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<li id="toc-Artistic_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artistic_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Artistic production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artistic_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authenticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authenticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Authenticity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authenticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value:_cult_and_exhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value:_cult_and_exhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Value: cult and exhibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value:_cult_and_exhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_as_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_as_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Art as politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_as_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%87_%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="العمل الفني في عصر إعادة إنتاجه تقنيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العمل الفني في عصر إعادة إنتاجه تقنيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27obra_d%27art_a_l%27%C3%A8poca_de_la_seva_reproductibilitat_t%C3%A8cnica" title="L'obra d'art a l'època de la seva reproductibilitat tècnica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="L'obra d'art a l'època de la seva reproductibilitat tècnica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Um%C4%9Bleck%C3%A9_d%C3%ADlo_ve_v%C4%9Bku_sv%C3%A9_technick%C3%A9_reprodukovatelnosti" title="Umělecké dílo ve věku své technické reprodukovatelnosti – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Umělecké dílo ve věku své technické reprodukovatelnosti" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstv%C3%A6rket_i_dets_tekniske_reproducerbarheds_tidsalder" title="Kunstværket i dets tekniske reproducerbarheds tidsalder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kunstværket i dets tekniske reproducerbarheds tidsalder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Kunstwerk_im_Zeitalter_seiner_technischen_Reproduzierbarkeit" title="Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_obra_de_arte_en_la_%C3%A9poca_de_su_reproductibilidad_t%C3%A9cnica" title="La obra de arte en la época de su reproductibilidad técnica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="La obra de arte en la época de su reproductibilidad técnica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_artverko_dum_la_epoko_de_%C4%9Dia_mekanika_reproduktebleco" title="La artverko dum la epoko de ĝia mekanika reproduktebleco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="La artverko dum la epoko de ĝia mekanika reproduktebleco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artelana_bere_erreproduzigarritasun_teknikoaren_garaian" title="Artelana bere erreproduzigarritasun teknikoaren garaian – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Artelana bere erreproduzigarritasun teknikoaren garaian" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="اثر هنری درعصر بازتولید مکانیکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر هنری درعصر بازتولید مکانیکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27%C5%92uvre_d%27art_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9poque_de_sa_reproductibilit%C3%A9_technique" title="L'Œuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproductibilité technique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="L'Œuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproductibilité technique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Kunstwerk_im_Zeitalter_seiner_technischen_Reproduzierbarkeit" title="Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%88%A0%EB%B3%B5%EC%A0%9C%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80%EC%9D%98_%EC%98%88%EC%88%A0%EC%9E%91%ED%92%88" title="기술복제시대의 예술작품 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기술복제시대의 예술작품" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27opera_d%27arte_nell%27epoca_della_sua_riproducibilit%C3%A0_tecnica" title="L'opera d'arte nell'epoca della sua riproducibilità tecnica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="L'opera d'arte nell'epoca della sua riproducibilità tecnica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%99" title="יצירת האמנות בעידן השיעתוק הטכני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יצירת האמנות בעידן השיעתוק הטכני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno_k%C5%ABrinys_techninio_jo_reprodukuojamumo_epochoje" title="Meno kūrinys techninio jo reprodukuojamumo epochoje – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Meno kūrinys techninio jo reprodukuojamumo epochoje" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E8%A3%BD%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E3%81%AE%E8%8A%B8%E8%A1%93" title="複製技術時代の芸術 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="複製技術時代の芸術" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Obra_de_Arte_na_Era_de_Sua_Reprodutibilidade_T%C3%A9cnica" title="A Obra de Arte na Era de Sua Reprodutibilidade Técnica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="A Obra de Arte na Era de Sua Reprodutibilidade Técnica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%83_%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Произведение искусства в эпоху его технической воспроизводимости – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Произведение искусства в эпоху его технической воспроизводимости" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0%E8%A4%87%E8%A3%BD%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93%E4%BD%9C%E5%93%81" title="機械複製時代的藝術作品 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="機械複製時代的藝術作品" 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1935 essay by Walter Benjamin</div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg/250px-Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg/375px-Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg/500px-Walter_Benjamin_vers_1928.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>In "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935), Walter Benjamin addresses the artistic and cultural, social, economic, and political functions of art in a capitalist society.