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cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rail traffic in Soviet Union subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rail_traffic_in_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rail_freight_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rail_freight_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rail freight traffic in the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rail_freight_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rail_passenger_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rail_passenger_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Rail passenger traffic in the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rail_passenger_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Post-war development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Comparison to the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congestion_and_failure_to_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congestion_and_failure_to_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Congestion and failure to transport</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Congestion_and_failure_to_transport-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Congestion and failure to transport subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Congestion_and_failure_to_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Harm_to_the_Soviet_Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harm_to_the_Soviet_Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Harm to the Soviet Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harm_to_the_Soviet_Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Train_flow_basics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Train_flow_basics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Train flow basics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Train_flow_basics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ways_to_increase_capacity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ways_to_increase_capacity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Ways to increase capacity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ways_to_increase_capacity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increasing_freight_flow_by_increasing_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_freight_flow_by_increasing_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Increasing freight flow by increasing density</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_freight_flow_by_increasing_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railway_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Railway labour</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Railway_labour-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Railway labour subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Railway_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amenities_for_rail_workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amenities_for_rail_workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Amenities for rail workers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amenities_for_rail_workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uniforms_and_insignia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uniforms_and_insignia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Uniforms and insignia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uniforms_and_insignia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_People's_Commissariat_of_Transport,_1934–1943" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_People's_Commissariat_of_Transport,_1934–1943"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers under the People's Commissariat of Transport, 1934–1943</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_People's_Commissariat_of_Transport,_1934–1943-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_industrial_commissariats,_1936–1943" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_industrial_commissariats,_1936–1943"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers under the industrial commissariats, 1936–1943</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_industrial_commissariats,_1936–1943-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railway_rank_insignia_1943–1955" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_rank_insignia_1943–1955"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Railway rank insignia 1943–1955</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railway_rank_insignia_1943–1955-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1955–1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1955–1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.4</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1955–1963</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1955–1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1963–1973" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1963–1973"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.5</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1963–1973</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1963–1973-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1973–1979" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1973–1979"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.6</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1973–1979</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1973–1979-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1979–1985" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1979–1985"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.7</span> <span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1979–1985</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1979–1985-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commuter_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commuter_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Commuter services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commuter_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dieselization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dieselization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Dieselization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dieselization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Electrification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railway_colleges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_colleges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Railway colleges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railway_colleges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Soviet_rail_traffic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Soviet_rail_traffic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Post-Soviet rail traffic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Soviet_rail_traffic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railway_book_publication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_book_publication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Railway book publication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railway_book_publication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>In English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Russian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Russian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>In Russian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Russian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Overview of rail transport in the Soviet Union</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Russia" title="History of rail transport in Russia">History of rail transport in Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_(Railroad_Crane,_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_(Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction)).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg/220px-The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg/330px-The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg/440px-The_Soviet_Union_1968_CPA_3701_stamp_%28Railroad_Crane%2C_Ballast_Regulator_and_Train_%28Rail_transport_operations_and_Construction%29%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>Post stamp "Soviet rail roads", 1968</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was heavily dependent on <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">rail transport</a>, not least during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, but also for industrialization according to the <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">five-year plans</a>. </p><p>During the Soviet era, freight rail traffic increased 55 times (over that of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> just before <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>), passenger traffic increased by almost 10 times and the length of the rail network almost doubled in size in this time as well.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union had a railway network of 147,400 kilometres (91,600 mi) (excluding industrial railways), of which 53,900 kilometres (33,500 mi) were electrified.<sup id="cite_ref-cia_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG/220px-Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG/330px-Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG/440px-Russian_Class_U_locomotive_Number_U127.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2672" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Russian_locomotive_class_U" title="Russian locomotive class U">Russian locomotive class U</a> – U-127 <a href="/wiki/Lenin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin">Lenin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/4-6-0" title="4-6-0">4-6-0</a> oil burning <a href="/wiki/Compound_locomotive" title="Compound locomotive">compound locomotive</a>, currently preserved at <a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_the_Moscow_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="The Museum of the Moscow Railway">the Museum of the Moscow Railway</a> at <a href="/wiki/Paveletsky_Rail_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paveletsky Rail Terminal">Paveletsky Rail Terminal</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg/220px-Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg/330px-Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg/440px-Electric_locomotive_VL80T-831.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>VL80<sup>T</sup> Electric locomotive hauling freight train</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-war_industrialization_period,_1928–1942"><span id="Pre-war_industrialization_period.2C_1928.E2.80.931942"></span>Pre-war industrialization period, 1928–1942</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pre-war industrialization period, 1928–1942"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope,_1987_-_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg/220px-USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg/330px-USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg/440px-USSR_150-year_Annivesary_of_National_Railways_Envelope%2C_1987_-_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3674" data-file-height="2647" /></a><figcaption>A Soviet postage stamp celebrating the 150th anniversary of the first railways</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg/220px-1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg/330px-1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg/440px-1923_Bolshevik_propaganda_train.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>A propaganda train in 1923.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg/220px-%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg/330px-%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg/440px-%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%E2%84%96_971-7518_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Armoured wagon built during the 1930s.</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WORKERS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WORKERS.jpg/220px-WORKERS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WORKERS.jpg/330px-WORKERS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/WORKERS.jpg/440px-WORKERS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4224" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>A life size diorama of Soviet track workers repairing railway tracks at <a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_the_Moscow_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="The Museum of the Moscow Railway">the Museum of the Moscow Railway</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Commissariat" title="People's Commissariat">People's Commissariat</a> of Railways (NKPS) (after 1946 renamed the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Railways_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Railways (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Railways (МПС)</a>), the railway network expanded to a total length of 106,100 km by 1940 (vs. 81,000 km in 1917 which was exceeded in length only by the United States).