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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Overview of the wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_the_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holy_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holy_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Holy Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Holy_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Holy Roman Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Holy_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rebellions_of_Anabaptists_and_other_radicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellions_of_Anabaptists_and_other_radicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Rebellions of Anabaptists and other radicals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellions_of_Anabaptists_and_other_radicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swiss_Confederacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swiss_Confederacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Swiss Confederacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swiss_Confederacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schmalkaldic_Wars_and_other_early_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schmalkaldic_Wars_and_other_early_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Schmalkaldic Wars and other early conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schmalkaldic_Wars_and_other_early_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thirty_Years'_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Thirty Years' War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_Countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_Countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Low Countries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Low_Countries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Low Countries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Low_Countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Duke_of_Alba_(Alva)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duke_of_Alba_(Alva)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Duke of Alba (Alva)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duke_of_Alba_(Alva)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-France-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle France subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1560s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1560s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>1560s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1560s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Henry III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Henry IV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark–Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark–Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Denmark–Norway</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Denmark–Norway-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Denmark–Norway subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Denmark–Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Denmark</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway,_Faroe_Islands,_and_Iceland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway,_Faroe_Islands,_and_Iceland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Norway, Faroe Islands, and Iceland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway,_Faroe_Islands,_and_Iceland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thirty_Years'_War_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Thirty Years' War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thirty_Years'_War_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain_and_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain_and_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Great Britain and Ireland</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Great_Britain_and_Ireland-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Great Britain and Ireland subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain_and_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scottish_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scottish_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Scottish Reformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scottish_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>English Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Death toll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_situation_pre-_and_post-European_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_situation_pre-_and_post-European_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Religious situation pre- and post-European wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_situation_pre-_and_post-European_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">European wars of religion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="الحروب الدينية في أوروبا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحروب الدينية في أوروبا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_de_religi%C3%B3_a_Europa" title="Guerres de religió a Europa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres de religió a Europa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_de_religi%C3%B3n_en_Europa" title="Guerras de religión en Europa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras de religión en Europa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADropaj_militoj_de_religio" title="Eŭropaj militoj de religio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eŭropaj militoj de religio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%87%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7" title="جنگ‌های مذهبی اروپا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های مذهبی اروپا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_de_Religion_(Europe)" title="Guerres de Religion (Europe) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres de Religion (Europe)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%9F%BD_%EC%A2%85%EA%B5%90%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="유럽 종교전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유럽 종교전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կրոնական պատերազմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրոնական պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_agama_Eropa" title="Perang agama Eropa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang agama Eropa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_di_religione_in_Europa" title="Guerre di religione in Europa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre di religione in Europa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94" title="מלחמות הדת באירופה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמות הדת באירופה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ევროპის რელიგიური ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ევროპის რელიგიური ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adim-pivavahana_(tao_Eor%C3%B4pa)" title="Adim-pivavahana (tao Eorôpa) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Adim-pivavahana (tao Eorôpa)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europese_godsdienstoorlogen" title="Europese godsdienstoorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Europese godsdienstoorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motreformasjon_og_religionskrig_(1556%E2%80%931648)" title="Motreformasjon og religionskrig (1556–1648) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Motreformasjon og religionskrig (1556–1648)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B0%DB%81%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="یورپی مذہبی جنگاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یورپی مذہبی جنگاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_de_religi%C3%A3o_na_Europa" title="Guerras de religião na Europa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerras de religião na Europa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboaiele_religioase_europene" title="Războaiele religioase europene – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războaiele religioase europene" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/300px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/450px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg/600px-Schlacht_am_Wei%C3%9Fen_Berg_C-K_063.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a> (1620) in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> was one of the decisive battles of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> that ultimately led to the reconversion of Bohemia to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Catholicism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>European wars of religion</b> were a series of wars waged in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fought after the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> began in 1517, the wars disrupted the religious and political order in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> countries of Europe, or <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. Other motives during the wars involved revolt, territorial ambitions and <a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">great power conflicts</a>. By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), Catholic France had allied with the Protestant forces against the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wars were largely ended by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> (1648), which established a new political order that is now known as <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">Westphalian sovereignty</a>. </p><p>The conflicts began with the minor <a href="/wiki/Knights%27_War" title="Knights' War">Knights' War</a> (1522–1523), followed by the larger <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> (1524–1525) in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. Warfare intensified after the Catholic Church began the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> against the growth of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> in 1545. The conflicts culminated in the Thirty Years' War, which devastated Germany and killed one third of its population.<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Peace of Westphalia broadly resolved the conflicts by recognising three separate Christian traditions in the Holy Roman Empire: Roman Catholicism, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPM_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smaller religious wars continued to be waged in Western Europe until the 1710s, including the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> (1639–1651) in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Savoyard%E2%80%93Waldensian_wars" title="Savoyard–Waldensian wars">Savoyard–Waldensian wars</a> (1655–1690), and the <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_War" title="Toggenburg War">Toggenburg War</a> (1712) in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Alps" title="Western Alps">Western Alps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_discussions">Definitions and discussions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions and discussions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The European wars of religion are also known as the <b>Wars of the Reformation</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1517, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i> took only two months to spread throughout Europe with the help of the printing press, overwhelming the abilities of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the papacy to contain it. In 1521, Luther was <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicated</a>, sealing the schism within <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christendom</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutherans</a> and opening the door for other <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestants</a> to resist the power of the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a>. </p><p>Although most of the wars ended with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648,<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> religious conflicts continued to be fought in Europe until at least the 1710s.<sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included the <a href="/wiki/Savoyard%E2%80%93Waldensian_wars" title="Savoyard–Waldensian wars">Savoyard–Waldensian wars</a> (1655–1690),<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> (1688–1697, including the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War in Ireland</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714).<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether these should be included in the European wars of religion depends on how one defines a "<a href="/wiki/War_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="War of religion">war of religion</a>", and whether these wars can be considered "European" (i.e. international rather than domestic).<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink9_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink9-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The religious nature of the wars has also been debated, and contrasted with other factors at play, such as national, dynastic (e.g. they could often simultaneously be characterised as <a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">wars of succession</a>), and financial interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have pointed out that some European wars of this period were not caused by disputes occasioned by the Reformation, such as the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (1494–1559, only involving Catholics),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Seven_Years%27_War" title="Northern Seven Years' War">Northern Seven Years' War</a> (1563–1570, only involving Lutherans).<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others emphasise the fact that cross-religious alliances existed, such as the Lutheran duke <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Maurice, Elector of Saxony">Maurice of Saxony</a> assisting the Catholic emperor <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> in the first <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> in 1547 in order to become the Saxon elector instead of <a href="/wiki/John_Frederick_I,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony">John Frederick</a>, his Lutheran cousin, while the Catholic king <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II of France</a> supported the Lutheran cause in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a> in 1552 to secure French bases in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> maintains that "[the] wars of religion of this period [were] fought mainly for confessional security and political gain."<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 20th century, revisionist historians including <a href="/wiki/William_M._Lamont" title="William M. Lamont">William M. Lamont</a> argued religion was a primary driver behind the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, while <a href="/wiki/John_Morrill_(historian)" title="John Morrill (historian)">John Morrill</a> (1993) claimed it "was not the first European revolution...[but] the last of the Wars of Religion."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998175_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998175-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was subsequently criticised by historians like Glen Burgess, whose views were based on a study of <a href="/wiki/Roundhead" title="Roundhead">Parliamentarian</a> political propaganda. He concluded that while many <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> took up arms in protest against the <a href="/wiki/Laudianism" title="Laudianism">religious reforms</a> promoted by <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a>, they often justified their opposition as a revolt against a monarch who had violated crucial constitutional principles, and thus had to be overthrown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They even warned other Parliamentarians to avoid overt use of religious arguments in making their case for war against the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It can be argued that religious motives were often concealed by legalistic arguments, for example emphasising the need to defend the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">national church</a>: "Seen in this light, the defenses of Parliament's war, with their apparent legal-constitutional thrust, are not at all ways of saying that the struggle was not religious. On the contrary, they are ways of saying that it was."