</figcaption></figure><p>"<b>The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</b>" (1935), by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a>, is an essay of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural criticism">cultural criticism</a> which proposes and explains that mechanical reproduction devalues the <i>aura</i> (uniqueness) of a <a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">work of art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that in the age of mechanical reproduction and the absence of traditional and ritualistic value, the production of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> would be inherently based upon the <a href="/wiki/Praxis_(process)" title="Praxis (process)">praxis</a> of politics. Written during the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_r%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi régime">Nazi régime</a> (1933–1945) in Germany, in the essay Benjamin presents a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">theory of art</a> that is "useful for the formulation of revolutionary demands in the politics of art" in a society of <a href="/wiki/Mass_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass culture">mass culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subject and themes of Benjamin's essay: the <i>aura</i> of a work of art; the <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_in_art" title="Authenticity in art">artistic authenticity</a> of the artefact; the <a href="/wiki/Authority_(textual_criticism)" title="Authority (textual criticism)">cultural authority</a> of the work of art; and the <a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">aestheticization of politics</a> for the production of art, became resources for research in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architectural_theory" title="Architectural theory">architectural theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Media_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Media influence">media theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original essay, "The Work of Art in the Age of its Technological Reproducibility", was published in three editions: (i) the German edition, "<span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit</span></span>", in 1935; (ii) the French edition, "<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">L'œuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproduction mécanisée</span></span>", in 1936; and (iii) the German revised edition in 1939, from which derive the contemporary English translations of the essay titled "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Benjamin presents the thematic bases for a theory of art by quoting the essay "The Conquest of Ubiquity" (1928), by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Paul Valéry</a>, to establish how works of art created and developed in past eras are different from contemporary works of art; that the understanding and treatment of art and of artistic technique must progressively develop in order to understand a work of art in the context of the modern time.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Our fine arts were developed, their types and uses were established, in times very different from the present, by men whose power of action upon things was insignificant in comparison with ours. But the amazing growth of our techniques, the adaptability and precision they have attained, the ideas and habits they are creating, make it a certainty that profound changes are impending in the ancient craft of <a href="/wiki/Objet_d%27art" title="Objet d'art">the Beautiful</a>. In all the arts there is a physical component which can no longer be considered or treated as it used to be, which cannot remain unaffected by our modern knowledge and power. For the last twenty years neither matter nor space nor time has been what it was from time immemorial. We must expect great innovations to transform the entire technique of the arts, thereby affecting artistic invention itself and perhaps even bringing about an amazing change in our very notion of art.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artistic_production">Artistic production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Artistic production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the preface to the essay, Benjamin presents <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> analyses of the organisation of a <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> society and of the place of <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a> in a capitalist society, both in the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a>; and explains the socio-economic conditions of society to extrapolate future developments of capitalism that will result in the <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">economic exploitation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>, and so will produce the socio-economic conditions that would <a href="/wiki/Abolish_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolish capitalism">abolish capitalism</a>. By reviewing the historical and technological developments of the mechanical means for reproducing a work of art, Benjamin establishes that artistic reproduction is not a modern human activity, such as the industrial arts of the <a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">foundry</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">stamp mill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> (12th–9th c. BC), and the modern arts of <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut relief-printing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etching" title="Etching">etching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, which are industrial techniques of <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> that permit greater accuracy in the mechanical reproduction of a work of art than would an artist manually reproducing an artefact created by a master artist.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authenticity">Authenticity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Authenticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>aura</i> of a work of art derives from <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a> (uniqueness) and locale (physical and cultural); Benjamin explains that "even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: Its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be" located. That the "sphere of [artistic] <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_in_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Authenticity in Art">authenticity</a> is outside the technical [sphere]" of mechanised reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-benart_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benart-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in being unique, the original work of art is an <i>objet d'art</i> independent of the mechanically accurate reproduction; yet, by changing the cultural context of where the artwork is located, the existence of the mechanical copy (an art-product) diminishes the aesthetic value of the original work of art. In that way, the <i>aura</i> – the unique <a href="/wiki/Authority_(textual_criticism)" title="Authority (textual criticism)">aesthetic authority</a> of a work of art – is absent from the mechanically produced copy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Value:_cult_and_exhibition">Value: cult and exhibition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Value: cult and exhibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regarding the social functions of an <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">artefact</a>, Benjamin said that "Works of art are received and valued on different planes. Two polar types stand out; with one, the accent is on the <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cult</a> value; with the other, on the exhibition value of the work. Artistic production begins with ceremonial objects destined to serve in a cult. One may assume that what mattered was their existence, not their being on view."