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The volume of freight hauled (in tonne-km) increased over fourfold during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Railways and control of railways had been a major factor in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>'s eventual victory in the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A notable project of the late 1920s, which became one of the centrepieces of the <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">first five-year plan</a>, was the <a href="/wiki/Turkestan%E2%80%93Siberia_Railway" title="Turkestan–Siberia Railway">Turkestan–Siberia Railway</a>, linking <a href="/wiki/Western_Siberia" title="Western Siberia">Western Siberia</a> via Eastern <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic">Kazakhstan</a> with <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a>. </p><p>In the late 1920s, the young <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> embarked on a programme of rapid industrialization. In a 1931 speech, in which Stalin promoted intensive industrialization, he concluded that "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall be crushed."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But if industrialization generally was to be given first priority, the question arose as to what priority should be given to railway development specifically, keeping in mind that industrialization requires greatly increased rail transportation of goods, e.g. iron ore and coal for steel mills. An example of this was the "Ural-Kuznetsk metallurgical combine" (approved in 1928) where the source of coal was located over 2000 km from the source of iron ore.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only that, but the steel output had to be transported long distances to its final point of use. </p><p>A British railway historian<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claims that the Soviet objective was to limit investment in railway improvements so that railways could barely meet the new and heavy demands for increased transport placed on them by industrialization, thereby allowing more capital for such industrialization. While there were significant investments made in railways, they were not enough to avoid the failure at times to transport all the goods, especially in early 1931 and 1933. Some of the resulting supply-line crises resulted in production shut-downs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in other cases "crisis" was used to describe a situation where the stocks of inputs stored at a plant (such as iron ore at a steel mill) almost ran out due to the railway's failure to deliver on time; no substantial harm would be done to production output, but it would be a close call. </p><p>Near the start of first five-year plan of industrialization (1928) there were four main railway decision makers: the government, the party, <a href="/wiki/Gosplan" title="Gosplan">Gosplan</a> (the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">central planning</a> agency), and the railway ministry (known as NKPS).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the NKPS didn't seem to be able to cope with a situation, the party or government would intervene.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority agreed on increasing investments, but there was no clear consensus on how these investments were to be used. <a href="/wiki/Gosplan" title="Gosplan">Gosplan</a> advocated the <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(economics)" title="Rationalization (economics)">rationalization</a> of the railways, coupled with <a href="/wiki/Tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs">tariffs</a> based on actual cost, which would reduce traffic demand and provide funds for investment. In 1931, in a <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> (CC) <a href="/wiki/Resolution_(debate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resolution (debate)">resolution</a> proposed recapitalization<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (replacing all the ties, rails, and renewing the ballast by either cleaning or new ballast) to create some "super mainlines" which would be electrified. This resolution was never adequately carried out, and the actual electrification achieved was only about a tenth of that proposed. </p><p>The Central Committee sent <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Kaganovich" title="Lazar Kaganovich">Lazar Kaganovich</a> to solve the railway crisis in 1935. Kaganovich first prioritized <a href="/wiki/Traffic_bottleneck" title="Traffic bottleneck">bottleneck</a> areas over other less-traveled lines; his second priority was investing in heavy traffic lines, and thirdly, other lines (which were also burdened with increases traffic) were left to fend for themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another problem facing rail transport was the <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">massive industrialization</a> efforts pushed on by the authorities. This industrialization placed a heavy burden upon the railways, and <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> and Kaganovich even admitted this to the <a href="/wiki/18th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">18th party congress</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modal_shares_in_1940;_rail_dominates"><span id="Modal_shares_in_1940.3B_rail_dominates"></span>Modal shares in 1940; rail dominates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modal shares in 1940; rail dominates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the end of the pre-war period<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1940, railroads held an 85% share of freight transport (tonne-km) and a 92% share of intercity passenger transport (passenger-km). For non-rail transport it was: Freight (in tonne-km): river 7%, sea<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 5%, truck 2%, pipeline under 1%. For passengers: Bus 3.5%, river 3%, sea<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1%, air 0.2%. So rail was by far the dominant mode of transportation for both passengers and freight. In the United States in 1940, rail still dominated freight with a 61% share, but only had a 7.5% share of passenger travel, having lost most of this traffic to the automobile.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rail_traffic_in_Soviet_Union">Rail traffic in Soviet Union</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rail traffic in Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rail_freight_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union">Rail freight traffic in the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rail freight traffic in the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RailUSAvsUSSR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/RailUSAvsUSSR.svg/220px-RailUSAvsUSSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/RailUSAvsUSSR.svg/330px-RailUSAvsUSSR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/RailUSAvsUSSR.svg/440px-RailUSAvsUSSR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Railway freight volume in the 20th century: USA and USSR</figcaption></figure> <p>The graph compares the freight traffic (in tonne-km) of the USSR to the US.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The USSR rebuilt its rail system and industrialized with <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">five-year plans</a>. As a result, railway freight grew about 20 times from 20 to 400 billion tonne-km by 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But then disaster struck again, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began. In the first year or so of the war, traffic plummeted to about half its prewar value. But then the USSR started restoring and constructing railways during wartime so that by the end of the war about half of the lost traffic had been recovered. After the war was over it took a few more years to restore the railways and get back to the pre-war level of traffic. </p><p>Then the USSR embarked on a series of more five-year plans, and railway traffic rapidly increased. By 1954 their rail freight traffic (about 850 billion tonne-km) surpassed that of the United States and the USSR then hauled more rail freight than any other country in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Railway freight continued to rapidly increase in the USSR so that by 1960 the USSR was hauling about half of all railway freight in the world (in tonne-km)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they did this on a rail system consisting of 10% of the world's railway kilometrage.<sup id="cite_ref-Плакс,_p.5_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Плакс,_p.5-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The status of hauling half the world's railway freight continued for almost thirty years, but in 1988 railway freight traffic peaked at 3852 billion tonne-km (nearly 4 trillion). This rapid growth may seem impressive, but it was also in some senses a failure, since railway traffic at times did not grow fast enough to satisfy demand, partly due to congestion. </p><p>In 1991 the Soviet Union fell apart and its largest republic, the Russian Federation, which then hauled about 2/3 of the traffic of the former USSR, became an independent country.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> in 1989, shortly before the collapse of Soviet Union, the railway hauled nearly eight times as much tonne-km of freight by rail as they did by lorry.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991 a law was passed which declared that railways were the basic transport system of the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">highways</a> were more popular in the United States rather than railways, in contrast the Soviet Union had little or no highway system to speak of.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rail_passenger_traffic_in_the_Soviet_Union">Rail passenger traffic in the Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rail passenger traffic in the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg/220px-RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg/330px-RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg/440px-RailPassUSAvsUSSR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Railway passenger volume: USA and USSR</figcaption></figure> <p>This plot compares the volume of rail passenger transportation in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the United States (United States).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the Soviet Union was created in late 1922, the curve prior to this is the estimated volume of passenger transport in the "pre-Soviet territory" defined as being within the borders of the Soviet Union of the late 1930s (before the annexations per the secret protocol of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early years of the 20th century rail dominated passenger transport so the start of this graph implies that there was about twice as much passenger transport in the United States as in the pre-Soviet <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. But in the early 1920s in the <a href="/wiki/US" class="mw-redirect" title="US">US</a>, the automobile started to provide more passenger transportation than rail.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/US" class="mw-redirect" title="US">US</a>, auto's share rapidly increased so that by the early 1960s auto travel was over 100 times rail passenger travel.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus one may mentally multiply the US rail curve after the early 1960s by a factor of over 100 to get the total passenger-km in the US.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (April 2022)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> Although Soviet passenger travel by rail became several times that of the US, the total passenger travel in the US was many times larger than for the Soviet Union.