithm.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="i-10-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text">i-10-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The i-10 index indicates the number of academic publications an author has written that have been cited by at least 10 sources. It was introduced in July 2011 by <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> as part of their work on <a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="RG_Score"></span><span class="vanchor-text">RG Score</span></span></b></td> <td><i>ResearchGate Score</i> or <i>RG Score</i> is an author-level metric introduced by <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a> in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to ResearchGate's CEO Dr. <a href="/wiki/Ijad_Madisch" title="Ijad Madisch">Ijad Madisch</a>, “[t]he RG Score allows real-time feedback from the people who matter: the scientists themselves.”<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RG Score has been reported to be correlated with existing author-level metrics and has an undisclosed calculation methodology.<sup id="cite_ref-doi10.1002/asi.23236_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1002/asi.23236-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kraker_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraker-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jordan_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two studies reported that RG Score seems to incorporate the <a href="/wiki/Journal_impact_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal impact factor">journal impact factors</a> into the calculation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraker_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraker-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jordan_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordan-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The RG Score was found to be negatively correlated with network <a href="/wiki/Centrality" title="Centrality">centrality</a> – users that are the most active on ResearchGate usually do not have high RG scores.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also found to be strongly positively correlated with <a href="/wiki/Quacquarelli_Symonds" title="Quacquarelli Symonds">Quacquarelli Symonds</a> university rankings at the institutional level, but only weakly with <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a> SciVal rankings of individual authors.<sup id="cite_ref-CHB_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHB-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it was found to be correlated with different university rankings, the correlation in between these rankings themselves was higher.<sup id="cite_ref-doi10.1002/asi.23236_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1002/asi.23236-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''m''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>m</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The <i>m</i>-index is defined as <i>h</i>/<i>n</i>, where <i>h</i> is the <i>h</i>-index and <i>n</i> is the number of years since the first published paper of the scientist;<sup id="cite_ref-hirsch_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirsch-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also called <i>m</i>-quotient.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''g''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>g</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>For <a href="/wiki/G-index" title="G-index"><i>g</i>-index</a> is introduced in 2006 as largest number of top <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}"></span> articles, which have received together at least <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5f9d6efa0fe9ea0a23f2f92c6b309cea94f4441b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.172ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g^{2}}"></span> citations.<sup id="cite_ref-Egghe_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egghe-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''e''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>e</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The <i>e</i>-index, the square root of surplus citations for the <i>h</i>-set beyond <i>h</i><sup>2</sup>, complements the <i>h</i>-index for ignored citations, and therefore is especially useful for highly cited scientists and for comparing those with the same <i>h</i>-index (iso-<i>h</i>-index group).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''c''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>c</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The <i>c</i>-index accounts not only for the citations but for the quality of the citations in terms of the collaboration distance between citing and cited authors. A scientist has <i>c</i>-index <i>n</i> if <i>n</i> of [his/her] <i>N</i> citations are from authors which are at collaboration distance at least <i>n</i>, and the other (<i>N</i> − <i>n</i>) citations are from authors which are at collaboration distance at most <i>n</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''o''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>o</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The <i>o</i>-index corresponds to the <a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">geometric mean</a> of the <i>h</i>-index and the most cited paper of a researcher.<sup id="cite_ref-DM2015_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DM2015-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="RA-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text">RA-index</span></span></b></td> <td>The RA-index accommodates improving the sensitivity of the <i>h</i>-index on the number of highly cited papers and has many cited paper and uncited paper under the <i>h</i>-core. This improvement can enhance the measurement sensitivity of the <i>h</i>-index. <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''L''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>L</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td><i>L</i>-index combines the number of citations, the number of coauthors, the age of publications into a single value, which is independent of the number of publications and conveniently ranges from 0.0 to 9.9.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With <i>c</i> as number of citations, <i>a</i> as number of authors and <i>y</i> as number of years, <i>L</i>-index is defined by the formula: <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L=\ln \left({\sum _{i}{\frac {c_{i}}{a_{i}y_{i}}}}\right)+1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>L</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <munder> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </munder> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <msub> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>y</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L=\ln \left({\sum _{i}{\frac {c_{i}}{a_{i}y_{i}}}}\right)+1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cd74ee489881c81b969af253368d9cc26f380834" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:22.851ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L=\ln \left({\sum _{i}{\frac {c_{i}}{a_{i}y_{i}}}}\right)+1}"></span></dd></dl> <p><i>L</i>-index is automatically calculated by the Exaly database.