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The term is sometimes confused with subsequent feminisms such as [[fourth-wave feminism]], [[postmodern feminism]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Feng |first=Yang |title=Studies On Contemporary Chinese Women Development |publisher=Renmin Press Beijing, People's Publishing House, PRC |year=2009 |isbn=978-605-86254-2-6}}</ref> and [[Cyberfeminism#Xenofeminism|xenofeminism]]. Research conducted at [[Kent State University]] in the 2000s narrowed postfeminism to four main claims: support for feminism declined; women began hating feminism and feminists; society had already attained social equality, thus making feminism outdated; and the label "feminist" has a negative stigma.<ref name=Hall></ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPp7dfrNTroC&q=rodriguez&pg=PP1|title=An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives|last1=Abbott|first1=Pamela|last2=Tyler|first2=Melissa|last3=Wallace|first3=Claire|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=9781134382453|pages=52}}</ref> ==History of the term== In 1919 a journal{{which|date=June 2022}} was launched in which "female literary radicals" stated {{" '}}we're interested in people now—not in men and women{{' "}}, that "moral, social, economic, and political standards 'should not have anything to do with sex{{' "}}, that it would "be 'pro-woman without being anti-man{{' "}}, and that "their stance [is called] 'post-feminist{{' "}}.<ref>[[Nancy F. Cott|Cott, Nancy F.]], ''The Grounding of Modern Feminism'' (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, [2d printing?] pbk 1987 ({{ISBN|0-300-04228-0}})) (cloth {{ISBN|0-300-03892-5}}), p. 282 (author prof. American studies & history, Yale Univ.) (book is largely on U.S. feminism in 1910s–1920s) (n. 23 (at end) omitted) (n. 23 (in full): "23. ''Judy'' 1:1 (Jun. 1919); 2:3 (1919), n.p., SL." ("SL" in small capitals & abbreviating "The Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Massachusetts", per ''id.'', p. 285 (Abbreviations Used in Notes (Libraries)))).</ref> One of the earliest modern uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation", published in ''[[New York Times Magazine]]''. This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists.<ref>Rosen, Ruth. The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America. New York: Viking, 2000, 275, 337.</ref> In the 1990s the term became popular in academia and the media and was used in both complimentary and dismissive ways.<ref name="jstor.org">{{Cite journal|jstor = 4149214|title = Feminism, Ethics, and History, or What is the "Post" in Postfeminism?|journal = Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature|volume = 21|issue = 1|pages = 29–44|last1 = Kavka|first1 = Misha|year = 2002|doi = 10.2307/4149214}}</ref> Since then there has been confusion surrounding the intended meaning of "post" in the context of "postfeminism". "Post" offers to situate feminism in history by proclaiming the end of this history. It then confirms feminist history as a thing of the past. However, some claim that it is impossible that feminism could be aligned with "post" when it is unthinkable, as it would be the same as calling the current world a post racist, post-classist, and post-sexist society.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Contemporarily the term postfeminist is still used to refer to young women "who are thought to benefit from the women's movement through expanded access to employment and education and new family arrangements but at the same time do not push for further political change", Pamela Aronson, Professor of Sociology, asserts.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Feminists or "Postfeminists"?: Young Women's Attitudes toward Feminism and Gender Relations | journal = Gender and Society | year = 2003 | first = Pamela | last = Aronson | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 903–22 | doi=10.1177/0891243203257145| s2cid = 146792123 }}</ref> ===Other uses=== [[Toril Moi]] used the term in ''Sexual/Textual Politics'' (1985) to advocate a feminism that would deconstruct the binary between equality-based or liberal feminism and difference-based or radical feminism.<ref name="jstor.org"/> In ''Lacan and Postfeminism'' (2000), author Elizabeth Wright identified a "positive reading" of postfeminism that, instead of indicating an overcoming of feminism, refers to [[post-structuralist]] critiques of second-wave feminism.<ref name=Wright2000>Wright, Elizabeth, ''Lacan and Postfeminism'' (Icon Books, 2000), {{ISBN|978-1-84046-182-4}}</ref> From a similar perspective, [[Diane Davis]] affirmed that postfeminism is just a continuation of what first and second wave feminisms want.<ref>Davis, Debra Diane, ''Breaking Up [at] Totality: A Rhetoric of Laughter'' (Carbondale: Southern Ill. Univ. Press, 2000 ({{ISBN|0-8093-2228-5}})), p. 141 n. 8 (brackets in title so in original) (author asst. prof. rhetoric, Univ. of Iowa).