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After about 1960, most of the USA rail travel shown in the USA-USSR graph is commuter train travel of (mostly) people going to and from work and not long-distance travel (<a href="/wiki/Amtrak" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While air travel in the USA overtook rail travel in the mid 1950s, in the Soviet Union of the late 1980s, rail volume was double that of air travel.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> hit both the USA and the USSR in 1941 with opposite results for rail passengers. In the US, gasoline rationing resulted in a surge of rail passengers with almost a third of passenger traffic going by rail.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact on the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> was just the opposite. The invasion of Germany deep into the USSR along with German bombing of railroads, took its toll and greatly reduced passenger rail travel. </p><p>It was planned in 1990 to increase the passenger-kilometers of travel to 465 billion by 1995 and to 500 billion by 2000, but it didn't happen since the USSR collapsed in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> the railway system played a vital role in the war effort transporting military personnel, equipment and freight to the front lines and often evacuating entire factories and towns from European Russia to the <a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural region</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. The loss of mining and industrial centers of the western Soviet Union necessitated speedy construction of new railways during the wartime. Particularly notable among them was the railway to the Arctic coal mines of <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta" title="Vorkuta">Vorkuta</a>, extended after the war to <a href="/wiki/Labytnangi" title="Labytnangi">Labytnangi</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ob_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ob River">Ob River</a>; construction work to extend it <a href="/wiki/Salekhard%E2%80%93Igarka_Railway" title="Salekhard–Igarka Railway">all the way to the Yenisey</a> continued into the 1950s, aborted with the death of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg/220px-Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg/330px-Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg/440px-Japanese_SL_D51-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Japanese <a href="/wiki/D51_steam_locomotive" class="mw-redirect" title="D51 steam locomotive">D51 steam locomotive</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk" title="Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk">Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk</a> Railway Station <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakhalin Island">Sakhalin Island</a>, Russia (2007)</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of Japan's loss in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the southern half of <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakhalin Island">Sakhalin Island</a> was annexed by <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1945. The <span class="nowrap">1,067 mm</span> (<span class="nowrap">3 ft 6 in</span>) railway network built by the Japanese during their forty years of control of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Sakhalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Sakhalin">southern Sakhalin</a> now became part of Soviet Railways as well (as a separate <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Railway" title="Sakhalin Railway">Sakhalin Railway</a>), the only <a href="/wiki/3_ft_6_in_gauge_railways" title="3 ft 6 in gauge railways"><span class="nowrap">3 ft 6 in</span></a> (<span class="nowrap">1,067 mm</span>) gauge rail system within USSR (or today's Russia). The original Japanese <a href="/wiki/JNR_Class_D51" title="JNR Class D51">D51 steam locomotives</a> were used by the Soviet Railways on <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin Island</a> until 1979, together with regauged ShA <a href="/wiki/USATC_S160_Class" title="USATC S160 Class">USATC S160 Class</a> locomotives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_development">Post-war development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Post-war development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/220px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/330px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg/440px-Transpolar_Railway_between_Salekhard_and_Nadym.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Remnants of the cancelled <a href="/wiki/Salekhard%E2%80%93Igarka_Railway" title="Salekhard–Igarka Railway">Salekhard–Igarka Railway</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the war the Soviet railway network was re-built and further expanded to more than 145,000 km of track by major additions such as <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Amur_Mainline" class="mw-redirect" title="Baikal Amur Mainline">Baikal Amur Mainline</a>. </p><p>Soviet rail transport eventually became, after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the most heavily used rail system in the world, surpassing all of its <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a> counterparts. However the rail network of the United States was a few times longer but had less traffic. </p><p>The Soviet railway system was growing in size, at a rate of 639 km a year from 1965 to 1980. This steady growth in rail transport can be explained by the country's need to extract its <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>, most of which were located close to, or in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. While some problems with the railways had been reported by the Soviet press, the Soviet Union could boast of controlling one of the most electrified railway systems at the time<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. During much of the country's later lifespan, trains usually carried <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Construction_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction material">construction material</a> (mostly stone, cement and sand) and <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a>. Oil and oil products were one of the key reasons for building railway infrastructure in Siberia in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The efficiency of the railways improved over time, and by the 1980s Soviet railways had become the most intensively used in the world. Most Soviet citizens did not own <a href="/wiki/Private_transport" title="Private transport">private transport</a>, and if they did, it was difficult to drive long distances due to the poor conditions of many roads. Another explanation has to do with Soviet policy, the first being the <a href="/wiki/Autarkic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autarkic">autarkic</a> model created by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s regime. Stalin's regime instead of building major new railway lines decided instead to conserve, and later expand, much of the existing railways left behind by the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as <a href="/wiki/Lev_Voronin" title="Lev Voronin">Lev Voronin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union</a>, noted in a speech to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a> in 1989 that the railway sector was the "main negative sector of the economy in 1989". As industrial output declined in the late-1980s so did the demand for transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_to_the_United_States">Comparison to the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Comparison to the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Rail transport in the Soviet Union">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22">"Rail transport in the Soviet Union"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Rail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The efficiency of the Soviet Railways improved over time and by the 1980s had many performance indicators superior to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Railway built in the USSR were <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">planned</a>, and in contrast to the US, only a single railway line would be constructed between major cities. This avoided the situation in the US where two (or sometimes more) railway companies would construct lines that more or less paralleled each other resulting in wasteful duplication of effort.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the rail lines in the USSR were inherited from the Russian Empire which had also avoided such duplication. </p><p>As a result of having a shorter rail system plus more freight traffic, the USSR had a freight traffic density (in ton-km per km of line) 6-7 times higher than the US.<sup id="cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Шаферин_pp.18-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the US, the mean daily freight car mileage was only 95 km. vs. 227 km. for the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Шаферин_pp.18-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For freight locomotives it was 360 km. vs. 425 km. The percent of freight car miles that ran empty was 41% for the US vs. 29% for the USSR. It was claimed that labor productivity rose 4.3 fold between 1955 and 1980, resulting in the USSR being roughly the same as the US (after taking into account that the USSR hauled a greater proportion of non-bulk commodities which were more labor-intensive to haul—more switching of cars, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Шаферин_pp.18-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet Union made the transition to automatic brakes and couplers (<a href="/wiki/SA3_coupler" title="SA3 coupler">model SA3</a>) long after the United States did and as a result their brakes and couplers<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were somewhat more advanced. Their (air) brakes could operate in a mode where it was possible to slowly reduce braking effort, while the US system required full release of the brakes (in the entire train) and reapplication of the brakes in order to reduce braking effort.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union developed advanced machinery for track maintenance and renewal such as a <a href="/wiki/Ballast_tamper#Continuous_Action_Tamping_Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballast tamper">Continuous Action Tamping Machine</a> which in 1977 could move at 3 km/h and also straighten the track and dress the <a href="/wiki/Track_ballast" title="Track ballast">ballast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was model ВПО-3000 (VPO-3000) and at that time no such machinery like this existed outside of the Soviet Union. It was claimed to be several times faster than non-Soviet tamping machinery of cyclical action. </p><p>However, the reliability of locomotives in the USSR was much worse than for the US.<sup id="cite_ref-zdt_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zdt-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their high traffic density often resulted in traffic congestion and delays, especially after an accident blocked the line.<sup id="cite_ref-zdt_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zdt-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Congestion_and_failure_to_transport">Congestion and failure to transport</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Congestion and failure to transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harm_to_the_Soviet_Economy">Harm to the Soviet Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Harm to the Soviet Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The railway system in the Soviet Union (mostly after the 1920s) was utilized several times more intensively than the railways of developed capitalist countries.