<sup id="cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cult value of <a href="/wiki/Religious_art" title="Religious art">religious art</a> is in the fact that "certain statues of gods are accessible only to the priest in the <i><a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a></i>; certain <a href="/wiki/Madonna_(art)" title="Madonna (art)">madonnas</a> remain covered nearly all year round; certain sculptures on medieval cathedrals are invisible to the spectator on ground level."<sup id="cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, the diminished cult value of a religious artefact (an <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> no longer venerated) increases the exhibition value of the artefact as art created for the spectators' appreciation, because "it is easier to exhibit a portrait bust, that can be sent here and there [to museums], than to exhibit the statue of a divinity that has its fixed place in the interior of a temple."<sup id="cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mechanical reproduction of a work of art voids its cult value, because removal from a fixed, private space (a temple) and placement in a mobile, public space (a museum) allows exhibiting the work of art to many spectators.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further explaining the transition from cult value to exhibition value, Benjamin said that in "the photographic image, exhibition value, for the first time, shows its superiority to cult value."<sup id="cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In emphasising exhibition value, "the work of art becomes a creation with entirely new functions," which "later may be recognized as incidental" to the original purpose for which the artist created the <i>objet d'art</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a medium of artistic production, the <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">cinema</a> (moving pictures) does not create cult value for the motion picture, itself, because "the audience's identification with the actor is really an <a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">identification with the camera</a>. Consequently, the audience takes the position of the camera; [the audience's] approach is that of testing. This is not the approach to which cult values may be exposed." Therefore, "the film makes the cult value recede into the background, not only by putting the public in the position of the critic, but also by the fact that, at the movies, this [critical] position requires no attention."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_as_politics">Art as politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Art as politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></div> <p>The social value of a work of art changes as a society change their value systems; thus the changes in artistic styles and in the <a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">cultural tastes</a> of the public follow "the manner in which human sense-perception is organized [and] the [artistic] medium in which it is accomplished [are] determined not only by Nature, but by historical circumstances, as well."<sup id="cite_ref-benart_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benart-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the negative effects (social, economic, cultural) of mass-produced art-products upon the <i>aura</i> of the original work of art, Benjamin said that "the uniqueness of a work of art is inseparable from its being embedded in the fabric of tradition", which separates the original work of art from the reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-benart_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benart-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Benjamin noted that the <a href="/wiki/Ritualization" title="Ritualization">ritualization</a> of the mechanical reproduction of art also emancipated "the work of art from its parasitical dependence on ritual",<sup id="cite_ref-benart_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benart-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thereby increasing the social value of exhibiting works of art; a social and cultural practice that has progressed from the private sphere of life (the owner's enjoyment of the aesthetics of the artefacts, usually high art) to the public sphere of life, wherein the public enjoy the same aesthetics in a gallery displaying works of art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late-twentieth-century television program <i><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></i> (1972), <a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">John Berger</a> proceeded from and developed the themes of Benjamin's essay to explain the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">representations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">racial caste</a> inherent to the politics and production of art. That in transforming a work of art into a <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a>, the modern means of artistic production and of artistic reproduction have destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a>, cultural, and political <a href="/wiki/Authority_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Authority (sociology)">authority</a> of art: "For the first time ever, images of art have become ephemeral, ubiquitous, insubstantial, available, valueless, free," because they are commercial products that lack the <i>aura</i> of authenticity of the original <i><a href="/wiki/Objet_d%27art" title="Objet d'art">objet d'art</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A paralipomena of Benjamin's "Work of Art..." called a "A Short History of Photography", read together with the main-essay, provide a theoretical basis for <a href="/wiki/Susan_Sontag" title="Susan Sontag">Susan Sontag's</a> well-known monograph, <i><a href="/wiki/On_Photography" title="On Photography">On Photography</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ideas initially presented in this article also inform <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan's</a> famous slogan or conception that "<a href="/wiki/The_medium_is_the_message" title="The medium is the message">the medium is the message</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake#Criticism" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott, Brian. <i>Benjamin for Architects</i> (2011) Routledge, London, p. 0000</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scannell, Paddy. (2003) "Benjamin Contextualized: On 'The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction'" in <i><a href="//archive.org/details/canonictextsinme0000unse_w2x2" class="extiw" title="iarchive:canonictextsinme0000unse w2x2">Canonic Texts in Media Research: Are There Any? Should There Be? How About These?