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998198–200_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998198–200-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_the_wars">Overview of the wars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview of the wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="panorama" style="overflow-y:hidden; overflow-x: scroll; overflow: auto; width: 100%; width: inherit; max-width: 100%"> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_i7iosltorzwdri2wub46jk3s7g0b9xh"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1689" coords="1048,377,1211,397" title="Jacobite rising of 1689" alt="Jacobite rising of 1689" /><area 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dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:red; color:black;"> </span> British Isles</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:orange; color:black;"> </span> Low Countries</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;"> </span> Spain & Portugal</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:forestgreen; color:black;"> </span> Central Europe (<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">HRE</a>)</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:cornflowerblue; color:black;"> </span> France & Italy</span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:pink; color:black;"> </span> Scandinavia, Baltics & Eastern Europe</span></li></ul></div> <p>Individual conflicts that may be distinguished within this topic include: </p> <ul><li>Pre-Reformation wars: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Oldcastle_Revolt" title="Oldcastle Revolt">Oldcastle Revolt</a> (1414) in England<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (sometimes considered to have "foreshadowed the wars of religion"<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> (1419–1434) in the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</a></li></ul></li> <li>Conflicts immediately connected with the Reformation: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Knights%27_War" title="Knights' War">Knights' War</a> (1522–1523) in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/First_Dalecarlian_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="First Dalecarlian Rebellion">First Dalecarlian Rebellion</a> (1524–1525) in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> (1524–1526) in the Holy Roman Empire<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Dalecarlian_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dalecarlian Rebellion">Second Dalecarlian Rebellion</a> (1527–1528) in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Kappel" title="Wars of Kappel">Wars of Kappel</a> (1529–1531) in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tudor_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Tudor conquest of Ireland">Tudor conquest of Ireland</a> (1529–1603) on the Catholic population of Ireland by the Tudor kings of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and their Protestant allies <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_10th_Earl_of_Kildare" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare">Kildare Rebellion</a> (1534–1535)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/First_Desmond_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="First Desmond Rebellion">First Desmond Rebellion</a> (1569–1573)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Desmond_Rebellion" title="Second Desmond Rebellion">Second Desmond Rebellion</a> (1579–1583)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a> (1593–1603)</li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Third_Dalecarlian_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Dalecarlian Rebellion">Third Dalecarlian Rebellion</a> (1531–1533) in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Christian_II_of_Denmark" title="Christian II of Denmark">War of Two Kings</a> (1531–1532) in the <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a> (Denmark and Norway)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Count%27s_Feud" title="Count's Feud">Count's Feud</a> (1534–1536) in the <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a> (Denmark and Norway)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster_rebellion" title="Münster rebellion">Münster rebellion</a> (1534–1535) in the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Prince-Bishopric of Münster">Prince-Bishopric of Münster</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_riot" title="Anabaptist riot">Anabaptist riot</a> (1535) in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a><sup id="cite_ref-Pepplinkhuizen_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepplinkhuizen-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olav_Engelbrektsson%27s_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Olav Engelbrektsson's rebellion">Olav Engelbrektsson's rebellion</a> (1536–1537) in Norway</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigod%27s_rebellion" title="Bigod's rebellion">Bigod's rebellion</a> (1537) in England</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Dacke_War" title="Dacke War">Dacke War</a> (1542–1543) in Sweden</li></ul></li> <li>Conflicts after the death of Martin Luther: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> (1546–1547) in the Holy Roman Empire<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Prayer_Book_Rebellion" title="Prayer Book Rebellion">Prayer Book Rebellion</a> (1549) in England</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sau%C3%B0afell" title="Battle of Sauðafell">Battle of Sauðafell</a> (1550) on Iceland</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a> or <a href="/wiki/Princes%27_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Princes' Revolt">Princes' Revolt</a> (1552–1555)<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt%27s_rebellion" title="Wyatt's rebellion">Wyatt's rebellion</a> (1554) in England over <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary I of England</a>'s decision to marry the Catholic non-English prince <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>. Mary's repression of the rebellion earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary" amongst Protestants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan2006580_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan2006580-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598) in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> (1566/68–1648) in the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a> (1583–1588) in the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Cologne" title="Electorate of Cologne">Electorate of Cologne</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_Bishops%27_War" title="Strasbourg Bishops' War">Strasbourg Bishops' War</a> (1592–1604) in the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Strasbourg" title="Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg">Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/War_against_Sigismund" title="War against Sigismund">War against Sigismund</a> (1598–1599) in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Swedish_union" title="Polish–Swedish union">Polish–Swedish union</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Bocskai_uprising" title="Bocskai uprising">Bocskai uprising</a> (1604–1606) in Hungary and Transylvania</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_J%C3%BClich_Succession" title="War of the Jülich Succession">War of the Jülich Succession</a> (1609–10, 1614) in the <a href="/wiki/United_Duchies_of_J%C3%BClich-Cleves-Berg" title="United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg">United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), affecting the Holy Roman Empire including the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemia and Moravia</a>, France, <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">Denmark-Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Revolt" title="Bohemian Revolt">Bohemian Revolt</a> (1618–1620) between the Protestant nobility of the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Bohemian Crown</a> and their Catholic Habsburg king. This revolt started the Thirty Years' War, causing additional conflicts elsewhere in Europe, and subsuming other already ongoing conflicts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_War" title="Hessian War">Hessian War</a> (1567–1648) between the Lutheran <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Darmstadt" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt">Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt</a> (member of the Catholic League) and the Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel</a> (member of the Protestant Union)</li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Huguenot_rebellions" title="Huguenot rebellions">Huguenot rebellions</a> (1621–1629) in France<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> (1639–1653), affecting <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">Ireland</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishops%27_Wars" title="Bishops' Wars">Bishops' Wars</a> (1639–1640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> (1642–1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> (1639–1652)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Irish Confederate Wars</a> (1641–1653) and the <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> (1649–1653)<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>The post-Westphalian wars:<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_Cow_War" title="Düsseldorf Cow War">Düsseldorf Cow War</a> (1651) <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Savoyard%E2%80%93Waldensian_wars" title="Savoyard–Waldensian wars">Savoyard–Waldensian wars</a> (1655–1690) beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Easter" title="Piedmontese Easter">Piedmontese Easter</a> (<i>Pasque piemontesi</i>) of April 1655,<sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Villmergen" title="First War of Villmergen">First War of Villmergen</a> (1656) in the Old Swiss Confederacy<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Switzerland_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Switzerland-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Dutch_War" title="Second Anglo-Dutch War">Second Anglo-Dutch War</a> (1665–1667) between England and the Dutch Republic<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> (1688–1697)<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> (1688–1689)<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War in Ireland</a> (1688–1691)<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1689" title="Jacobite rising of 1689">Jacobite rising of 1689</a> in Scotland saw Roman Catholics and Anglican Tories supporting the deposed Catholic king <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James Stuart</a> take up arms against the newly enthroned Calvinist <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> and his Presbyterian Covenanter allies; the religious component may be regarded as secondary to the dynastic factor, however.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_Jacobite_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Jacobite-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714) across Europe had a strong religious component<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Camisard" class="mw-redirect" title="Camisard">War in the Cevennes</a> (1702–1710) in France<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_War" title="Toggenburg War">Toggenburg War</a> (Second War of Villmergen) (1712) in the Old Swiss Confederacy<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Switzerland_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Switzerland-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Holy_Roman_Empire">Holy Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Holy Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/250px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/375px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png/500px-HolyRomanEmpire_1618.png 2x" data-file-width="4005" data-file-height="3964" /></a><figcaption>Religious situation in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> in 1618</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, encompassing present-day <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and surrounding territory, was the area most devastated by the wars of religion. The Empire was a fragmented collection of practically independent states with an elected <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> as their titular ruler; after the 14th century, this position was usually held by a Habsburg. The Austrian <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>, who remained Catholic, was a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects in present-day Germany, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>. The Empire also contained regional powers, such as <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Electorate of Saxony</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg" title="Margraviate of Brandenburg">Margraviate of Brandenburg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_the_Palatinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Electorate of the Palatinate">Electorate of the Palatinate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse" title="Landgraviate of Hesse">Landgraviate of Hesse</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Trier" class="mw-redirect" title="Archbishopric of Trier">Archbishopric of Trier</a>, and <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Württemberg">Württemberg</a>. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free imperial cities, abbeys, bishoprics, and small lordships of sovereign families rounded out the Empire. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, from its inception at <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> in 1517, found a ready reception in Germany, as well as German-speaking parts of <a href="/wiki/Hussite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite">Hussite</a> Bohemia (where the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> took place from 1419 to 1434, and Hussites remained a majority of the population until the 1620 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a>). The preaching of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and his many followers raised tensions across Europe. In <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">Northern Germany</a>, Luther adopted the tactic of gaining the support of the local princes and city elites in his struggle to take over and re-establish the church along Lutheran lines. The <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Elector of Saxony</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philip_I,_Landgrave_of_Hesse" title="Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse">Landgrave of Hesse</a>, and other North German princes not only protected Luther from retaliation from the edict of <a href="/wiki/Outlawry" class="mw-redirect" title="Outlawry">outlawry</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V</a>, but also used state power to enforce the establishment of Lutheran worship in their lands, in what is called the <a href="/wiki/Magisterial_Reformation" title="Magisterial Reformation">Magisterial Reformation</a>. Church property was seized, and Catholic worship was forbidden in most territories that adopted the Lutheran Reformation. The political conflicts thus engendered within the Empire led almost inevitably to war. </p><p>The Knights' War of 1522 was a revolt by a number of Protestant and religious humanist German knights led by Franz von Sickingen, against the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Emperor. It has also been called the "Poor Barons' Rebellion". The revolt was short-lived but would inspire the bloody German Peasants' War of 1524–1526. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellions_of_Anabaptists_and_other_radicals">Rebellions of Anabaptists and other radicals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rebellions of Anabaptists and other radicals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster_rebellion" title="Münster rebellion">Münster rebellion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg/220px-Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg/330px-Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg/440px-Bundschuhfahne_Holzschnitt_1539_Petrarcas_Trostspiegel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1166" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Rebellious peasants surrounding a knight</figcaption></figure> <p>The first large-scale wave of violence was engendered by the more radical wing of the Reformation movement, whose adherents wished to extend the wholesale reform of the Church into a similarly wholesale reform of society in general.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (May 2018)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:European_wars_of_religion#Dubious" title="Talk:European wars of religion">discuss</a></i>]</sup> This was a step that the princes supporting Luther were not willing to countenance. The <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> of 1524/1525 was a <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolt_in_late_medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular revolt in late medieval Europe">popular revolt</a> inspired by the teachings of the radical reformers. It consisted of a series of economic as well as religious revolts by <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptist</a> <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>, townsfolk and <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobles</a>. The conflict took place mostly in southern, western and central areas of modern Germany but also affected areas in neighboring modern Switzerland, Austria and the Netherlands (for example, the 1535 <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_riot" title="Anabaptist riot">Anabaptist riot</a> in Amsterdam<sup id="cite_ref-Pepplinkhuizen_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepplinkhuizen-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). At its height, in the spring and summer of 1525, it involved an estimated 300,000 peasant insurgents. Contemporary estimates put the dead at 100,000. It was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising before the 1789 <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. </p><p>Because of their revolutionary political ideas, radical reformers like <a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Thomas Müntzer</a> were compelled to leave the Lutheran cities of North Germany in the early 1520s.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They spread their revolutionary religious and political doctrines into the countryside of Bohemia, Southern Germany, and Switzerland. Starting as a revolt against feudal oppression, the peasants' uprising became a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by force an ideal Christian commonwealth<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The total defeat of the insurgents at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frankenhausen" title="Battle of Frankenhausen">Frankenhausen</a> on 15 May 1525, was followed by the execution of Müntzer and thousands of his peasant followers. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> rejected the demands of the insurgents and upheld the right of Germany's rulers to suppress the uprisings,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> setting out his views in his polemic <i><a href="/wiki/Against_the_Murderous,_Thieving_Hordes_of_Peasants" title="Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants">Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants</a></i>. This played a major part in the rejection of his teachings by many German peasants, particularly in the south. </p><p>After the Peasants' War, a second and more determined attempt to establish a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</a> was made at <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnster" title="Münster">Münster</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a> (1532–1535). Here a group of prominent citizens, including the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> pastor turned <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptist</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Rothmann" title="Bernhard Rothmann">Bernhard Rothmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matthys" title="Jan Matthys">Jan Matthys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_of_Leiden" title="John of Leiden">Jan Bockelson</a> ("John of Leiden") had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town on 5 January 1534. Matthys identified Münster as the "<a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a>", and preparations were made to not only hold what had been gained, but to proceed from Münster toward the conquest of the world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Claiming to be the successor of <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Leiden" title="John of Leiden">John of Leiden</a> was installed as <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">king</a>. He legalized <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a> and took sixteen wives, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Wandscherer" title="Elisabeth Wandscherer">one of whom</a> he personally beheaded in the marketplace. <a href="/wiki/Community_of_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Community of goods">Community of goods</a> was also established. After obstinate resistance, the town was taken by the besiegers on 24 June 1535, and then Leiden and some of his more prominent followers were executed in the marketplace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swiss_Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Swiss Confederacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Reformation in Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Kappel" title="Wars of Kappel">Wars of Kappel</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Villmergen" title="First War of Villmergen">First War of Villmergen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_Villmergen" class="mw-redirect" title="Second War of Villmergen">Second War of Villmergen</a></div> <p>In 1529 under the lead of <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a>, the Protestant canton and city of <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> had concluded with other Protestant cantons a defence alliance, the <i>Christliches <a href="/wiki/Burgrecht" title="Burgrecht">Burgrecht</a></i>, which also included the cities of <a href="/wiki/Konstanz" title="Konstanz">Konstanz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>. The Catholic cantons in response had formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand of Austria</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg/250px-Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg/375px-Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg/500px-Schlacht_bei_Kappel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>At the Second Battle of Kappel, Zwingli's supporters were defeated and Zwingli himself was killed.</figcaption></figure> <p>After numerous minor incidents and provocations from both sides, a Catholic priest was executed in the Thurgau in May 1528, and the Protestant pastor J. Keyser was burned at the stake in Schwyz in 1529. The last straw was the installation of a Catholic <a href="/wiki/Vogt_(Switzerland)" title="Vogt (Switzerland)">vogt</a> at Baden, and Zürich declared war on 8 June (<a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Kappel" title="First War of Kappel">First War of Kappel</a>), occupied the Thurgau and the territories of the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_St._Gall" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of St. Gall">Abbey of St. Gall</a>, and marched to <a href="/wiki/Kappel_am_Albis" title="Kappel am Albis">Kappel</a> at the border to <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Zug" title="Canton of Zug">Zug</a>. Open war was avoided by means of a peace agreement (<i>Erster <a href="/wiki/Landfriede" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfriede">Landfriede</a></i>) that was not exactly favourable to the Catholic side, which had to dissolve its alliance with the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburgs</a>. Tensions remained essentially unresolved. </p><p>On 11 October 1531, the Catholic cantons decisively defeated the forces of Zürich in the <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_Kappel" title="Second War of Kappel">Second War of Kappel</a>. The Zürich troops had little support from allied Protestant cantons, and Huldrych Zwingli was killed on the battlefield, along with twenty-four other pastors. After the defeat, the forces of Zürich regrouped and attempted to occupy the <a href="/wiki/Zugerberg" title="Zugerberg">Zugerberg</a>, and some of them camped on the <i>Gubel</i> hill near <a href="/wiki/Menzingen" title="Menzingen">Menzingen</a>. A small force of <a href="/wiki/Aegeri" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegeri">Aegeri</a> succeeded in routing the camp, and the demoralized Zürich force had to retreat, forcing the Protestants to agree to a peace treaty to their disadvantage. Switzerland was to be divided into a patchwork of Protestant and Catholic cantons, with the Protestants tending to dominate the larger cities, and the Catholics the more rural areas. </p><p>In 1656, tensions between Protestants and Catholics re-emerged and led to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Villmergen" title="First War of Villmergen">First War of Villmergen</a>. The Catholics were victorious and able to maintain their political dominance. The <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_War" title="Toggenburg War">Toggenburg War</a> in 1712 was a conflict between Catholic and Protestant cantons. According to the Peace of Aarau of 11 August 1712 and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Baden_(1714)" title="Treaty of Baden (1714)">Peace of Baden</a> of 7 September 1714, the war ended with the end of Catholic hegemony. The <a href="/wiki/Sonderbund_War" title="Sonderbund War">Sonderbund War</a> of 1847 was also based on religion: the liberal-Protestant anti-clerical cantons led by Zürich and Bern sought to reduce the influence of Catholic monasteries, against which the conservative <a href="/wiki/Ultramontanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramontanist">ultramontanist</a> Catholic cantons of Central Switzerland formed the Sonderbund.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schmalkaldic_Wars_and_other_early_conflicts">Schmalkaldic Wars and other early conflicts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Schmalkaldic Wars and other early conflicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_(Frans_Hogenberg).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A castle stands at the top of a steep hill, and its walls are being blown away in explosion and fire. The fortress is surrounded by mounted and foot soldiers and several units of mounted soldiers are racing up the hill toward the castle on its peak. Frans Hogenberg, a Dutch engraver, and artist of the 16th century, was living in the Electorate of Cologne during the war, and engraved this picture of the destruction of the Godesburg (fortress)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg/250px-Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg/375px-Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg/500px-Inname_van_Godesberg_-_Capture_and_destruction_of_Godesburg_in_1583_%28Frans_Hogenberg%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="844" /></a><figcaption>Destruction of the fortress above the village of <a href="/wiki/Godesberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Godesberg">Godesberg</a> during the Cologne War, 1583; the walls were breached by mines, and most of the defenders were put to death. Engraved by Frans Hogenberg, a Dutch engraver and artist of the 16th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Augsburg" title="Diet of Augsburg">Diet of Augsburg</a> in 1530, the Emperor demanded that all religious innovations not authorized by the Diet be abandoned by 15 April 1531. Failure to comply would result in prosecution by the Imperial Court. In response, the Lutheran princes who had set up Protestant churches in their own realms met in the town of <a href="/wiki/Schmalkalden" title="Schmalkalden">Schmalkalden</a> in December 1530. Here they banded together to form the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_League" title="Schmalkaldic League">Schmalkaldic League</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Schmalkaldischer Bund</i>), an <a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">alliance</a> designed to protect themselves from the Imperial action. Its members eventually intended the League to replace the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> itself,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and each state was to provide 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry for mutual defense. In 1532 the Emperor, pressed by external troubles, stepped back from confrontation, offering the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Peace_of_Nuremberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peace of Nuremberg (page does not exist)">Peace of Nuremberg</a>", which suspended all action against the Protestant states pending a General Council of the Church. The moratorium kept peace in the German lands for over a decade, yet Protestantism became further entrenched, and spread, during its term. </p><p>The peace finally ended in the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Schmalkaldischer Krieg</i>), a brief conflict between 1546 and 1547 between the forces of <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. The conflict ended with the advantage of the Catholics, and the Emperor was able to impose the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a>, a compromise allowing slightly modified worship, and supposed to remain in force until the conclusion of a General Council of the Church. However various Protestant elements rejected the Interim, and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a> broke out in 1552, which would last until 1555.<sup id="cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> (1555), signed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, confirmed the result of the 1526 <a href="/wiki/First_Diet_of_Speyer" class="mw-redirect" title="First Diet of Speyer">Diet of Speyer</a> and ended the violence between the <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a> and the Catholics in Germany. It stated that: </p> <ul><li>German princes could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) of their realms according to their conscience. The citizens of each state were forced to adopt the religion of their rulers (the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a></i>).</li> <li>Lutherans living in an <i>ecclesiastical state</i> (under the control of a bishop) could continue to practice their faith.</li> <li>Lutherans could keep the territory that they had captured from the Catholic Church since the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Passau" title="Peace of Passau">Peace of Passau</a> in 1552.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastical Province">ecclesiastical leaders</a> of the Catholic Church (bishops) that had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories.</li></ul> <p>Religious tensions remained strong throughout the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg began to unravel as some bishops converting to Protestantism refused to give up their <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">bishoprics</a>. This was evident from the <a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a> (1582–83), a conflict initiated when the prince-archbishop of the city converted to Calvinism. Religious tensions also broke into violence in the German <a href="/wiki/Free_Imperial_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Imperial City">free city</a> of <a href="/wiki/Donauw%C3%B6rth" title="Donauwörth">Donauwörth</a> in 1606, when the Lutheran majority barred the Catholic residents from holding a procession, provoking a riot. This prompted intervention by Duke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria">Maximilian of Bavaria</a> on behalf of the Catholics. </p><p>By the end of the 16th century the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine River">Rhine</a> lands and those of southern Germany remained largely Catholic, while Lutherans predominated in the north, and Calvinists dominated in west-central Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The latter formed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Evangelical_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Evangelical Union">League of Evangelical Union</a> in 1608. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirty_Years'_War"><span id="Thirty_Years.27_War"></span>Thirty Years' War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanging_Humans.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Hanging_Humans.JPG/250px-Hanging_Humans.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Hanging_Humans.JPG/375px-Hanging_Humans.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Hanging_Humans.JPG/500px-Hanging_Humans.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3292" data-file-height="1270" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Grandes_Mis%C3%A8res_de_la_guerre" title="Les Grandes Misères de la guerre">The Great Miseries of War</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Callot" title="Jacques Callot">Jacques Callot</a>, 1632</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1617, Germany was bitterly divided, and it was clear that <a href="/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor">Matthias</a>, Holy Roman Emperor and King of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, would die without an heir. His lands would therefore fall to his nearest male relative, his cousin Ferdinand of <a href="/wiki/Styria_(duchy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Styria (duchy)">Styria</a>. Ferdinand, having been educated by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, was a staunch Catholic. The rejection of Ferdinand as Crown Prince by the mostly <a href="/wiki/Hussite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite">Hussite</a> Bohemia triggered the Thirty Years' War in 1618, when his representatives were <a href="/wiki/Defenestrations_of_Prague#The_1618_Defenestration_of_Prague" title="Defenestrations of Prague">defenestrated in Prague</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> was fought between 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today's Germany, and involved most of the major <a href="/wiki/Power_(international)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (international)">European powers</a>. Beginning as a religious conflict between <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholics</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, it gradually developed into a general war involving much of Europe, for reasons not necessarily related to religion. The war marked a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/France-Habsburg_rivalry" class="mw-redirect" title="France-Habsburg rivalry">France-Habsburg rivalry</a> for pre-eminence in Europe, which led later to direct war between <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_France#France_in_the_17th_and_18th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a>. Military intervention by external powers such as Denmark and Sweden on the Protestant side increased the duration of the war and the extent of its devastation. In the latter stages of the war, Catholic France, fearful of an increase in Habsburg power, also intervened on the Protestant side. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/250px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/375px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg/500px-Sack_of_Magdeburg_1631.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2604" data-file-height="1527" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg">sack of Magdeburg</a> in 1631. The Imperialist troops, particularly the Croat and Walloon regiments, went on a rampage of murder and mayhem that left only 10,000 survivors out of the city's 30,000 citizens and defenders. It was the war's worst massacre.</figcaption></figure> <p>The major impact of the Thirty Years' War, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease#Mortality_from_infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">disease</a> devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> and Italy, while bankrupting many of the <a href="/wiki/Regional_power" title="Regional power">powers</a> involved. The war ended with the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Treaty of Münster</a>, a part of the wider <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>. </p><p>During the war, Germany's population was reduced by 30% on average. In the territory of <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two thirds of the population died. The population of the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech lands</a> declined by a third. The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a> army alone, which was no greater a ravager than the other armies of the Thirty Years' War,<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> destroyed 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns during its tenure of 17 years in Germany. For decades armies and armed bands had roamed Germany like packs of wolves, slaughtering the populace like sheep. One band of marauders even styled themselves as "Werewolves".<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huge damage was done to monasteries, churches and other religious institutions. The war had proved disastrous for the German-speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Germany lost population and territory, and was henceforth further divided into hundreds of largely impotent semi-independent states. The Imperial power retreated to Austria and the Habsburg lands. The Netherlands and Switzerland were confirmed independent. The peace institutionalised the Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist religious divide in Germany, with populations either converting, or moving to areas controlled by rulers of their own faith. </p><p>One authority puts France's losses against Austria at 80,000 killed or wounded and against Spain (including the years 1648–1659, after Westphalia) at 300,000 dead or disabled.<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sweden and Finland lost, by one calculation, 110,000 dead from all causes.<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 400,000 Germans, British, and other nationalities died in Swedish service.<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low_Countries">Low Countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Low Countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Netherlands, or <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, were engaged in a seemingly futile struggle for independence against the most dominant power of the times, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>. The most politically significant turn of events came when <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V of Spain</a> transferred sovereignty of the Low Countries to his son <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a>. At this point in history the Low Countries were a loosely associated cluster of provinces. Philip II mishandled his responsibility through a series of bungled diplomatic maneuvers. Unlike his father, he had no basic understanding of the people placed under his direction. Charles V spoke the language; Philip II did not. Charles V was raised in Brussels; Philip II was considered a foreigner. </p><p>The religious element was a decisive factor in the development of hostilities despite the fact that the Dutch people at the time were overwhelmingly Roman Catholic. Their theological basis was in the liberal tradition of Erasmus versus the conservative line of the Spanish Church. Nevertheless, Protestant religions, especially Calvinism, seeped into the Low Countries during the early part of the 16th century due to the fact that it was a major center for trade. This period was also known for the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquisition of the Netherlands">Inquisition</a>. Under Charles’ reign, the Low Countries were subjected to the papal form of the Inquisition where laws were rarely enforced. An incident at Rotterdam involving the rescue of several heretics from burning at the stake made Philip introduce the Spanish form of the Inquisition. This did little to promote allegiance to Spain. </p><p>Calvinism thrived in the mercantile atmosphere of the Low Countries. Businessmen liked the role of the laity in Calvinist congregations. The Roman Catholic church was viewed as an unyielding patriarch, and the pompous hierarchy of the Roman Catholic church was resented even though Catholicism had respect as an important social, moral, and political force. Merchants welcomed the "new" religion. Not to be taken lightly was the imposition of taxes on the businesses and people of the Low Countries. The taxation was unilateral in nature: it was levied by a foreign political entity and the benefit derived from the taxes went to Spain. Spain was building an empire, and the low Countries paid dearly. </p><p>In 1559, Philip appointed <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Parma" title="Margaret of Parma">Margaret of Parma</a> as governess. She held little power since her authority had been carefully limited by advisors designated by Philip. This was a means of preserving absolute control over the Low Countries and it was an excellent vehicle to promote the spread of the Inquisition. Hardly a day passed without an execution. Protestant authorities substantiate a number of accounts associated with the "justice" of Philip. One account reveals an incident where an Anabaptist was hacked to death with seven blows of a rusty sword in the presence of his wife, who died at the horror of the sight. Another tells of an enraged man who interrupted Christmas Mass, took the host, and trampled it. He was put to torture by having his right hand and foot burned away to the bone. His tongue was torn out, he was suspended over a fire and was slowly roasted to death. Margaret interceded but the atrocities continued. Even the Catholics now joined with Protestants as Philip stated that he would rather sacrifice a hundred thousand lives than change his policy. Some diplomacy was used and when a compromise was reached on 6 May 1566, Philip eased off. During the ensuing lull, Protestants brought their worship into the open. A group called the "Beggars" grew in strength and proceeded to raise a sizable army. </p><p>On 6 August 1566, Philip signed a formal instrument declaring that his offer of pardon had been gotten from him against his will. He claimed that he was not bound by the compromise of 6 May and a few days later, Philip assured the Pope that any suspension of the Inquisition was subject to papal approval. The destruction of thirty churches and monasteries followed. Protestants entered cathedrals smashing holy objects, breaking up altars and statues and smashing stained glass windows. Bodies were exhumed and corpses were stripped. Numbers of malcontents drank sacramental wine and burned missals. One Count fed the Eucharistic wafers to his parrot in defiance. It was well known that most Protestant leaders condemned the violence perpetrated by the angry mobs, but the pillage and destruction of property was considered far less criminal than burning heretics at the stake. On the political front, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William of Orange</a> saw the opportunity to amass support for a large scale insurrection aimed at procuring independence from Spain. Philip became dissatisfied with Margaret, and seized the opportunity to relieve her. The choice was crucial. Instead of selecting a successor trained in handling diplomacy, Philip sent the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Alva" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Alva">Duke of Alva</a> to crush the malcontents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duke_of_Alba_(Alva)"><span id="Duke_of_Alba_.28Alva.29"></span>Duke of Alba (Alva)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Duke of Alba (Alva)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/250px-Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/375px-Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg/500px-Arriv%C3%A9e_du_duc_d%27Albe_%C3%A0_Rotterdam_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Isabey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>Arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Alva" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Alva">Duke of Alva</a> at Rotterdam in 1567</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AetasFerrea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/AetasFerrea.jpg/250px-AetasFerrea.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/AetasFerrea.jpg/375px-AetasFerrea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/AetasFerrea.jpg/500px-AetasFerrea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1370" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Engraving illustrating the devastation of the religious wars in the Dutch provinces</figcaption></figure> <p>Philip gave full power to Alva in 1567. Alva's judgment was that of a soldier trained in Spanish discipline and piety. His object was to crush the rebels without mercy on the basis that every concession strengthens the opposition. Alva hand-picked an army of 10,000 men. He issued them the finest in armor while attending to their baser needs by hiring 2,000 prostitutes. Alva installed himself as Governor General and appointed a <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Troubles" title="Council of Troubles">Council of Troubles</a> which the terrified Protestants renamed "The Council of Blood". There were nine members: seven Dutch and two Spanish. Only the two Spanish members had the power to vote, with Alva personally retaining the right of final decision on any case that interested him. Through a network of spies and informers, hardly a family in Flanders did not mourn some member arrested or killed. One morning, 1,500 were seized in their sleep and sent to jail. There were short trials held, often on the spot, for 40 or 50 at a time. In January 1568, 84 people were executed from Valenciennes alone. William of Orange decided to strike back at Spain, having organized three armies. He lost every battle and the Eighty Years' War was underway (1568–1648).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Duke of Alva had money sent from Spain but it was intercepted by English privateers who were beginning to establish England as a viable world power. The Queen of England sent her apologies as a matter of diplomatic courtesy while unofficially enjoying Spain's troubles. Alva responded to his financial bind by imposing a new series of taxes. There was a 1% levy on all property, due immediately. He enforced a 5% perpetual tax on every transfer of realty and a 10% perpetual tax on every sale. This was Alva's downfall. Catholics, as well as Protestants, opposed him for eroding the foundations of business upon which the Dutch economy was built. What followed was a series of mutual confiscation of property as England and Spain played international cat-and-mouse. </p><p>Two new forces emerged to oppose Spain. Seizing upon the term, Beggars, used earlier in a derogatory manner by Margaret of Parma, the Dutch rebels formed the Wild Beggars and the Beggars of the Sea. The Wild Beggars pillaged churches and monasteries, cutting off the noses and ears of priests and monks. The Beggars of the Sea took to pirating under commission from William of Orange. William, who raised another army after a series of earlier defeats, again battled the Spanish without a single victory. He could neither control his troops nor deal with the fanatic Beggars. There existed no true unity between Catholics, Calvinists, and Protestants against Alva. The Beggars, who were nearly all ardent Calvinists, showed against the Catholics the same ferocity that the Inquisition and the Council of Blood had shown against rebels and heretics. Their captives were often given a choice between Calvinism and death. They unhesitatingly killed those who clung to the old faith, sometimes after incredible tortures. One Protestant historian wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy rank. The islanders found fierce pleasure in these acts of cruelty. A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from a Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maastricht_1576.