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high traffic volumes per kilometer of line resulted in congestion problems that at times became so severe that goods available for transport could not be shipped and factories, etc. were forced to slow production. This happened in the 1930s<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and during the so-called <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_stagnation" class="mw-redirect" title="Brezhnev stagnation">Brezhnev stagnation</a> starting in the late 1970s and beyond. In 1989 the President of the Council of Ministers of the USSR stated<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that economists estimate that the failure of railways to provide adequate transportation, costs the Soviet economy 10-12 billion roubles per year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Train_flow_basics">Train flow basics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Train flow basics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The flow on a transportation route (in tons/hour, trains/day, etc.) is simply equal to the product of velocity and linear density (gross tons/meter or trains/km etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a railway line as a whole (in one direction), one would use the average linear density along the whole line, where most points on the line have no trains on them and thus have zero density there. One would also need to use the average velocity which turns out to be the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic_mean#in_physics" title="Harmonic mean">weighted harmonic mean</a> where the weights are the lengths of the various segments of the train run (with the speed approximately constant on each segment). Another way to find the average velocity is to simply find the <a href="/wiki/Weighted_arithmetic_mean" title="Weighted arithmetic mean">weighted arithmetic mean</a> where the weights in this case are the times on each segment. For a segment of a train run where the speed is very slow, the train thus spends a long time traversing this segment and thus the weight for this segment is quite high (since it is weighted by time). Thus even though the slow speed segments are only a small part of the trip, they may drastically reduce the average speed (and thus the flow). </p><p>So there are two basic ways to increase flow: 1. increase the speed 2. increase the density. One way to significantly increase speed on a high traffic line is to reduce the number of times a train must stop (or slow) to allow other trains to pass, especially on a single track line where opposing trains must go past each other. To increase density, one may increase train length, increase the linear load capacity of freight cars, and/or decrease the spacing between trains. </p><p>But the <a href="/wiki/Automatic_block_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic block signalling">Automatic block signalling</a> system tends to maintain a minimum distance between trains (moving under the green signal aspect).<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trains may follow each other more closely if they move into the amber (or yellow) signal aspect but then they must move at a slower speed. On single track lines between passing sidings, trains can't travel in opposite directions at the same time. If they tried to do this, they would collide head on with each other (if they were headed toward each other). This poses a further restriction in train spacing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ways_to_increase_capacity">Ways to increase capacity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ways to increase capacity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are various ways to permit rail freight flow capacity to increase, thus reducing congestion. But they are easier said than done. One is to increase the average density of freight on a rail line by increasing train weight/length. Another way is to decrease the distance (spacing) between successive trains. Still another way is to increase speed, including elimination of trains stopping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_freight_flow_by_increasing_density">Increasing freight flow by increasing density</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Increasing freight flow by increasing density"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One expedient is to reduce the spacing between 2 or 3 trains to zero by running "connected" trains.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One simply couples two or more trains together without connecting the braking systems of the 2 trains. The locomotive crews then coordinate their handling of the train by radio possibly using a special device to synchronize braking.<sup id="cite_ref-Тихомирова_p._190_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Тихомирова_p._190-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If they don't coordinate properly, the combined train can derail due to high forces in the train. This method was used in the Soviet Union mostly as a temporary expedient<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(especially in cases where a length of track was temporarily closed for maintenance work). But on the <a href="/wiki/Bratsk" title="Bratsk">Bratsk</a> division of the <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Amur_Mainline" class="mw-redirect" title="Baikal Amur Mainline">BAM</a> railroad, it was used as a standard method of operation in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Тихомирова_p._190_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Тихомирова_p._190-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-1980s about 70% of the Soviet network was single track lines.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was proposed to select two large end stations on a single track line that have enough trackage to hold several trains. Then opposing trains accumulate at such stations and the trains that accumulated at one end station then proceed down the rail line closely spaced (a packet of trains) while traffic in the opposite opposing direction is spread out and yields (by pausing in the passing sidings) so that the packet of trains can travel non-stop over a significant distance. Later on, a non-stop packet can be formed in the other direction, etc. Using packets to increase capacity was common in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Railway_labour">Railway labour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Railway labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amenities_for_rail_workers">Amenities for rail workers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Amenities for rail workers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Especially in the 1970s, some railway depots/shops began to provide a much improved working environment and whole books were written on this subject,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes called "production <a href="/wiki/Esthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Esthetics">esthetics</a>" (производственная эстетика).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example was at the mechanised track maintenance station ПМС-121 (PMS-121) (in 2013 ЦМПР) near <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. For the workers they installed showers, a shoe repair shop, a barber shop, a laundry, a small shop, a social club with a capacity for 200 people, a lounge, and an art studio.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the track assembly plant (they prefabricated lengths of track, with rails attached to sleepers/ties) they installed facilities for heating (and eating) food, a reading room and a billiard room. They also provided improved amenities when workers traveled to work on remote sections of track and lived in sleeping cars. As a result of the improved amenities, it is claimed that employee turnover was reduced from 63% (per year) to 11%. </p><p>Production esthetics included planting of greenery,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> providing proper lighting and pleasant colours,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> background music and sports areas.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uniforms_and_insignia">Uniforms and insignia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uniforms and insignia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Uniforms with grade insignia were introduced for rail workers during the period 1932–1934.<sup id="cite_ref-Mundir_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mundir-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personal ranks were introduced in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personal ranks were abolished in 1954. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_People's_Commissariat_of_Transport,_1934–1943"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_People.27s_Commissariat_of_Transport.2C_1934.E2.80.931943"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers under the People's Commissariat of Transport, 1934–1943</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers under the People's Commissariat of Transport, 1934–1943"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on collar patches. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th>Employment Categories </th> <th colspan="4">Higher Leadership Category </th> <th colspan="4">Senior Leadership Category (middle category) </th> <th colspan="4">Junior Leadership Category </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Employment Category </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><i>Collar Patches</i> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1934"><img alt="знаки мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1934"><img alt="знак мпс 1934" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png/40px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png/80px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811934%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Grade</i> </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>2 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>Ordinary worker </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Source:</small><sup id="cite_ref-Mundir_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mundir-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_industrial_commissariats,_1936–1943"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_under_the_industrial_commissariats.2C_1936.E2.80.931943"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers under the industrial commissariats, 1936–1943</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers under the industrial commissariats, 1936–1943"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. </p> <table border="1px solid #8888aa" style="width:100%; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:10"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="4">Higher Leadership Category </th> <th colspan="4">Senior Leadership Category (middle category) </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><i>Grade</i> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />12 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />11 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />10 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />9 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />8 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />7 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />6 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Forma_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forma-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table border="1px solid #8888aa" style="width:100%; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:10"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="4">Junior Leadership Category </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Employment Category </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><i>Grade</i> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />4 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />3 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />2 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />1 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак промышленных ж\д"><img alt="знак промышленных ж\д" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png/90px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png/135px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png/180px-%D0%9F%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%810.png 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="336" /></a></span><br />Ordinary Worker </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Forma_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forma-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railway_rank_insignia_1943–1955"><span id="Railway_rank_insignia_1943.E2.80.931955"></span>Railway rank insignia 1943–1955</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Railway rank insignia 1943–1955"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on shoulder straps. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="1">Director General of Railways </th> <th colspan="1">Deputy Director General of Railways 1st Class </th> <th colspan="1">Deputy Director General of Railways 2nd Class </th> <th colspan="1">Director General 1st Class </th> <th colspan="1">Director General 2nd Class </th> <th colspan="1">Director General 3rd Class </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Ucoz_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ucoz-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="141" data-file-height="375" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="141" data-file-height="375" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погон мпс 1943"><img alt="погон мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png" decoding="async" width="62" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png/93px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png/124px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%8140.png 2x" data-file-width="189" data-file-height="498" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="62" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png/93px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png/124px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="498" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="62" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png/93px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png/124px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="498" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="62" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png/93px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png/124px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="190" data-file-height="498" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="1">Colonel-Director </th> <th colspan="1">Lieutenant Colonel-Director </th> <th colspan="1">Major-Engineer </th> <th colspan="1">Captain-Engineer </th> <th colspan="1">Lieutenant-Engineer </th> <th colspan="1">Lieutenant-Technician </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Ucoz_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ucoz-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="378" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="1">Technician 1st Class </th> <th colspan="1">Technician 2nd Class </th> <th colspan="1">Technician 3rd Class </th> <th colspan="1">Senior Foreman </th> <th colspan="1">Foreman </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Worker </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Ucoz_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ucoz-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB4.png 2x" data-file-width="173" data-file-height="449" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB3.png 2x" data-file-width="144" data-file-height="366" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB2.png 2x" data-file-width="136" data-file-height="366" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB1.png 2x" data-file-width="169" data-file-height="448" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB0.png 2x" data-file-width="179" data-file-height="451" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png" class="mw-file-description" title="погоны мпс 1943"><img alt="погоны мпс 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8145%D0%BC%D0%BB.png 2x" data-file-width="179" data-file-height="451" /></a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1955–1963"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1955.E2.80.931963"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1955–1963</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers 1955–1963"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on collar patches. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="3">Railway Ministry </th> <th colspan="3">Higher Leadership </th> <th colspan="3">Senior Leadership </th> <th colspan="3">Middle Leadership </th> <th colspan="2">Junior Leadership </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Workers </th> <th colspan="3">Locomotive Engineers </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="564" /></a></span> A </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="564" /></a></span> B </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="564" /></a></span> C </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8130.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8120.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%B2%D1%8110.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="152" data-file-height="576" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="615" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%803.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> 1 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%802.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> 2 </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1954"><img alt="знак мпс 1954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png/31px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png/47px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png/62px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811954%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%801.png 2x" data-file-width="161" data-file-height="608" /></a></span> 3 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><small>A = Minister of Railways; B = First Deputy Minister of Railways, C = Deputy Minister of Railways; 1 = Locomotive Engineer First Class; 2 = Locomotive Engineer Second Class; 3 = Locomotive Engineer Third Class.</small> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1963–1973"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1963.E2.80.931973"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1963–1973</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers 1963–1973"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th colspan="2">Railway Ministry </th> <th colspan="4">Higher Leadership </th> <th colspan="4">Senior Leadership </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%81%D1%80.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Railway Minister</small> </td> <td><small>First Deputy Minister</small> </td> <td><small>Deputy Minister</small> </td> <td><small>Head of Principal Administration</small> </td> <td><small>Chief Engineer</small> </td> <td><small>Principal Controller</small> </td> <td><small>Head of Department</small> </td> <td><small>Senior Controller</small> </td> <td><small>Station Master of out-of-class station</small> </td> <td><small>Station Master of 1st class station</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Encycl1963_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encycl1963-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th colspan="4">Middle Leadership </th> <th colspan="4">Junior Leadership </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Workers </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знаки мпс 1963"><img alt="знаки мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119630%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1963"><img alt="знак мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8140.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1963"><img alt="знак мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8130.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1963"><img alt="знак мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8120.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1963"><img alt="знак мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8110.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1963"><img alt="знак мпс 1963" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811963%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8100.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Station Master of 2nd class station</small> </td> <td><small>Station Master of 3rd class station</small> </td> <td><small>Station Master of 4th class station</small> </td> <td><small>Station Master of 5th class station</small> </td> <td><small>Locomotive Engineer 3rd/4th Class</small> </td> <td><small>Motorcar Driver</small> </td> <td><small>Assistant Locomotive Engineer</small> </td> <td><small>Senior Worker</small> </td> <td><small>Worker</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-Encycl1963_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encycl1963-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1973–1979"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1973.E2.80.931979"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1973–1979</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers 1973–1979"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="4">Higher Leadership </th> <th colspan="4">Senior Leadership </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1973"><img alt="знак мпс 1973" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-форма1973_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-форма1973-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="4">Middle Leadership </th> <th colspan="3">Junior Leadership </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Workers </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811973%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="698" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс ссср 1979"><img alt="знак мпс ссср 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-форма1973_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-форма1973-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1979–1985"><span id="Grade_insignia_for_rail_workers_1979.E2.80.931985"></span>Grade insignia for rail workers 1979–1985</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Grade insignia for rail workers 1979–1985"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worn on the lower sleeves of the uniform coat. </p> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="3">Railway Ministry </th> <th colspan="4">Higher Leadership </th> <th colspan="4">Senior Leadership </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%B2%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D1%81%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D1%81%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-форма1979_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-форма1979-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="width:100%; border:1px solid #8888aa; background:#fff; padding:5px; font-size:100%; margin:0 12px 12px 0; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccc;"> <th> </th> <th colspan="4">Middle Leadership </th> <th colspan="4">Junior Leadership </th> <th colspan="1">Ordinary Workers </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%814.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак различия мпс 1979"><img alt="знак различия мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%8119790%D0%BC%D1%811.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%813.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%815.png 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%812.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс ссср 1979"><img alt="знак мпс ссср 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%811-1979.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png" class="mw-file-description" title="знак мпс 1979"><img alt="знак мпс 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/60px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/90px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png/120px-%D0%9C%D0%BF%D1%811979%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%810-1979.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="702" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-форма1979_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-форма1979-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commuter_services">Commuter services</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Commuter services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg/220px-Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg/330px-Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg/440px-Slavyansky_bul%27var_-_MosMetro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Metro" title="Moscow Metro">Moscow Metro</a> is the second busiest rapid transit system in the world.