</ref> In ''Feminism: A Beginner’s Guide (2010)'', Sally Scholz referred to the [[Fourth-wave feminism|fourth wave]] as postfeminism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scholz |first=Sally J. |title=Feminism: a beginner's guide |date=2010 |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-712-1 |series=Oneworld beginner's guide |location=Oxford |pages=7}}</ref> ==Works== In her 1994 book ''[[Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women]]'', [[Christina Hoff Sommers]] considers much of modern academic [[feminist theory]] and the feminist movement to be [[gynocentrism|gynocentric]]. She labels this "[[Who Stole Feminism?|gender feminism]]" and proposes "[[equity feminism]]"—an ideology that aims for full civil and legal equality. She argues that while the feminists she designates as gender feminists advocate preferential treatment and portray women as victims, equity feminism provides a viable alternative form of feminism.<ref name=Hoff_Sommers>Hoff Sommers, Christina, Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women (Touchstone/Simon & Schuster, 1995)</ref> These descriptions and her other work have caused Hoff Sommers to be described as an antifeminist by some other feminists.<ref name=Flood>Flood, Michael (7 July 2004). "Backlash: Angry men's movements", in Stacey Elin Rossi, ed.: The Battle and Backlash Rage On. N.p.: XLibris, 273. {{ISBN|1-4134-5934-X}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Uncovering the Right—Female Anti-Feminism for Fame and Profit |url=http://organizenow.net/cco/right/antifem.html |access-date=2007-12-21 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071215141226/http://www.organizenow.net/cco/right/antifem.html  |archive-date = 2007-12-15}}</ref> Some contemporary feminists, such as [[Katha Pollitt]] or [[Nadine Strossen]], consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people." Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be ''sexist'' rather than ''feminist''.<ref name=Pollitt>Pollitt, Katha, ''Reasonable Creatures: Essays on Women and Feminism '' (Vintage, 1995) {{ISBN|978-0-679-76278-2}}</ref><ref name=Strossen>Strossen, Nadine, ''Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights'' (Prentice Hall & IBD, 1995), {{ISBN|978-0-684-19749-4}}</ref> ==Relation to pop culture== Postfeminism has been seen in media as a form of feminism that accepts popular culture instead of rejecting it, as was typical with [[Second-wave feminism|second wave]] feminists.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Feasey|first=Rebecca|date=7 August 2010|title=Charmed: Why Teen Television Appeals to Women|journal=Journal of Popular Film and Television|volume=34|issue=1 |pages=2–9|doi=10.3200/JPFT.34.1.2-9|s2cid=194032693}}</ref> Many popular shows from the 1990s and early 2000s are considered to be postfeminist works because they tend to focus on women who are empowered by popular cultural representations of other women. Because of this, postfeminists claimed that such media was more accessible and inclusive than past representations of women in the media; however, some feminists believe that postfeminist works focus too much on white, middle-class women.<ref name=":0" /> Such shows and movies include ''[[The Devil Wears Prada (film)|The Devil Wears Prada]], [[Xena: Warrior Princess]], [[The Princess Diaries (film)|The Princess Diaries]], [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Sex and the City]].'' Many of these works also involve women monitoring their appearance as a form of self-management, be it in the form of dieting, exercise, or—most popularly—makeover scenes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://politicsandculture.org/2009/11/09/post-feminism-in-popular-culture-a-potential-for-critical-resistance/|title=Post feminism in popular culture: A potential for critical resistance?|date=9 November 2009|work=Politics and Culture|access-date=2018-04-17|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518173657/https://politicsandculture.org/2009/11/09/post-feminism-in-popular-culture-a-potential-for-critical-resistance/|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Postfeminist literature—also known as [[chick lit]]—has been criticized by feminists for similar themes and notions. However, the genre is also praised for being confident, witty, and complicated, bringing in feminist themes, revolving around women, and reinventing standards of fiction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/writingpostfeminism/gutsy|title=What is chick-lit? {{!}} Electronic Book Review|website=www.electronicbookreview.com|language=en|access-date=2018-04-17|archive-date=2018-04-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415154140/http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/writingpostfeminism/gutsy|url-status=dead}}</ref> Examples can also be found in ''[[Pretty Little Liars]]''. The novels explore the complexity of girlhood in a society that assumes gender equality, which is in line with postfeminism. The constant surveillance and self policing of the series' protagonists depicts the performance of heterosexuality, hyperfemininity, and critical gaze forced upon girls. The materialism and performance from the girls in ''Pretty Little Liars'' critiques the notion that society has full gender equality, and thus offers a critique of postfeminism.