</a></i>, Katz <i>et al.</i> (Eds.) Polity Press, Cambridge. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745629346" title="Special:BookSources/9780745629346">9780745629346</a>. pp. 74–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott, Brian. <i>Benjamin for Architects</i>, Routledge, London, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://noppa.aalto.fi/noppa/kurssi/a-60.3320/materiaali/A-60_3320_walter_benjamin_lecture.pdf"><i>Notes on Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction"</i>, a commentary by Gareth Griffiths, Aalto University, 2011.</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Valéry, La Conquête de l'ubiquité (1928)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin, Walter. "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935) p. 01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-benart-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-benart_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-benart_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-benart_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-benart_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Benjamin1968" class="citation book cs1">Walter Benjamin (1968). Hannah Arendt (ed.). <i>"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," </i>Illuminations<i><span></span></i>. London: Fontana. pp. 214–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781407085500" title="Special:BookSources/9781407085500"><bdi>9781407085500</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction%2C%22+Illuminations&rft.place=London&rft.pages=214-18&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=9781407085500&rft.au=Walter+Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Hansen" title="Miriam Hansen">Hansen, Miriam Bratu</a> (2008). "Benjamin's Aura," <i>Critical Inquiry</i> No. 34 (Winter 2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin,_Walter_1935_p._4_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin, Walter. "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935) p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.samizdatonline.ro/cult-vs-exhibition/">"Cult vs. Exhibition, Section II"</a>. <i>Samizdat Online</i>. 2016-07-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Samizdat+Online&rft.atitle=Cult+vs.+Exhibition%2C+Section+II&rft.date=2016-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.samizdatonline.ro%2Fcult-vs-exhibition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin, Walter. "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction" (1935) p. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berger, John. <i>Ways of Seeing</i>. Penguin Books, London, 1972, pp. 32–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin, Walter. "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"A Short History of Photography"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>One-Way Street & Other Writings</i>. Verso.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22A+Short+History+of+Photography%22&rft.btitle=One-Way+Street+%26+Other+Writings&rft.pub=Verso&rft.aulast=Benjamin&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSontag1977" class="citation book cs1">Sontag, Susan (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/onphotography00sont"><i>On photography</i></a>. Internet Archive. New York : Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+photography&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Sontag&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonphotography00sont&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSontagBenjamin" class="citation book cs1">Sontag, Susan; Benjamin, Walter. "Introduction (by Susan Sontag)". <i>One Way St. & Other Writings</i>. Verso.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+%28by+Susan+Sontag%29&rft.btitle=One+Way+St.+%26+Other+Writings&rft.pub=Verso&rft.aulast=Sontag&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSontag" class="citation book cs1">Sontag, Susan. "Walter Benjamin". <i>Under the Sign of Saturn</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Walter+Benjamin&rft.btitle=Under+the+Sign+of+Saturn&rft.aulast=Sontag&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2004" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, Catherine (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3661111">"New Media and Film History: Walter Benjamin and the Awakening of Cinema"</a>. <i>Cinema Journal</i>. <b>43</b> (3): 81–85. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-7101">0009-7101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cinema+Journal&rft.atitle=New+Media+and+Film+History%3A+Walter+Benjamin+and+the+Awakening+of+Cinema&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=81-85&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0009-7101&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3661111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Work+of+Art+in+the+Age+of+Mechanical+Reproduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin.htm">Complete text of the essay, translated</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marxists.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxists.org">Marxists.org</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/benjamin.pdf">Complete text of the essay, translated</a> (<a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220128111229/http://raumgegenzement.blogsport.de/2012/02/05/zeitschrift-fuer-sozialforschung-1932-1941/"><i>Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung</i> (1932-1941) - Download the original text in French, "L'œuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproduction méchanisée," in the <i>Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung</i> Jahrgang V, Félix Alcan, Paris, 1936, pp. 40–68 (23MB)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180730163618/https://www.arteclab.uni-bremen.de/~robben/KunstwerkBenjamin.pdf">Complete text in German</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.suhrkamp.de/special_studienbibliothek/leseproben/27001_Leseprobe.pdf">Partial text of the essay</a>, with commentary by Detlev Schöttker <span class="languageicon">(in German)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://disegno.unioneitalianadisegno.it/index.php/disegno/article/view/54">A comment to the essay on diségno</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 390 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 335 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 100)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 500)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1757)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1891)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li>"<a class="mw-selflink selflink">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1939)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1946)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1977)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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