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">rapid transit</a> system was seen as the cheapest way of <a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">urban transport</a>, and eventually another point acquired greater significance; the authorities could allocate their resources from the <a href="/wiki/Automobile_industry_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile industry in the Soviet Union">automobile industry</a> to the rapid transit sector and save a substantial volume of the country's <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol">petrol</a>. Because metros were cheaper to operate and less energy consuming, the Soviet authorities managed to construct 20 rapid transits nationwide,<sup id="cite_ref-twocerofive_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twocerofive-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a further nine in construction when the Soviet Union collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twenty other stations were under construction in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country's rapid transit system was the most intensively used in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-twocerofive_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twocerofive-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dieselization">Dieselization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Dieselization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was a pioneer in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Diesel_locomotive" title="Diesel locomotive">diesel locomotive</a> to replace the <a href="/wiki/Steam_locomotive" title="Steam locomotive">steam locomotive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dieselization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dieselization">dieselization</a>) on non-electrified lines. But the USSR failed to make steady progress and while they led the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> at first, they soon fell behind and their last steam locomotives were retired about 15 years later than for the US. The first mainline diesel locomotive in the world began running in 1924 in the USSR<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it had an excessive number of breakdowns so other designs of diesel locomotives were developed and used in desert regions where water for steam locomotives was scarce. Then in 1937 the small scale production (only several units per year) of diesel locomotives (for desert use) came to a halt<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by order of Kaganovich, the head of the national railway committee (NKPS)<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a leading figure in the <a href="/wiki/Communist_party" title="Communist party">Communist party</a>. </p><p>In the late 1930s, interest in diesels was rekindled by reports from the US that production of diesel locomotives was overtaking production of steam locomotives. The USSR was able to order 100 of them from the United States via <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">lend lease</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Half of them were <a href="/wiki/ALCO" class="mw-redirect" title="ALCO">ALCOs</a> and the other half <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_Locomotive_Works" title="Baldwin Locomotive Works">Baldwins</a>. All were 1000 <a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">hp</a> which in the US were primarily used for <a href="/wiki/Shunting_(rail)" title="Shunting (rail)">switching</a> and for short trains but were suitable for mainline operation in the Soviet Union. But they didn't begin arriving in the USSR until the start of 1945 when the war was almost over. </p><p>After the end of the war, the production of <a href="/wiki/Diesel_locomotives" class="mw-redirect" title="Diesel locomotives">diesel locomotives</a>, which had been curtailed in 1937, was resumed<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the first locomotives appearing in 1947. The US-made <a href="/wiki/ALCO" class="mw-redirect" title="ALCO">ALCO</a> was superior to the pre-war Soviet design so it was used as a prototype for a new TEx (x=1,2,3,5) series of Soviet locomotives. The dimensions were converted to metric and sometimes modified, the Soviet system of air brakes were used, and the engine speeds at certain controller positions were changed. The TE2 had double the power of the TE1 and was produced until in 1955 it was superseded by the TE3. The TE5 was just a variation of the TE1 and of minor significance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrification">Electrification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Electrification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG/220px-Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG/330px-Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG/440px-Skorostnoj_e%27lektropoezd_E%27R_200.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2704" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Soviet <a href="/wiki/ER-200" class="mw-redirect" title="ER-200">ER-200</a> train-set.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Railway_electrification_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway electrification in the Soviet Union">Railway electrification in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>While the former Soviet Union got a late (and slow) start with rail electrification in the 1930s it eventually became the world leader in electrification in terms of the volume of traffic under the wires. During the last 30 years of the Soviet Union, it hauled as much rail freight as all the other countries in the world combined and in the end, over 60% of this was by electric locomotives. Electrification was cost effective due to the very high density of traffic and was at times projected to yield at least a 10% return on investment (as compared to diesel traction). By 1990, the electrification was about half 3 kV DC and half 25 kV AC 50 Hz and 70% of rail passenger-km was by electric railways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Railway_colleges">Railway colleges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Railway colleges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Railway_colleges_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway colleges in the Soviet Union">Railway colleges in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>The Soviet Union had several railway colleges which trained engineers specializing in railway topics. Most of them still exist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Soviet_rail_traffic">Post-Soviet rail traffic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Post-Soviet rail traffic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: information about the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a> that are not Russia. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in Armenia">Rail transport in Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Azerbaijan" title="Rail transport in Azerbaijan">Rail transport in Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Belarus" title="Rail transport in Belarus">Rail transport in Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Estonia" title="Rail transport in Estonia">Rail transport in Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in Georgia (country)">Rail transport in Georgia (country)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in Kazakhstan">Rail transport in Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Kyrgyzstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in Kyrgyzstan">Rail transport in Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Latvia" title="Rail transport in Latvia">Rail transport in Latvia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Lithuania" title="Rail transport in Lithuania">Rail transport in Lithuania</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail transport in Moldova">Rail transport in Moldova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia" title="Rail transport in Russia">Rail transport in Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Tajikistan" title="Rail transport in Tajikistan">Rail transport in Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Turkmenistan" title="Rail transport in Turkmenistan">Rail transport in Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Ukraine" title="Rail transport in Ukraine">Rail transport in Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Uzbekistan" title="Rail transport in Uzbekistan">Rail transport in Uzbekistan</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991, railway traffic in Russia sharply declined<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and new major electrification projects were not undertaken except for the line to Murmansk which was completed in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work continued on completing the electrification of the Trans-Siberian Railway, but at a slower pace, finishing in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the percent of tonne-kilometers hauled today by electric trains has increased to about 85%.<sup id="cite_ref-freight-by-electric_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-freight-by-electric-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Railway_book_publication">Railway book publication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Railway book publication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> published a large number of books on railways. For just the last half of 1956, 148 titles were published. Some of these books were very short, perhaps only fifteen pages. But many were a few hundred pages long and some were written as textbooks for use in railway classes in <a href="/wiki/Railway_colleges_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway colleges in the Soviet Union">railway colleges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Russia" title="History of rail transport in Russia">History of rail transport in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Museum_of_the_Moscow_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="The Museum of the Moscow Railway">The Museum of the Moscow Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Railway_Museum" title="Russian Railway Museum">Russian Railway Museum</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_English">In English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: In English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Boublikoff, A.A. "A suggestion for railroad reform" in book: Buehler, E.C. (editor) "Government ownership of railroads", Annual debater's help book (vol. VI), New York, Noble and Noble, 1939; pp. 309–318. Original in journal "North American Review, vol. 237, pp. 346+. (Title is misleading. It's 90% about Russian/Soviet railways.)</li> <li>Hunter, Holland. <i>Soviet Transport Experience: Its Lessons For Other Countries</i>, Brookings Institution 1968.</li> <li>Omrani, Bijan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I7USQgAACAAJ&q=omrani+asia+overland"><i>Asia Overland: Tales of Travel on the Trans-Siberian and Silk Road</i></a> Odyssey Publications, 2010 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-217-811-1" title="Special:BookSources/962-217-811-1">962-217-811-1</a></li> <li>"Railroad Facts" (Yearbook) Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC (annual).</li> <li>"Transportation in America", Statistical Analysis of Transportation in the United States (18th edition), with historical compendium 1939–1999, by Rosalyn A. Wilson, pub. by Eno Transportation Foundation Inc., Washington, DC, 2001. See table: Domestic Intercity Ton-Miles by Mode, pp. 12–13.</li> <li>UN (United Nations) Statistical Yearbook. The earlier editions were designated by date (such as 1985/86) but later editions use the edition number (such as 51st). After 1985/86 the "World railway traffic" table was dropped. After the 51st ? edition, the long table: "Railways: traffic" was dropped resulting in no more UN railway statistics.</li> <li>Urba CE, "The railroad situation : a perspective on the present, past and future of the U.S. railroad industry". Washington : Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Policy and Program Development Govt. Print. Off., 1978.</li> <li>VanWinke, Jenette and Zycher, Benjamin; "Future Soviet Investment in Transportation, Energy, and Environmental Protection" A Rand Note. The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120523194529/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA255907">Rand Soviet Transport</a></li> <li>Ward, Christopher J., <i>Brezhnev's Folly: The Building of BAM and Late Soviet Socialism</i>, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009.</li> <li>Westwood J.N., 2002 <i>Soviet Railways to Russian Railways</i> Palgrave Macmillan.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestwood1994" class="citation book cs1">Westwood, J. N. (1994). "Chapter 8: Transport". In Davies, R.W.; Harrison, Mark; Wheatcrofttitle, S. G. (eds.). <i>The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945</i>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">158–</span>181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45770-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45770-5"><bdi>978-0-521-45770-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Transport&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Transformation+of+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1913%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E158-%3C%2Fspan%3E181&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45770-5&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Russian">In Russian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: In Russian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Аксененко,Н.