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Whitney|first1=Sarah|title=Kisses, Bitches: Pretty Little Liars Frames Postfeminism's Adolescent Girl|journal=Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature|date=11 November 2017|volume=36|issue=2|pages=353–377|doi=10.1353/tsw.2017.0026|s2cid=148901816|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/677146|language=en|issn=1936-1645}}</ref> ==Criticism== [[Susan Faludi]] argues in ''[[Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women]]'' (1991) that a backlash against second-wave feminism had successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. It was constructed by the media and, without reliable evidence, pointed [[women's liberation movement]] as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. According to her, this type of backlash is a historical trend, recurring when it appeared that women had made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights.<ref name=Faludi_Backlash>Faludi, Susan, ''Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women'' (Three Rivers Press, 2006)</ref> Similarly, [[Amelia Jones]] claims that the postfeminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and were overly generalizing in their criticism.<ref>Jones, Amelia. "Postfeminism, Feminist Pleasures, and Embodied Theories of Art," New Feminist Criticism: Art, Identity, Action, Eds. Joana Frueh, Cassandra L. Langer and Arlene Raven. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 16–41, 20.</ref> [[Angela McRobbie]] suggests that adding the prefix ''post-'' to ''feminism'' undermined the strides that feminism made in achieving equality for everyone, including women. In McRobbie's opinion, postfeminism gave the impression that equality has been achieved and feminists could now focus on something else entirely. She believed that postfeminism was most clearly seen on so-called feminist media products, such as ''[[Bridget Jones's Diary (novel)|Bridget Jones's Diary]], [[Sex and the City]]'', and ''[[Ally McBeal]]''. Female characters like Bridget Jones and [[Carrie Bradshaw]] claimed to be liberated and clearly enjoy their sexuality, but what they were constantly searching for was the one man who would make everything worthwhile.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = McRobbie | first = Angela | author-link = Angela McRobbie | title = Post-feminism and popular culture | journal = [[Feminist Media Studies]] | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 255–264 | doi = 10.1080/1468077042000309937 | date = 2004 | s2cid = 56017452 }}</ref> In an article on print jewelry advertisements in Singapore, Michelle Lazar analyses how the construction of 'postfeminist' femininity has given rise to a [[neoliberal]] hybrid "pronounced sense of self or 'I-dentity'". She states that the increasing number of female wage earners has led to advertisers updating their image of women but that "through this hybrid postfeminist I-dentity, advertisers have found a way to reinstall a new normativity that coexists with the status quo".<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Lazar | first = Michelle | title = Recuperating feminism, reclaiming femininity: Hybrid postfeminist I-dentity in consumer advertisements | journal = [[Gender and Language]] | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 205–224 | doi = 10.1558/genl.v8i2.205 | year = 2014 }}</ref> Postfeminist ads and fashion have been criticized for using femininity as a commodity veiled as liberation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://americanaejournal.hu/vol7no2/kulcsar|title=AMERICANA: "A Critique of Post-feminism" by Zsófia Kulcsár|website=americanaejournal.hu|access-date=2018-04-17}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Angela McRobbie]], Professor for Communications at [[Goldsmiths, University of London]] * [[Choice feminism]] * [[Gender studies]] * [[Individualist feminism]] * [[Lad culture]] * [[Lipstick feminism]] * [[Rosalind Gill]], Professor of Social and Cultural Analysis at [[King's College, London]] * [[Third-wave feminism]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |last = Gill |first = Rosalind | author-link = Rosalind Gill |date=May 2007 | title = Postfeminist media culture. Elements of a sensibility |journal = European Journal of Cultural Studies | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–166 | doi =10.1177/1367549407075898|s2cid = 145620486 |url = http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/22715 }} {{Feminism}} [[Category:Criticism of feminism]] [[Category:Feminism and society]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Women in society]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:%22_%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:" '">Template:" '</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:%22_%27&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:" '">view source</a>) (semi-protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:%27_%22" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:' "">Template:' "</a> (<a 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