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Maastricht_1576.JPG/250px-Maastricht_1576.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Maastricht_1576.JPG/375px-Maastricht_1576.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Maastricht_1576.JPG/500px-Maastricht_1576.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury" title="Spanish Fury">Spanish Fury</a> at <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> in 1576</figcaption></figure> <p>While Alva rested, he sent his son <a href="/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_4th_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba">Don Fadrique</a> to revenge the Beggar's atrocities. Don Fadrique's troops indiscriminately sacked homes, monasteries and churches. They stole the jewels and costly robes of the religious. They trampled consecrated hosts, butchered men and violated women. No distinction was made between Catholic or Protestant. His army crushed the weak defenses of <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a> and put nearly every man in town to death, hanging some by the feet while drowning 500 others. Sometime later after brief resistance, little <a href="/wiki/Naarden" title="Naarden">Naarden</a> surrendered to the Spaniards. They greeted the victorious soldiers with tables set with feasts. The soldiers ate, drank, then killed every person in the town. Don Fadrique's army later attempted to besiege <a href="/wiki/Alkmaar" title="Alkmaar">Alkmaar</a> but the rebels won by opening the dikes and routing the Spanish troops. When Don Fadrique came to <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> a brutal battle ensued. Haarlem was a Calvinist center that was known for its enthusiastic support of the rebels. A garrison of 4,000 troops defended the city with such intensity that Don Fadrique contemplated withdrawing. His father, Alva, threatened to disown him if he stopped the siege, so the barbarities intensified. Each army hung captives on crosses facing the enemy. The Dutch defenders taunted the Spanish besiegers by staging parodies of Catholic rituals on the cities ramparts.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William sent 3,000 men in an effort to relieve Haarlem. They were destroyed and subsequent efforts to save the city were futile. After seven months, when the city's inhabitants had been reduced to eating weeds and heather, the city surrendered (11 July 1573). Most of the 1,600 surviving defenders were put to death and 400 leading citizens were executed. Those that were spared were shown mercy only because they agreed to pay a fine of 250,000 guilders, a sizable sum even by today's standards. This was considered the last and most costly victory of Alva's regime. The Bishop of Namur estimated that in seven years, Alva had done more to harm Catholicism than Luther or Calvin had done in a generation. A new Governor of the Netherlands followed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division">Division</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oudewater_1575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oudewater_1575.jpg/250px-Oudewater_1575.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oudewater_1575.jpg/375px-Oudewater_1575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Oudewater_1575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Spanish Catholics <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oudewater_(1575)" title="Siege of Oudewater (1575)">invaded Oudewater</a> and brutally massacred every single man, woman, and child that did not have the good fortune to flee from the town.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg/250px-Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg/375px-Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg/500px-Baudaert_battle_scene_Antwerp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1018" /></a><figcaption>Battle scene in Antwerp</figcaption></figure> <p>Philip's half-brother, the famous <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">Don John</a>, was placed in charge of the Spanish troops who, feeling cheated at not being able to pillage Zeirikzee, mutinied and began a campaign of indiscriminate plunder and violence. This "<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury" title="Spanish Fury">Spanish Fury</a>" was used by William to reinforce his arguments to ally all the Netherlands' Provinces with him. The Union of Brussels was formed only to be dissolved later out of intolerance towards the religious diversity of its members. Calvinists began their wave of uncontrolled atrocities aimed at the Catholics. This divisiveness gave Spain the opportunity to send <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma</a> with 20,000 well-trained troops into the Netherlands. Groningen, Breda, Campen, Antwerp, and Brussels, among others, were put under siege. </p><p>Farnese, the son of Margaret of Parma, was the ablest general of Spain. In January 1579, a group of Catholic nobles formed a League for the protection of their religion and property. Later that same month Friesland, Gelderland, Groningen, Holland, Overijssel, Utrecht and Zeeland formed the United Provinces which became the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> of today. The remaining provinces became the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> and in the 19th century became <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. Farnese soon regained nearly all the Southern provinces for Spain. </p><p>Further north, the city of <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> was besieged on 12 March 1579. Farnese's attackers tunnelled an extensive network of passages in order to enter the city beneath its walled defenses. The defenders dug tunnels to meet them. Battles were fought fiercely in caverns with limited manoeuvring capabilities. Hundreds of besiegers were scalded or choked to death when boiling water was poured into the tunnels or fires were lit to fill them with smoke.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to mine the city, 500 of Farnese's own men were killed when the explosives detonated prematurely.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It took more than four months but the besiegers finally breached the wall and entered the city at night. Catching the exhausted defenders sleeping, they massacred 6,000 men, women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the city's 30,000 population, only 400 survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farnese repeopled it with Walloon Catholics. </p><p>Maastricht was a major disaster for the Protestant cause and the Dutch began to turn on William of Orange. After several unsuccessful attempts, William was assassinated in 1584 and died penniless. Spain had taken the upper hand on land but the Beggars still controlled the sea. Queen Elizabeth of England began to aid the Northern provinces and actually sent troops there in 1585. While Philip wasted Farnese with ridiculous and useless battles against <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, Spain had become spread too thin. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> suffered defeat at the hands of the English in 1588 and the situation in the Netherlands became increasingly difficult to manage. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Nassau</a>, William's son, had studied mathematics and applied the latest techniques in science to ballistics and siege warfare. He recaptured <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Deventer_(1591)" title="Siege of Deventer (1591)">Deventer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Groningen_(1594)" title="Siege of Groningen (1594)">Groningen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nijmegen_(1591)" title="Siege of Nijmegen (1591)">Nijmegen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Zutphen_(1591)" title="Siege of Zutphen (1591)">Zutphen</a>. </p><p>In 1592, Farnese died of wounds and exhaustion. Philip II died in 1598. As the period of sieges subsided, the War of Liberation continued. Archduke Albert and Isabel of Austria were given sovereign rights in the Netherlands forming a truce in 1609 that gave the Dutch a brief respite from war. But, in 1621, 12 years later, the war resumed when the Netherlands reverted to Spain when Albert and Isabel died childless. This period never experienced the fury of the early sieges; however, the struggle for independence went on. Attacks on Dutch border towns were made by <a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola" title="Ambrogio Spinola">Spinola</a>, an Italian banker who pledged allegiance to Spain. Spain made progress in trying to suppress the Dutch but the Dutch recovered. They were financially supported by France and the money was poured into ships since Spain's control of the seas had been broken by England. Deeply involved in the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, Spain decided to yield everything to the Dutch in order to be free to fight the French. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_M%C3%BCnster" title="Peace of Münster">Treaty of Münster</a> was signed on 30 January 1648, ending the War of Liberation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France">France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1532, King <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> intervened politically and militarily in support of Protestant German princes against the Habsburgs, as did <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">King Henry II</a> in 1551; both kings firmly repressed attempts to spread Lutheran ideas within France. An organised influx of Calvinist preachers from <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> and elsewhere during the 1550s succeeded in setting up hundreds of underground Calvinist congregations in France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1560s">1560s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1560s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG/250px-La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG/375px-La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/La_Rochelle-Tour_St_Nicolas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>The fortified harbour of <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> in western France became a Protestant stronghold that was fought over in two <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_Rochelle_(1572%E2%80%931573)" title="Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573)">lengthy sieges</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a pattern soon to become familiar in the Netherlands and Scotland, underground <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> preaching and the formation of covert alliances with members of the nobility quickly led to more direct action to gain political and religious control. The prospect of taking over rich church properties and monastic lands had led nobles in many parts of Europe to support a princely Reformation. Added to this was the Calvinist teaching that leading citizens had the duty to overthrow what they perceived as an ungodly ruler (i.e. one who was not supportive of Calvinism). In March 1560, the "<a href="/wiki/Amboise_conspiracy" title="Amboise conspiracy">Amboise conspiracy</a>", or "Tumult of Amboise", was an attempt on the part of a group of disaffected nobles to abduct the young king <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France" title="Francis II of France">Francis II</a> and eliminate the Catholic <a href="/wiki/House_of_Guise" title="House of Guise">House of Guise</a>. It was foiled when their plans were discovered. The first major instances of systematic Protestant <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">destruction of images and statues</a> in Catholic churches occurred in <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> in 1560. The following year, the attacks extended to over 20 cities and towns, and would, in turn, incite Catholic urban groups to massacres and riots in <a href="/wiki/Sens" title="Sens">Sens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cahors" title="Cahors">Cahors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carcassonne" title="Carcassonne">Carcassonne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a> and other cities.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In December 1560, Francis II died, and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de%27_Medici" title="Catherine de' Medici">Catherine de' Medici</a> became regent for her young son <a href="/wiki/Charles_IX_of_France" title="Charles IX of France">Charles IX</a>. Although a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholic</a>, she was prepared to deal favourably with the <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenot</a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a>. She therefore supported religious toleration in the shape of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Saint-Germain" title="Edict of Saint-Germain">Edict of Saint-Germain</a> (January 1562), which allowed the Huguenots to worship publicly outside of towns and privately inside of them. On 1 March, a faction of the Guise family's retainers attacked an illegal Calvinist service in <a href="/wiki/Wassy-sur-Blaise" class="mw-redirect" title="Wassy-sur-Blaise">Wassy-sur-Blaise</a> in <a href="/wiki/Champagne_(province)" title="Champagne (province)">Champagne</a>. As hostilities broke out, the Edict was revoked. </p><p>This provoked the First War. The Bourbons, with English support and led by <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_de_Bourbon,_Prince_de_Cond%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé">Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Admiral_Coligny" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiral Coligny">Admiral Coligny</a>, began to seize and garrison strategic towns along the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dreux" title="Battle of Dreux">Battle of Dreux</a> and the battle of <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a> were the first major engagements of the conflict. In February 1563, at Orléans, <a href="/wiki/Francis,_Duke_of_Guise" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis, Duke of Guise">Francis, Duke of Guise</a> was assassinated, and Catherine's fears that the war might drag on led her to mediate a truce and the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Amboise" title="Edict of Amboise">Edict of Amboise</a> (1563), which again provided for a controlled religious toleration of Protestant worship. </p><p>However, this was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by both Catholics and Protestants. The political temperature of the surrounding lands was rising, as religious unrest grew in the Netherlands. The Huguenots tried to gain French government support for intervention against the Spanish forces arriving in the Netherlands. Failing this, Protestant troops then made an unsuccessful attempt to capture and take control of King Charles IX at Meaux in 1567. This provoked a further outbreak of hostilities (the Second War), which ended in another unsatisfactory truce, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Longjumeau" title="Peace of Longjumeau">Peace of Longjumeau</a> (March 1568). </p><p>In September of that year, war again broke out (the Third War). Catherine and Charles decided this time to ally themselves with the House of Guise. The Huguenot army was under the command of <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé">Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé</a>, and aided by forces from south-eastern France and a contingent of Protestant militias from Germany—including 14,000 mercenary <i><a href="/wiki/Reiter" title="Reiter">reiters</a></i> led by the Calvinist <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang,_Count_Palatine_of_Zweibr%C3%BCcken" title="Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken">Duke of Zweibrücken</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After the Duke was killed in action, he was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Mansfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Mansfeld">Count of Mansfeld</a> and the Dutch <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William of Orange</a> and his brothers Louis and Henry. Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a>. The Catholics were commanded by the <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Duke d'Anjou</a> (later King Henry III) and assisted by troops from Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg/250px-Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg/375px-Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Dubois-massacre-d%C3%A9tail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">St. Bartholomew's Day massacre</a> in 1572</figcaption></figure> <p>The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the <a href="/wiki/Poitou" title="Poitou">Poitou</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Saintonge" title="County of Saintonge">Saintonge</a> regions (to protect <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a>), and then <a href="/wiki/Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Angoulême">Angoulême</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognac,_France" title="Cognac, France">Cognac</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jarnac" title="Battle of Jarnac">Battle of Jarnac</a> (16 March 1569), the Prince de Condé was killed, forcing <a href="/wiki/Gaspard_II_de_Coligny" title="Gaspard II de Coligny">Admiral de Coligny</a> to take command of the Protestant forces. Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with <a href="/wiki/Gabriel,_comte_de_Montgomery" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel, comte de Montgomery">Gabriel, comte de Montgomery</a>, and in the spring of 1570, they pillaged <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, cut a path through the south of France and went up the <a href="/wiki/Rhone" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhone">Rhone</a> valley to <a href="/wiki/La_Charit%C3%A9-sur-Loire" title="La Charité-sur-Loire">La Charité-sur-Loire</a>. The staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> led to the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye" title="Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye">Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye</a> (8 August 1570), which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots. In 1572, rising tensions between local Catholics and Protestant forces attending the wedding of the Protestant Henry of Navarre, and the King's sister, Marguerite de Valois, culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Bartholomew%27s_Day_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre">Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre</a>. This led to the Fourth and Fifth Civil wars in 1572 and 1573–1576. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_III">Henry III</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Henry III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry III of France</a></div> <p>Henry of Anjou was crowned King <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry III of France</a> in 1575, at <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a>, but hostilities—the Fifth War—had already flared up again. Henry soon found himself in the difficult position of trying to maintain royal authority in the face of feuding <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">warlords</a> who refused to compromise. In 1576, the King signed the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Beaulieu" title="Edict of Beaulieu">Edict of Beaulieu</a>, granting minor concessions to the Calvinists, but a brief Sixth Civil War took place in 1577. <a href="/wiki/Henry_I,_Duke_of_Guise" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry I, Duke of Guise">Henry I, Duke of Guise</a>, formed the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_League_(French)" title="Catholic League (French)">Catholic League</a> to protect the Catholic cause in France. Further hostilities—the Seventh War (1579–1580)—ended in the stalemate of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fleix" title="Treaty of Fleix">Treaty of Fleix</a>. </p><p>The fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the King's youngest brother and heir presumptive, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois,_Duke_of_Anjou" class="mw-redirect" title="François, Duke of Anjou">François, Duke of Anjou</a>, died. As Henry III had no son, under <a href="/wiki/Salic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Salic Law">Salic Law</a>, the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry of Navarre</a>. Under pressure from the Duke of Guise, Henry III reluctantly issued an edict suppressing Protestantism and annulling Henry of Navarre's right to the throne. </p><p>In December 1584, the Duke of Guise signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Joinville" title="Treaty of Joinville">Treaty of Joinville</a> on behalf of the Catholic League with <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League. The situation degenerated into the Eighth War (1585–1589). Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a>. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Committee_of_Sixteen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Committee of Sixteen (page does not exist)">Committee of Sixteen</a>, were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12 May 1588, a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris, and Henry III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government and welcomed the Duke of Guise to Paris. The Guises then proposed a settlement with a cypher as heir and demanded a meeting of the <a href="/wiki/French_States-General" class="mw-redirect" title="French States-General">Estates-General</a>, which was to be held in <a href="/wiki/Blois" title="Blois">Blois</a>. </p><p>King Henry decided to strike first. On 23 December 1588 at the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_Blois" class="mw-redirect" title="Château Blois">Château de Blois</a>, Henry of Guise and his brother, the <a href="/wiki/Louis_II,_Cardinal_of_Guise" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis II, Cardinal of Guise">Cardinal de Guise</a>, were lured into a trap and were murdered. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the league declared open war against King Henry. The <a href="/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris" title="Parlement of Paris">Parlement of Paris</a> instituted criminal charges against the King, who now joined forces with his cousin, Henry of Navarre, to war against the League. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_of_Lorraine,_Duke_of_Mayenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne">Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne</a>, then became the leader of the Catholic League. League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_Sorbonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Collège de Sorbonne">Sorbonne</a> proclaimed that it was just and necessary to depose Henry III. In July 1589, in the royal camp at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Cloud" title="Saint-Cloud">Saint-Cloud</a>, a monk named <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cl%C3%A9ment" title="Jacques Clément">Jacques Clément</a> gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was executed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henry III called for Henry of Navarre and begged him, in the name of <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Statecraft</a>, to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused. In keeping with <a href="/wiki/Salic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Salic Law">Salic Law</a>, he named Henry as his heir. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_IV">Henry IV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Henry IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_Henry_IV_of_France" title="Succession of Henry IV of France">Succession of Henry IV of France</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a></div> <p>The situation on the ground in 1589 was that King <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry IV of France</a>, as Navarre had become, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arques" title="Battle of Arques">Battle of Arques</a>. Henry's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg/250px-Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg/375px-Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg/500px-Louis_XIII_Richelieu_devant_La_Rochelle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>The first part of the reign of Henry IV's son <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII" title="Louis XIII">Louis XIII</a> was marked by domestic conflict, including a series of <a href="/wiki/Huguenot_rebellions" title="Huguenot rebellions">Huguenot rebellions</a> in the 1620s.</figcaption></figure> <p>The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France, and this was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England, such as the <a href="/wiki/Forty_Martyrs_of_England_and_Wales" title="Forty Martyrs of England and Wales">Forty Martyrs of England and Wales</a>. The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ivry" title="Battle of Ivry">Battle of Ivry</a>, fought on 14 March 1590, was another victory for the king, and Henry's forces went on to lay siege to Paris, but the siege was broken by Spanish support. Realising that his predecessor had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in Catholic Paris, Henry reputedly uttered the famous phrase <i>Paris vaut bien une messe</i> ("Paris is well worth a Mass"). He was formally received into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> in 1593 and was crowned at <a href="/wiki/Chartres" title="Chartres">Chartres</a> in 1594. </p><p>Some members of the League fought on, but enough Catholics were won over by the King's conversion to increasingly isolate the diehards. The Spanish withdrew from France under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Vervins" title="Peace of Vervins">Peace of Vervins</a>. Henry was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished Kingdom and reuniting France under a single authority. The wars concluded in 1598, when Henry IV issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a>, which granted a degree of religious toleration to Protestants. </p><p>France, although always ruled by a Catholic monarch, had played a major part in supporting the Protestants in Germany and the Netherlands against their dynastic rivals, the Habsburgs. The period of the French Wars of Religion effectively removed France's influence as a major European power, allowing the Catholic forces in the Holy Roman Empire to regroup and recover. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Denmark–Norway"><span id="Denmark.E2.80.93Norway"></span>Denmark–Norway</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Denmark–Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Denmark%E2%80%93Norway_and_Holstein" title="Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein">Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark">Denmark</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Denmark"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1524, King <a href="/wiki/Christian_II_of_Denmark" title="Christian II of Denmark">Christian II</a> converted to Lutheranism and encouraged Lutheran preachers to enter Denmark despite the opposition of the Danish diet of 1524. Following the death of King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_of_Denmark" title="Frederick I of Denmark">Frederick I</a> in 1533, <a href="/wiki/Count%27s_Feud" title="Count's Feud">war</a> broke out between Catholic followers of Count Christoph of Oldenburg and the firmly Lutheran <a href="/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark" title="Christian III of Denmark">Count Christian of Holstein</a>. After losing his main support in <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, Christoph quickly fell to defeat, finally losing his last stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> in 1536. Lutheranism was immediately established, the Catholic bishops were imprisoned, and monastic and church lands were soon confiscated to pay for the armies that had brought Christian to power. In Denmark, this increased royal revenues by 300%. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norway,_Faroe_Islands,_and_Iceland"><span id="Norway.2C_Faroe_Islands.2C_and_Iceland"></span>Norway, Faroe Islands, and Iceland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Norway, Faroe Islands, and Iceland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christian III established Lutheranism by force in <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> in 1537, <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Faroe_Islands#Protestant_Reformation" title="Catholic Church in the Faroe Islands">1540</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sau%C3%B0afell" title="Battle of Sauðafell">1550</a>. In 1536/1537, he also made Norway a <a href="/wiki/Denmark-Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Denmark-Norway">puppet state under the Danish crown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would be a puppet state until 1814, when <a href="/wiki/Frederick_VI_of_Denmark" title="Frederick VI of Denmark">Frederick VI</a> renounced his claims to the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Norway" title="Crown of Norway">Crown of Norway</a> in favor of the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Sweden">King of Sweden</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kiel" title="Treaty of Kiel">Treaty of Kiel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thirty_Years'_War_2"><span id="Thirty_Years.27_War_2"></span>Thirty Years' War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Thirty Years' War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1625, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_IV_of_Denmark" title="Christian IV of Denmark">Christian IV</a>, who was also the Duke of <a href="/wiki/Holstein" title="Holstein">Holstein</a>, agreed to help the Lutheran rulers of neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a> against the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> by intervening militarily. Denmark's cause was aided by France, which, together with England, had agreed to help subsidize the war. Christian had himself appointed war leader of the Lower Saxon Alliance and raised an army of 20,000–35,000 mercenaries. Christian, however, was forced to retire before the combined forces of Imperial generals <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein" title="Albrecht von Wallenstein">Albrecht von Wallenstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_Tilly" class="mw-redirect" title="General Tilly">Tilly</a>. Wallenstein's army marched north, occupying <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a>, and ultimately <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>. However, lacking a fleet, he was unable to take the Danish capital on the island of <a href="/wiki/Zealand_(Denmark)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zealand (Denmark)">Zealand</a>. Peace negotiations were concluded in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Treaty of Lübeck">Treaty of Lübeck</a> in 1629, which stated that Christian IV could keep his control over Denmark-Norway if he would abandon his support for the Protestant German states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Britain_and_Ireland">Great Britain and Ireland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Great Britain and Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Reformation came to Britain and Ireland with King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a>'s breach with the Catholic Church in 1533. At this time there were only a limited number of Protestants among the general population, and these were mostly living in the towns of the South and the East of England. With the state-ordered break with the Pope in Rome, the Church in England, Wales and Ireland was placed under the rule of the King and Parliament. </p><p>The first major changes to doctrine and practice took place under Vicar-General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cromwell" title="Thomas Cromwell">Thomas Cromwell</a>, and the newly appointed Protestant-leaning <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a>. The first challenge to the institution of these reforms came from Ireland, where "Silken" <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_10th_Earl_of_Kildare" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare">Thomas Fitzgerald</a> cited the controversy to justify his armed uprising of 1534. The young Fitzgerald failed to gain much local support, however, and in October a 1,600-strong army of English and Welshmen arrived in Ireland, along with four modern siege guns.