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''s''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>s</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td>An <i>s</i>-index, accounting for the non-entropic distribution of citations, has been proposed and it has been shown to be in a very good correlation with <i>h</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="''w''-index"></span><span class="vanchor-text"><i>w</i>-index</span></span></b></td> <td><i>w</i>-index is defined as follow: if <i>w</i> of a researcher's papers have at least <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10w}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>10</mn> <mi>w</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10w}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d01191e6c6e507e9578c1f77d051e4752dd37a5f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.989ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10w}"></span> citations each and the other papers have fewer than <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10(w+1)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>10</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>w</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10(w+1)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cb3de87dcac8aa276b7a0b0af7da96938df695d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.801ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10(w+1)}"></span> citations, that researcher's <i>w</i>-index is <i>w</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Author_Impact_Factor"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Author Impact Factor</span></span></b></td> <td>Author Impact Factor (AIF) is the <a href="/wiki/Impact_Factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact Factor">Impact Factor</a> applied to authors.<sup id="cite_ref-nature_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The AIF of an author <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> in year <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> is the mean number of citations given by papers published in year <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> to papers published by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>X</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}"></span> in a period of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7caae142d915be8ef4d8c423bf91d1f6ea10e8e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.091ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta y}"></span> years before year <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span>. Unlike the h-index, AIF is able to capture trends and variations of the impact of the scientific output of scientists over time, which is a growing measure taking into account the whole career path. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_variations_of_h-index">Additional variations of <i>h</i>-index</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Additional variations of h-index"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of models proposed to incorporate the relative contribution of each author to a paper, for instance by accounting for the rank in the sequence of authors.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A generalization of the <i>h</i>-index and some other indices that gives additional information about the shape of the author's citation function (heavy-tailed, flat/peaked, etc.) has been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the <i>h</i>-index was never meant to measure future publication success, recently, a group of researchers has investigated the features that are most predictive of future <i>h</i>-index. It is possible to try the predictions using an online tool.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, later work has shown that since <i>h</i>-index is a cumulative measure, it contains intrinsic auto-correlation that led to significant overestimation of its predictability. Thus, the true predictability of future <i>h</i>-index is much lower compared to what has been claimed before.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>h</i>-index can be timed to analyze its evolution during one's career, employing different time windows.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some academics, such as physicist <a href="/wiki/Jorge_E._Hirsch" title="Jorge E. Hirsch">Jorge E. Hirsch</a>, have praised author-level metrics as a "useful yardstick with which to compare, in an unbiased way, different individuals competing for the same resource when an important evaluation criterion is scientific achievement."<sup id="cite_ref-hirsch_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirsch-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other members of the scientific community, and even Hirsch himself,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have criticized them as particularly susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Gaming_the_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaming the system">gaming the system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Work in bibliometrics has demonstrated multiple techniques for the manipulation of popular author-level metrics. The most used metric <i>h</i>-index can be manipulated through self-citations,<sup id="cite_ref-10.1007/s11192-017-2330-1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1007/s11192-017-2330-1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even computer-generated nonsense documents can be used for that purpose, for example using <a href="/wiki/SCIgen" title="SCIgen">SCIgen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ike-antkare_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ike-antkare-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metrics can also be manipulated by <a href="/wiki/Coercive_citation" title="Coercive citation">coercive citation</a>, a practice in which an editor of a journal forces authors to add spurious citations to their own articles before the journal will agree to publish it.<sup id="cite_ref-science1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nature2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, if the <i>h</i>-index is considered as a decision criterion for research funding agencies, the <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game-theoretic solution</a> to this competition implies <a href="/wiki/Academic_authorship#Growing_number_of_authors_per_paper" title="Academic authorship">increasing the average length of coauthors' lists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study analyzing >120 million papers in the specific field of biology showed that the validity of citation-based measures is being compromised and their usefulness is lessening.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As predicted by <a href="/wiki/Goodhart%27s_law" title="Goodhart's law">Goodhart's law</a>, quantity of publications is not a good metric anymore as a result of shorter papers and longer author lists. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a>, the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>, also expressed criticism of the decision-making system for scientific funding in his book "The Voice of the Dolphins and Other Stories".