Е., Бернгард, Ф.К., Богданов, Г.И "История железнодорожного транспорта России и Советского Союза, Т.2 : 1917–1945 гг" (History of railway transport in Russia and the Soviet Union, vol.2, 1917–1945) St. Petersburg, ПГУПС (a railway university) 1994–1997. - <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-85952-005-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-85952-005-0">5-85952-005-0</a> (The same ISBN is also used for vol.1: 1836–1917) 415 pp.</li> <li>Громов, Н.Н.; Панченко, Т.А.; Чудновский, А.Д.; "Еденая транспорттная система (Unified Transportation System), Москва, Транспорт, 1987 (textbook).</li> <li>Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тенловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980.</li> <li>Ж/Д Транс.=Железнодорожный транцорт (Zheleznodorozhnyi transport =Railway transportation) (a magazine)</li> <li>Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook).</li> <li>Иноземцев В.Г., Казаринов Б.М., Ясенцев В.Ф. "Автоматические тормоза" (Automatic Brakes) Москва, Транспорт, 1981 (textbook).</li> <li>Кузьмич В.Д., Левин Б.А, Фадеев Г.М.(editors) "История железнодорожного транспорта Советского Союза, Т.3 : 1945–1991 гг" (History of railway transport in the Soviet Union, vol.3, 1945–1991) ; Г. М. Афонина et al. - Moscow: Академкнига/ Moscow, 2004. - 631 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-94628%2B110-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-94628+110-0">5-94628 110-0</a></li> <li>Лехно,И.Б. (ed.) "Путевое хозяйство" (Railway track maintenance), Moscow Транспорт 1981 (textbook)</li> <li>Макарочкин А.М., Дьяков Ю.В. "Использование и развитие пропускной способности железчух дорог" (Utilizing and development of traffic capacity of railway) Moskva, Транспорт 1981.</li> <li>"Народное хозяйство СССР, в 19?? г. (Статистический ежегодник)" (Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR = National economy of the USSR)(a statistical yearbook). Москва (Moscow) "Финансы и Статистика" (Finance and statistics) section: Транспорт и связь" (Transport and communications). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://istmat.info/node/21341">online</a></li> <li>Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В.Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва, Транспорт, 1993.</li> <li>Постановление Совмина СССР от 11 October 1990 N 1001: О Программе технического перевооружения и модернизации железных дорог СССР в 1991–2000 годах (Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of 11/10/1990 (#1001): Program of reequipping and modernization of USSR railroads in 1991–2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.bestpravo.ru/sssr/eh-zakony/g4p.htm">[2]</a>.</li> <li>Резер, С.М., "Взаимодействие транспортных систем" (Coordination of the transportation system), Москва, Наука, 1985 (textbook).</li> <li>Сергеева, В.И. ed. "Эстетика на железнодорожном транспорте" (Esthetics in railway transport) Moscow, Транспорт 1977.</li> <li>Тихомирова, И.Г. "Интенсификация использования подвижного состава и перевозочной мощности железных дорог" (Intense utilization of rolling stock and the transport capacity of railroads), Москва, Транспорт, 1977.</li> <li>"Транспорт и связь СССР (Статистический сборник)" (Transport and communications statistics). Москва: Финансы и статистика (Finance and statistics). Issued in 1957, 1972, 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://istmat.info/node/22083">online</a></li> <li>Фед=Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal government statistical service) "Транспорт в России" (Transportation in Russia) (annual) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/B09_55/Main.htm">Available online</a></li> <li>Филиппов, М.М. (editor), "Железные Дороги, Общий Курс" (Railways, Basic Course) Москва, Транспорт, 3rd ed. 1981 (textbook). (Exists 4th ed. 1991 with new editor: Уздин, М.М.)</li> <li>Шадур, Л.А. ed., Багоны: конструкция, теопия и расчёт (Railway cars: construction, theory and calculations), Москва, Транспорт, 1980 (textbook).</li> <li>Шафиркин, Б.И, "Единая Транспортная Система СССР и взаимодействие различных видов транспорта" (Unified transportation system of the USSR and intermodal coordination), Москва, Высшая школа, 1983 (textbook).</li> <li>Хомич, А.З., Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э "Экономия томлива и теплотехническая модернизачия темпловозов" (Fuel economy and thermodynamic modernization of the diesel locomotive) 1975. New edition title: "Томливая еффективость и вспмогательные режемы терловозных дизелей" (Fuel efficiency and non-nominal modes of operation of the diesel engine of locomotives) 1987. Publisher: Moscow, Транспорт.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Громов, p.170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cia-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cia_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html">"Soviet Union – Communications"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Soviet+Union+%E2%80%93+Communications&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb1991%2Fsoviet_union%2Fsoviet_union_communications.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Гормов pp. 15,17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Аксененко v.2, ch.30, table 30.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonsSmith2017" class="citation book cs1">Pons, Silvio; Smith, Stephen A., eds. (2017-09-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316137024/type/book"><i>The Cambridge History of Communism</i></a> (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316137024">10.1017/9781316137024</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-13702-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-13702-4"><bdi>978-1-316-13702-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Communism&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017-09-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316137024&rft.isbn=978-1-316-13702-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9781316137024%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. V. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, (Moscow, Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1953) pp. 454-458. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.shu.edu/russianhistory/index.php/Stalin_on_Rapid_Industrialization">Stalin on Rapid Industrialization: Speech to Industrial Managers, February 1931</a> From "Documents in Russian History" a website whose "about" page is currently blank.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, p.158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, pp. 165-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Аксененко, v.2, ch. 2.3 3rd para. Westwood 1994, p.159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, p. 159–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Лехно p.31+ explains the meanings of various names given to track work</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, p. 160–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Аксененко, v.2, ch. 30, table 30.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shipments between Soviet ports</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Travel between Soviet ports</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Transportation in America, pp. 12, 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data points in the graph come from many sources listed in the page<a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/RailUSAvsUSSR.svg" class="extiw" title="wikimedia:RailUSAvsUSSR.svg">Wikimedia: RailUSAvsUSSR.svg</a>. A single source book "International historical statistics" (various editions), vols. "The Americas" and "Europe" also has this data (see Ch. on "Transport" in each of the 2 vols.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See statistics references by Госкомстат <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UN 1958, pp. 297, 300</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UN 1985/86 Table: World Railway Traffic, p. 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Плакс,_p.5-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Плакс,_p.5_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Плакс, p.5 <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UN 37th p. 690; UN 43rd p .548; (both for 1998)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Филиппов 1991 p. 7 (table 1.1) <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Филиппов 1991 p. 4 <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/Transport/Highways/Total">"Countries Compared by Transport > Highways > Total. International Statistics at NationMaster.com"</a>. <i>www.nationmaster.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nationmaster.com&rft.atitle=Countries+Compared+by+Transport+%3E+Highways+%3E+Total.+International+Statistics+at+NationMaster.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationmaster.com%2Fcountry-info%2Fstats%2FTransport%2FHighways%2FTotal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Except for some Soviet data, plot data is from: Brian Mitchell, "International Historical Statistics" Vols. "The Americas", "Europe"; Palgrave Mecmillian, 2007. For the US: table F3 in "The Americas". For the USSR: also table F3 in "Europe" Table F3 is "Passenger traffic on railways". For the USSR 1914–1920 data on pass-km is not available. But such unknowns were estimated from data on the number of passengers carried, by multiplying such values by 135 km, the estimated average distance traveled per passenger. The 135 km estimate (for 1914–1920) was obtain using the average of the actual values for 1913 and 1921. Actually, values slightly different than 135 km were used for each year based on <a href="/wiki/Linear_interpolation" title="Linear interpolation">linear interpolation</a>. "Народная хозяйство СССР" gives USSR data for the war years (1941–1944) and it is also an alternative source to Mitchell (above) for other years</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The "pre-Soviet territory was at first just a large part of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> but then Germany invaded some of it during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, next there was the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> and the victorious reds created various <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union#Unification_of_republics" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Republics</a> which then merged to create the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Bus Facts. 1935. p.9: chart: "Passenger-miles in United States by Various Means of Transport" (1890–1935). The chart is by H. E. Hale & Co., consulting engineers, 32 Nassau St. Bus Facts was published by NAMBO = National Association of Motor Bus Operators. This chart is likely quite inaccurate for the automobile "curve" which is a series of straight line segments, one of which is several years long. The source for it is the "Automobile chamber of commerce" without stating any publication name, and no data is available re passenger-miles. The chart indicates that automobile pass-mi reached that of the "steam railroads" in about 1919. However there was also the interurban <a href="/wiki/Electric_railways" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric railways">electric railways</a> some of which are included in the "steam railwroad" statistics. which is inferred by comparing this data with the table "Intercity Travel in the United States 1929-1965" in Bus Facts, 1966 (34th. edition) p. 6 and comparing data for 1930. The sum of electric and steam pass-mi from the 1935 chart is significantly less than the figure for this sum reported in the 1966 table. It turns out that the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> classified some major "electric railroads" (such as the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Electric Railway">Pacific Electric Railway</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Long_Island_Railway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Long Island Railway (page does not exist)">Long Island Railway</a>) as "steam railroad" which explains the double counting in the 1935 chart. Thus in the 1935 chart one can't just add the electric and steam railroad curves to get total railway passenger-miles. Furthermore, the "electric railways" curve is missing prior to 1930. Thus the total passenger-miles by rail (both steam and electric) should be somewhat higher than shown in the 1935 chart. Also, the passenger miles of intercity travel should be somewhat lower than the curve for "private automobile". Thus the real curves (for rail and auto) will intersect in the early 1920s (beyond 1919), the date when intercity auto travel exceeded intercity rail travel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch7en/conc7en/passkmsus.html">[1]</a> for a plot of pass-mi by mode for 1960+ (but it's not restricted to intercity travel). See "Transportation in America" for intercity travel figures going back to 1939.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Transportation in America"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Транспорт и связь, 1990, p.63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Transportation in America</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Постановление ...</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson 1983, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallot,_JudithShaw,_Jenis_J.B.1983" class="citation book cs1">Pallot, Judith; Shaw, Jenis J.B. (1983). <i>Planning in the Soviet Union</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85664-571-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85664-571-0"><bdi>0-85664-571-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planning+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-85664-571-0&rft.au=Pallot%2C+Judith&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Jenis+J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman,_MichaelKontorovich,_Vladimir1998" class="citation book cs1">Ellman, Michael; Kontorovich, Vladimir (1998). <i>The Disintegration of the Soviet Economic System</i>. <a href="/wiki/M.E._Sharpe" class="mw-redirect" title="M.E. Sharpe">M.E. Sharpe</a>. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-0263-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-0263-6"><bdi>0-7656-0263-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Disintegration+of+the+Soviet+Economic+System&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7656-0263-6&rft.au=Ellman%2C+Michael&rft.au=Kontorovich%2C+Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Шаферин pp.17+: Сравнительные Данные о Развитии Транспорта СССР и США <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span>(Comparative Data about the Development of Transportation in the USSR and USA)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Шаферин pp.17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Шаферин_pp.18-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Шаферин_pp.18_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Шаферин pp.18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM636C" class="citation web cs1">M636C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.railpage.com.au/f-p564738.htm">"Advantages of SA3 coupler over American Jenney auto"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 20,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advantages+of+SA3+coupler+over+American+Jenney+auto&rft.au=M636C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.railpage.com.au%2Ff-p564738.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Иноземцев p.5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Лехно, Н.Б. "Путевое Хозяйство" (Track Laying and Maintenance), Moscow, Транспорт, 1981 p.165+, Sect. 5.8 "Подбивочные машины чепрерывного дествия" <a href="/wiki/Ballast_tamper#Continuous_Action_Tamping_Machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballast tamper">Continuous Action Tamping Machines</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zdt-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zdt_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-zdt_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Article in ЖТ <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span>(Didn't note which issue)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">VanWinkle pp. 3–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Макарочкин p.5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994, pp. 165, 167, 181</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Н.Н. Рыжков (N.N. Ryzhkov) Нужны взвишенные решиния (We need informed decisions), Ж/Д Транс. 4-1990, p.7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lost-contact.mit.edu/afs/eos.ncsu.edu/info/ce400_info/www2/flow1.htm">traffic flow (from MIT)</a> See equation (2) near the end of this article. While this article is for the flow of vehicles on a highway it could also apply to the flow of trains, etc. on a railroad.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Макарочкин p.60-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Макарочкин p.27+, Лехно p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Тихомирова_p._190-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Тихомирова_p._190_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Тихомирова_p._190_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Тихомирова p. 190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Тихомирова p. 187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Правдина, Елена Николаевна (Pravdina, Helen Nikolaevna) "Комплексное увеличение пропускной способности однопутной линии во взаимодействии с работой станций" (Coordinated increase of capacity of single track lines with interacting with the work of line stations) Thesis, Moskva 1984. See abstract</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева is one. Another book on this topic may be found on the Internet</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева pp. 3, 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева p.293, section "Опыт лучших коллективов" (Experience of the best collectives). This name implies that this is one of the best examples amenity provision and that this case is not typical</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева p.110+ "Озеленение территории и чехов" (Greening of the territory and the shops)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева p.6 and Ch.3 "Теопетические ин практические основы оптимального цветового оформления" (Theory and practical basis of optimal color schemes)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Сергеева p.117+ section "Зоны отдыха" (recreation zones)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mundir-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mundir_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mundir_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vedomstva-uniforma.ru/mundir10/nkps32/index.html">"Форменный костюм советских железнодорожников 1932–1934 годов." <i>Мундир No.1/2013 (10)</i>.</a> Retrieved 2017-08-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gossluzhba.narod.ru/ranks/ussr/">"Указом Президиума Верховного Совета СССР от 4 September 1943 г. "О введении персональных званий и новых знаков различия для личного состава железнодорожного транспорта" для личного состава Народного Комиссариата Путей Сообщения СССР вводились персональные звания." <i>ТАБЕЛЬ О РАНГАХ СССР.</i></a> Retrieved 2017-08-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forma-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forma_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forma_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vrn-6.ucoz.ru/index/forma_odezhdy_promyshlennogo_zh_d_transporta/0-77">"Форма одежды промышленного железнодорожного транспорта 1936–1943 годов." <i>Железнодорожная форма.</i></a> Retrieved 2017-08-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ucoz-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ucoz_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ucoz_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ucoz_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vrn-6.ucoz.ru/index/zheleznodorozhnaja_forma_rossii_obrazca_1943_goda/0-72"><i>Железнодорожная форма России образца 1943 года.</i></a> Retrieved 2017-08-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vedomstva-uniforma.ru/mundir7/mps55/index.html">"Форменный костюм и знаки различия железнодорожников 1955 года." <i>Мундир No.1/2012 (7)</i>.</a> Retrieved 2017-08-31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encycl1963-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encycl1963_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encycl1963_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uniforminsignia.org/?option=com_insigniasearch&Itemid=53&result=3474">"Ministry of Railways of USSR (MPS). Forearm Insignia 1963 – 1972." <i>International Encyclopedia of Uniform Insignia.</i></a> 2017-09-21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-форма1973-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-форма1973_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-форма1973_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vrn-6.ucoz.ru/index/zheleznodorozhnaja_forma_rossii_obrazca_1973_goda/0-83">"Железнодорожная форма России образца 1973 года." <i>Локомотивное депо Воронеж-Курский.</i></a> Retrieved 2017-10-25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-форма1979-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-форма1979_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-форма1979_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vrn-6.ucoz.ru/index/zheleznodorozhnaja_forma_rossii_obrazca_1979_goda/0-84">"Железнодорожная форма России образца 1979 года" <i>Локомотивное депо Воронеж-Курский.</i></a> Retrieved 2017-10-25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-twocerofive-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-twocerofive_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-twocerofive_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson 1983, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson 1983, p. 205–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson 1983, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Раков p.356 9.2 "Тепловоз сицтемы Я.М. Гаккеля" (Diesel locomotive system of Ya.M. Gakkel); Дпрбенский p.5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Раков p.371: 9.8 Тепловозы серии<sup>А</sup>+</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westwood 1994 p.159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Раков p.371 9.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Раков p.375 9.10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">UN 40th p. 514; UN 48th p. 527</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.karelia.ru/gov/News/2005/12/1223_04.html">Murmansk Electrification</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span>,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gov.karelia.ru/News/2004/11/1123_05.html">Electrification Completed</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://transsib.ru/cat-electric.htm">Transsib electrification</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-freight-by-electric-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-freight-by-electric_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/B09_55/IssWWW.exe/Stg/02-15.htm">"Перевозки грузов и грузооборот железнодорожного транспорта общего пользования"</a>. <i>www.gks.ru</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gks.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82+%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gks.ru%2Fbgd%2Fregl%2FB09_55%2FIssWWW.exe%2FStg%2F02-15.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the Soviet serial "Ежегодник книги СССР" (Yearbook of books published, USSR) published in Moscow by "Бсесоюзной книжной палаты = "National book publishers" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0201-6354">0201-6354</a>. For example, the yearbook for 1956 (vol. 2 for the 2nd half of 1956) shows books 20937-20789 for railway transport. The numbering starts with 1 in vol.1, 1956, and ends in vol.2 with 27738, the number of titles of books on all subjects published in the calendar year of 1956 in the [USSR].</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester1936" class="citation cs2">Winchester, Clarence, ed. (1936), "Russia and Siberia", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.railwaywondersoftheworld.com/russia-siberia.html"><i>Railway Wonders of the World</i></a>, pp. <span class="nowrap">1004–</span>1010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia+and+Siberia&rft.btitle=Railway+Wonders+of+the+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1004-%3C%2Fspan%3E1010&rft.date=1936&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.railwaywondersoftheworld.com%2Frussia-siberia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARail+transport+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Vehicle registration plates of the Soviet Union">Vehicle registration plates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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