<sup id="cite_ref-szilardbook_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-szilardbook-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/J._Lister_Hill" title="J. Lister Hill">J. Lister Hill</a> read excerpts of this criticism in a 1962 <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_hearing" title="United States congressional hearing">senate hearing</a> on the slowing of government-funded <a href="/wiki/Cancer_research" title="Cancer research">cancer research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard's work focuses on metrics slowing scientific progress, rather than on specific methods of gaming: </p> <blockquote> <p><i>"As a matter of fact, I think it would be quite easy. You could set up a foundation, with an annual endowment of thirty million dollars. Research workers in need of funds could apply for grants, if they could mail out a convincing case. Have ten committees, each committee, each composed of twelve scientists, appointed to pass on these applications. Take the most active scientists out of the laboratory and make them members of these committees. And the very best men in the field should be appointed as chairman at salaries of fifty thousand dollars each. Also have about twenty prizes of one hundred thousand dollars each for the best scientific papers of the year. This is just about all you would have to do. Your lawyers could easily prepare a charter for the foundation. As a matter of fact, any of the National Science Foundation bills which were introduced in the Seventy-ninth and Eightieth Congress could perfectly well serve as a model."</i> </p><p><i>"First of all, the best scientists would be removed from their laboratories and kept busy on committees passing on applications for funds. Secondly the scientific workers in need of funds would concentrate on problems which were considered promising and were pretty certain to lead to publishable results. For a few years there might be a great increase in scientific output; but by going after the obvious, pretty soon science would dry out. Science would become something like a parlor game. Somethings would be considered interesting, others not. There would be fashions. Those who followed the fashions would get grants. Those who wouldn’t would not, and pretty soon they would learn to follow the fashion, too."</i><sup id="cite_ref-szilardbook_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-szilardbook-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_age" title="Academic age">Academic age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodhart%27s_law" title="Goodhart's law">Goodhart's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-hirsch-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hirsch_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hirsch_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hirsch_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hirsch_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHirsch2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hirsch, J. 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New York: Simon and Schuster. 1961.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voice+of+the+Dolphins+and+Other+Stories&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommittee1961" class="citation book cs1">Committee, United States Congress Senate Appropriations (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B7tgSd4ZDBsC&pg=PA1498"><i>Labor-Health, Education, and Welfare Appropriations for 1962, Hearings Before the Subcommittee of ... , 87-1 on H.R. 7035</i></a>. p. 1498.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labor-Health%2C+Education%2C+and+Welfare+Appropriations+for+1962%2C+Hearings+Before+the+Subcommittee+of+...+%2C+87-1+on+H.R.+7035&rft.pages=1498&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Committee&rft.aufirst=United+States+Congress+Senate+Appropriations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB7tgSd4ZDBsC%26pg%3DPA1498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Author-level_metrics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartlingFriesike2013" class="citation book cs1">Bartling, Sönke; Friesike, Sascha (2013-12-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8DK6BQAAQBAJ&q=author-level%20metrics&pg=PA181"><i>Opening Science: The Evolving Guide on How the Internet is Changing Research ...</i></a> Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319000251" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319000251"><bdi>978-3319000251</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opening+Science%3A+The+Evolving+Guide+on+How+the+Internet+is+Changing+Research+...&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013-12-16&rft.isbn=978-3319000251&rft.aulast=Bartling&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B6nke&rft.au=Friesike%2C+Sascha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8DK6BQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dauthor-level%2520metrics%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSally_MorrisEd_BarnasDouglas_LaFrenierMargaret_Reich2013" class="citation book cs1">Sally Morris; Ed Barnas; Douglas LaFrenier; Margaret Reich (2013-02-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnIhAwAAQBAJ&q=author-level%20metrics&pg=PA152"><i>The Handbook of Journal Publishing</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107653603" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107653603"><bdi>978-1107653603</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Journal+Publishing&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-02-21&rft.isbn=978-1107653603&rft.au=Sally+Morris&rft.au=Ed+Barnas&rft.au=Douglas+LaFrenier&rft.au=Margaret+Reich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWnIhAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dauthor-level%2520metrics%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelpeWollersheimRingelhanOsterloh2014" class="citation book cs1">Welpe, Isabell M.; Wollersheim, Jutta; Ringelhan, Stefanie; Osterloh, Margit (7 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3pY9BQAAQBAJ&q=author-level%20metrics&pg=PA267"><i>Incentives and Performance: Governance of Research Organizations</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319097848" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319097848"><bdi>978-3319097848</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Incentives+and+Performance%3A+Governance+of+Research+Organizations&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014-11-07&rft.isbn=978-3319097848&rft.aulast=Welpe&rft.aufirst=Isabell+M.&rft.au=Wollersheim%2C+Jutta&rft.au=Ringelhan%2C+Stefanie&rft.au=Osterloh%2C+Margit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3pY9BQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dauthor-level%2520metrics%26pg%3DPA267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingRousseauWolfram2014" class="citation book cs1">Ding, Ying; Rousseau, Ronald; Wolfram, Dietmar (6 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oP05BQAAQBAJ&q=author-level%20metrics&pg=PA90"><i>Measuring Scholarly Impact: Methods and Practice</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319103761" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319103761"><bdi>978-3319103761</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+Scholarly+Impact%3A+Methods+and+Practice&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.isbn=978-3319103761&rft.aulast=Ding&rft.aufirst=Ying&rft.au=Rousseau%2C+Ronald&rft.au=Wolfram%2C+Dietmar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoP05BQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dauthor-level%2520metrics%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAuthor-level+metrics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Academic_publishing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse 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article">Review article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Position_paper" title="Position paper">Position paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_literature" title="Grey literature">Grey literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Working_paper" title="Working paper">Working paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_paper" title="White paper">White paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_report" title="Technical report">Technical report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annual_report" title="Annual report">Annual report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">Pamphlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">Essay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-notebook_science" title="Open-notebook science">Lab notes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other publication types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collection_of_articles" title="Collection of articles">Collection of articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_patent" title="Chemical patent">Chemical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Book</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">Monograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapter_(books)" title="Chapter (books)">Chapter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poster_session" title="Poster session">Poster session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conference_proceedings" title="Conference proceedings">Proceedings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact and ranking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acknowledgment_index" title="Acknowledgment index">Acknowledgment index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altmetrics" title="Altmetrics">Altmetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article-level_metrics" title="Article-level metrics">Article-level metrics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Author-level metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_impact" title="Citation impact">Citation impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation_index" title="Citation index">Citation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_ranking" title="Journal ranking">Journal ranking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eigenfactor" title="Eigenfactor">Eigenfactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">h-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">Impact factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCImago_Journal_Rank" title="SCImago Journal Rank">SCImago Journal Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reform and access</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_journal_publishing_reform" title="Academic journal publishing reform">Academic journal publishing reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">Open access</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_access_citation_advantage" title="Open access citation advantage">Citation advantage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serials_crisis" title="Serials crisis">Serials crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICanHazPDF" title="ICanHazPDF">#ICanHazPDF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Versioning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">Preprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postprint" title="Postprint">Postprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Version_of_record" title="Version of record">Version of record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erratum" title="Erratum">Erratum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing" title="Retraction in academic publishing">Retraction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines" title="List of academic databases and search engines">Indexes and search engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMiner_(database)" title="AMiner (database)">AMiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BASE_(search_engine)" title="BASE (search engine)">BASE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CORE_(research_service)" title="CORE (research service)">CORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_Scholar" title="Semantic Scholar">Semantic Scholar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paperity" title="Paperity">Paperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenAlex" title="OpenAlex">OpenAlex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imprint_(trade_name)" title="Imprint (trade name)">Imprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_writing" title="Scientific writing">Scientific writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_communication" title="Scholarly communication">Scholarly communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_research" title="Open research">Open research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_scientific_data" title="Open scientific data">Open scientific data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORCID" title="ORCID">ORCID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingelfinger_rule" title="Ingelfinger rule">Ingelfinger rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Least_publishable_unit" title="Least publishable unit">Least publishable unit</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Publish_or_perish" title="Publish or perish">Publish or perish</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_academic_journals" title="Lists of academic journals">Academic journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_journals" title="List of scientific journals">Scientific journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-access_journals" title="List of open-access journals">Open-access journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines" title="List of academic databases and search engines">Academic databases and search engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_university_presses" title="List of university presses">University presses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_policies_of_academic_publishers" title="Copyright policies of academic publishers">Copyright policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_publishers_by_preprint_policy" title="List of academic publishers by preprint policy">Preprint policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_style_guides#Academic" title="List of style guides">Style/formatting guides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_publishing" title="Category:Academic publishing">Category:Academic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_documents" title="Category:Scientific documents">Category:Scientific documents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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