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year Fitzgerald was blasted into submission, and in August he was induced to surrender. </p><p>Shortly after this episode, local resistance to the reforms emerged in England. The <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">dissolution of the monasteries</a>, which began in 1536, provoked a violent northern Catholic rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_of_Grace" title="Pilgrimage of Grace">Pilgrimage of Grace</a>, which was eventually put down with much bloodshed. The reformation continued to be imposed on an often unwilling population with the aid of stern laws that made it treason, punishable by death, to oppose the King's actions with respect to religion. The next major armed resistance took place in the <a href="/wiki/Prayer_Book_Rebellion" title="Prayer Book Rebellion">Prayer Book Rebellion</a> of 1549, which was an unsuccessful rising in western England against the enforced substitution of Cranmer's English language service for the Latin Catholic Mass. </p><p>Following the restoration of Catholicism under Queen <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary I of England</a> in 1553, there was a brief unsuccessful Protestant rising in the south-east of England. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scottish_Reformation">Scottish Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Scottish Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a></div> <p>The Reformation in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> began in conflict. Fiery Calvinist preacher <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> returned to Scotland in 1560, having been exiled for his part in the assassination of Cardinal Beaton. He proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> where a large number of Protestant sympathisers and noblemen had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw by the Queen Regent, <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Guise" title="Mary of Guise">Mary of Guise</a>, but the Protestants went at once to <a href="/wiki/Perth,_Scotland" title="Perth, Scotland">Perth</a>, a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist, Knox preached a fiery sermon that provoked an <a href="/wiki/Iconoclastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclastic">iconoclastic</a> riot. A mob poured into the church and it was entirely gutted. In the pattern of Calvinist riots in France and the Netherlands, the mob then attacked two friaries in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army. </p><p>With Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the queen regent retreated to <a href="/wiki/Dunbar" title="Dunbar">Dunbar</a>. By now, Calvinist mobs had overrun much of <a href="/wiki/Central_Lowlands" title="Central Lowlands">central Scotland</a>, destroying monasteries and Catholic churches as they went. On 30 June, the Protestants occupied <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, though they were only able to hold it for a month. Even before their arrival, the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On 1 July, Knox preached from the pulpit of <a href="/wiki/St_Giles%27_Cathedral" title="St Giles' Cathedral">St Giles'</a>, the most influential in the capital.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knox negotiated by letter with <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley" title="William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley">William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth's</a> chief advisor, for English support. When additional French troops arrived in <a href="/wiki/Leith" title="Leith">Leith</a>, Edinburgh's seaport, the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on 24 October 1559, the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, <a href="/wiki/William_Maitland_of_Lethington" title="William Maitland of Lethington">William Maitland of Lethington</a>, defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Castle" title="Edinburgh Castle">Edinburgh Castle</a> on 10 June 1560 paved the way for the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Edinburgh" title="Treaty of Edinburgh">Treaty of Edinburgh</a>, and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland, leaving the Scottish Calvinists in control on the ground. Catholicism was forcibly suppressed. </p><p>The return of <a href="/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots" title="Mary, Queen of Scots">Mary, Queen of Scots</a>, to Scotland in 1560, led to further tension between her and the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Lords_of_the_Congregation" title="Lords of the Congregation">Lords of the Congregation</a>. Mary claimed to favour religious toleration on the French model, however, the Protestant establishment feared a reestablishment of Catholicism, and sought English help to neutralise or depose Mary. Mary's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant Lords in open rebellion. Mary set out for Stirling on 26 August 1565 to confront them. Moray and the rebellious lords were routed and fled into exile; the decisive military action became known as the <a href="/wiki/Chaseabout_Raid" title="Chaseabout Raid">Chaseabout Raid</a>. In 1567, Mary was captured by another rebellious force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carberry_Hill" title="Battle of Carberry Hill">Battle of Carberry Hill</a> and imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/Loch_Leven_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Loch Leven Castle">Loch Leven Castle</a>, where she was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her one-year-old son James. Mary escaped from <a href="/wiki/Loch_Leven_(Kinross)" title="Loch Leven (Kinross)">Loch Leven</a> the following year, and once again managed to raise a small army. After her army's defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langside" title="Battle of Langside">Battle of Langside</a> on 13 May, she fled to England, where she was imprisoned by Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth</a>. Her son <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James VI</a> was raised as a Protestant, later becoming King of England as well as Scotland. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rising_of_the_North" title="Rising of the North">Rising of the North</a> from 1569 to 1570 was an unsuccessful attempt by Catholic nobles from <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">Northern England</a> to depose Queen Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_Civil_War">English Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: English Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_English_Civil_War" title="First English Civil War">First English Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_English_Civil_War" title="Second English Civil War">Second English Civil War</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a>, in personal union under the Stuart king, <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="James I of England">James I & VI</a>, continued Elizabeth I's policy of providing military support to European Protestants in the Netherlands and France. King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> whom Royal French forces held besieged in <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a>. However, tax-raising authority for these wars was getting harder and harder to raise from parliament. </p><p>In 1638 the Scottish <a href="/wiki/National_Covenant" title="National Covenant">National Covenant</a> was signed by aggrieved Presbyterian lords and commoners. A Scottish rebellion, known as the <a href="/wiki/Bishops_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishops War">Bishops War</a>, soon followed, leading to the defeat of a weak royalist counter-force in 1640. The rebels went on to capture <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, further weakening King Charles' authority. </p><p>In October 1641, a major rebellion broke out in Ireland. Charles soon needed to raise more money to suppress this <a href="/wiki/Irish_rebellion_of_1641" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion</a>. Meanwhile, English <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> and Scottish <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a> intensely opposed the king's main religious policy of unifying the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> under a form of <a href="/wiki/High_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="High Church">High Church</a> Anglicanism. This, its opponents believed, was far too catholic in form, and based on the authority of <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a>. </p><p>The English parliament refused to vote enough money for Charles to defeat the Scots without the King giving up much of his authority and reforming the English church along more Calvinist lines. The king refused, and deteriorating relations led to the outbreak of war in 1642. The first <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">pitched battle</a> of the war, fought at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgehill" title="Battle of Edgehill">Edgehill</a> on 23 October 1642, proved inconclusive, and both the Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed it as a victory. The second field action of the war was a stand-off at <a href="/wiki/Turnham_Green_(Battle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turnham Green (Battle)">Turnham Green</a>, and Charles was forced to withdraw to <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, which would serve as his base for the remainder of the war. </p><p>In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gloucester" title="Siege of Gloucester">siege of Gloucester</a> and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Newbury" title="First Battle of Newbury">First Battle of Newbury</a> on 20 September 1643. In an attempt to gain an advantage in numbers, Charles negotiated a ceasefire with the Catholic rebels in Ireland, freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England. Simultaneously Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for their aid and assistance. </p><p>With the help of the Scots, Parliament won at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marston_Moor" title="Battle of Marston Moor">Marston Moor</a> (2 July 1644), gaining <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> and much of the north of England. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>'s conduct in this battle proved decisive, and demonstrated his leadership potential. In 1645 Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Self-denying_Ordinance" title="Self-denying Ordinance">Self-denying Ordinance</a>, by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands, allowing the re-organization of its main forces into the <a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a>. By 1646 Charles had been forced to surrender himself to the Scots, and the parliamentary forces were in control of England. Charles was executed in 1649, and the monarchy was not <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">restored</a> until 1660. Even then, religious strife continued through the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> and thereafter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PRENDERGAST(1870)_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September,_1653.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/200px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/300px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg/400px-PRENDERGAST%281870%29_p_415_Map_of_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_by_the_Act_of_26th_September%2C_1653.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1742" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>After Cromwell's victory, huge areas of land were <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">confiscated</a> and the Irish Catholics were banished to the lands of <a href="/wiki/Connacht" title="Connacht">Connacht</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The wars of religion in Ireland took place in the context of a country that had already rebelled frequently against English rule in the previous decades. In 1534, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_10th_Earl_of_Kildare" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare">Thomas Fitzgerald</a>, known as Silken Thomas, led what was called the Silken Thomas Rebellion. In the province of <a href="/wiki/Ulster" title="Ulster">Ulster</a> in the North of the country, <a href="/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_(Irish_chieftain)" title="Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain)">Shane O'Neill</a>'s Rebellion occurred from 1558 to 1567, and in the South of the Country, the <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Rebellions" title="Desmond Rebellions">Desmond Rebellions</a> occurred in 1569–1573 and 1579–1583 in the province of <a href="/wiki/Munster" title="Munster">Munster</a>. </p><p>Ireland entered into a continuous state of war with the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">rebellion of 1641</a>, with most of the island controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Ireland" title="Confederate Ireland">Irish Confederates</a>. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under <a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_1st_Duke_of_Ormonde" class="mw-redirect" title="James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde">the Duke of Ormonde</a> attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, but their opponents routed them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rathmines" title="Battle of Rathmines">Battle of Rathmines</a> (2 August 1649). As the former Member of Parliament <a href="/wiki/Admiral_Robert_Blake" class="mw-redirect" title="Admiral Robert Blake">Admiral Robert Blake</a> blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in <a href="/wiki/Kinsale" title="Kinsale">Kinsale</a>, Oliver Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance in Ireland. </p><p>Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Drogheda" title="Siege of Drogheda">siege of Drogheda</a> and massacre of nearly 3,500 people<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests—became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre has significance mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> and scorched-earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and <a href="/wiki/Wexford" title="Wexford">Wexford</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliamentarian</a> conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. Historians have estimated<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that up to 30% of Ireland's population either died or had gone into exile by the end of the wars. The victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land in the wake of the conquest and distributed it to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms#Montrose's_defeat_and_death" title="Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms § Montrose's defeat and death</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms#Third_Civil_War" title="Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms § Third Civil War</a></div> <p>The execution of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> altered the dynamics of the <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Civil War in Scotland</a>, which had raged between Royalists and <a href="/wiki/Covenanters" title="Covenanters">Covenanters</a> since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray, and their erstwhile leader, the <a href="/wiki/James_Graham,_1st_Marquess_of_Montrose" title="James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose">Marquess of Montrose</a>, had gone into exile. However, Montrose, who had raised a <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> force in Norway, later returned but did not succeed in raising many Highland clans, and the Covenanters defeated his army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carbisdale_1650" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Carbisdale 1650">Battle of Carbisdale</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ross-shire" title="Ross-shire">Ross-shire</a> on 27 April 1650. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>. On 20 May, the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/250px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/375px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg/500px-Cromwell_at_Dunbar_Andrew_Carrick_Gow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1244" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a> at Dunbar", by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carrick_Gow" title="Andrew Carrick Gow">Andrew Carrick Gow</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a> landed in Scotland at <a href="/wiki/Garmouth" title="Garmouth">Garmouth</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moray" title="Moray">Moray</a> on 23 June 1650 and signed the 1638 <a href="/wiki/National_Covenant" title="National Covenant">National Covenant</a> and the 1643 <a href="/wiki/Solemn_League_and_Covenant" title="Solemn League and Covenant">Solemn League and Covenant</a> immediately after coming ashore. With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England. </p><p>Cromwell arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at Dunbar. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of <a href="/wiki/David_Leslie_(Scottish_general)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Leslie (Scottish general)">David Leslie</a>, tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dunbar_(1650)" title="Battle of Dunbar (1650)">Battle of Dunbar</a> on 3 September. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year, his army had occupied much of southern Scotland. </p><p>In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a> into <a href="/wiki/Fife" title="Fife">Fife</a> and defeated the Scots at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inverkeithing" title="Battle of Inverkeithing">Battle of Inverkeithing</a> (20 July 1651). The New Model Army advanced towards <a href="/wiki/Perth,_Scotland" title="Perth, Scotland">Perth</a>, which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving <a href="/wiki/George_Monck" class="mw-redirect" title="George Monck">George Monck</a> to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took <a href="/wiki/Stirling" title="Stirling">Stirling</a> on 14 August and <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> on 1 September. In 1652, the army finished off the remnants of Royalist resistance, under the terms of the "<a href="/wiki/Tender_of_Union" title="Tender of Union">Tender of Union</a>". </p><p>In late 1688, <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William of Orange</a> successfully invaded England. After the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Estates_(1689)" title="Convention of Estates (1689)">Convention of Estates</a> deposed the Catholic king <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">James VII</a> on 11 April 1689, they offered the royal title to William and his wife <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary</a> (the Protestant daughter of James), which they accepted on 11 May 1689. During the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1689" title="Jacobite rising of 1689">Jacobite rising of 1689</a>, instigated by James' Roman Catholic and Anglican Tory supporters,<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_Jacobite_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Jacobite-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Calvinist forces in the south and lowlands of Scotland triumphed. Despite this defeat, many <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highland" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Highland">Scottish Highland</a> <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clans</a> remained either Catholic or Episcopalian in sympathy. The Catholic <a href="/wiki/Clan_MacDonald" class="mw-redirect" title="Clan MacDonald">Clan MacDonald</a> was subject to the 1691 <a href="/wiki/Glencoe_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Glencoe Massacre">Glencoe Massacre</a> for being late in pledging loyalty to the new Protestant king William II. Highland clans also rallied to the support of Catholic claimants to the British throne in later, failed <a href="/wiki/Jacobite_risings" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobite risings">Jacobite risings</a> of the erstwhile Stuart <a href="/wiki/James_Francis_Edward_Stuart" title="James Francis Edward Stuart">King James III</a> in 1715 and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Stuart" title="Charles Edward Stuart">Charles Edward Stuart</a> in 1745. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_of_Grace" title="Pilgrimage of Grace">Pilgrimage of Grace</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolt_in_late_medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular revolt in late medieval Europe">popular rising</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> in 1536–37 against <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s break with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigod%27s_rebellion" title="Bigod's rebellion">Bigod's rebellion</a> was an armed <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a> by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_England_and_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in England and Wales">English Roman Catholics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Westmorland" title="Westmorland">Westmorland</a> against <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">King Henry VIII</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation_Parliament" title="English Reformation Parliament">English Parliament</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Book_Rebellion" title="Prayer Book Rebellion">Prayer Book Rebellion</a> (1549)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_of_the_North" title="Rising of the North">Rising of the North</a> (1569–1570)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Rebellions" title="Desmond Rebellions">Desmond Rebellions</a> (1569–1573, 1579–1583)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Death toll"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/European_wars_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/European wars of religion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These figures include the deaths of civilians from <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, etc., as well as deaths of soldiers in battle and possible <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/massacre" class="extiw" title="wikt:massacre">massacres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>. </p> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr style="background:#CCCC;"> <th style="width:12%;">Lowest estimate</th> <th style="width:12%;">Highest estimate</th> <th style="width:10%;">Event</th> <th style="width:10%;">Location</th> <th style="width:7%;">From</th> <th width="7%">To</th> <th style="width:10%;">Duration</th> <th style="width:10%;">Main opponents*</th> <th style="width:10%;">Character </th></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="7006400000000000000♠">4,000,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-WhiteTYW_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhiteTYW-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7007120000000000000♠">12,000,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-WhiteTYW_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhiteTYW-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></td> <td>1618</td> <td>1648</td> <td>30 years</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>) against <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a></td> <td>began as a religious war; quickly became a French–Habsburg political clash </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="7006200000000000000♠">2,000,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-WhiteHuguenot_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhiteHuguenot-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006400000000000000♠">4,000,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-WhiteHuguenot_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhiteHuguenot-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></td> <td>France</td> <td>1562</td> <td>1598</td> <td>36 years</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a>) against <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a></td> <td>began as a religious war, and largely remained such </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="7005315000000000000♠">315,000</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005868000000000000♠">868,000</span> (616,000 in Ireland)<sup id="cite_ref-WhiteWTK_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhiteWTK-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Three Kingdoms">War of the Three Kingdoms</a></td> <td>Great Britain and Ireland</td> <td>1639</td> <td>1651</td> <td>12 years</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a>, various other <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a>), <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a> distributed in various fractions of the war</td> <td>civil, religion-state relation and religious freedom issues, with a national element </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="7005600000000000000♠">600,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-remilitari_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remilitari-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005700000000000000♠">700,000</span><sup id="cite_ref-remilitari_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remilitari-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></td> <td>1568</td> <td>1648</td> <td>80 years</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Reformed_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed church">Reformed</a>) against <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a></td> <td>conflicts over religion (and taxes and privileges) evolved into a war of independence </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="7005100000000000000♠">100,000</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005200000000000000♠">200,000</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></td> <td>1524</td> <td>1525</td> <td>1 year</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>), <a href="/wiki/Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholics">Catholics</a> against <a href="/wiki/Protestants" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestants">Protestants</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a>), <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a></td> <td>mixed economic and religious reasons, war between peasants and Protestant/Catholic landowners </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The wars listed were the most severe in casualties; the remaining religious conflicts in Europe lasted for only a few years, a year, or less and/or were much less violent. <a href="/wiki/Huguenot_rebellions" title="Huguenot rebellions">Huguenot rebellions</a> were possibly the most damaging conflict after the <a href="/wiki/German_Peasants%27_War" title="German Peasants' War">German Peasants' War</a> and may have taken up to 100,000 lives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_situation_pre-_and_post-European_wars">Religious situation pre- and post-European wars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Religious situation pre- and post-European wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the Reformation's zenith around 1590, Protestant governments and/or cultures controlled about half of the European territory; however, as a result of Catholic reconquests, only about one-fifth was left in 1690.<sup id="cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (May 2018)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:European_wars_of_religion#Dubious" title="Talk:European wars of religion">discuss</a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:792px;max-width:792px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Protestant_Reformation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/260px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/390px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/The_Protestant_Reformation.svg/520px-The_Protestant_Reformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Peak of the Reformation & beginning of the Counter-Reformation (1545–1620)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Counterreformation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/260px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/390px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Counterreformation.svg/520px-The_Counterreformation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">End of the Reformation & Counter-Reformation (1648)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:218px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg/260px-Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg/390px-Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg/520px-Edict_of_Fontainebleau.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">After the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685) expelled Huguenots from France</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Religious situation in Europe, late 16th & early to mid-17th century</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_Worms" title="Concordat of Worms">Concordat of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although the Italian Wars broke out in 1494, before the Reformation began in 1517, one of the peace conditions of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Cateau-Cambr%C3%A9sis" title="Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis">Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis</a> (1559) to all parties involved was that they needed to 'purge their lands of heresy'; in other words, all their subjects had to be forcefully reverted to Catholicism. When pressured by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a> to implement this obligation, <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy</a> proclaimed the Edict of Nice (15 February 1560), which soon led to an armed revolt by the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> in his domain that would last until July 1561.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Ibid plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">Constructs such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ibid." title="Ibid.">ibid.</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Loc._cit." title="Loc. cit.">loc. cit.</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Idem" title="Idem">idem</a></i> are <b>discouraged by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IBID" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:IBID">Wikipedia's style guide</a> for footnotes</b>, as they are easily broken. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit">improve this article</a> by replacing them with <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes#Naming_a_ref_tag_so_it_can_be_used_more_than_once" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Footnotes">named references</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Refref/core" title="Template:Refref/core">quick guide</a></i>), or an abbreviated title. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nolan-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nolan_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNolan2006" class="citation book cs1">Nolan, Cathal J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oBHJ1eK_tcoC&pg=PA710"><i>The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization, Volume 2</i></a>. London: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 708–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313337345" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313337345"><bdi>978-0313337345</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Wars+of+Religion%2C+1000%E2%80%931650%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Global+Warfare+and+Civilization%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=London&rft.pages=708-10&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0313337345&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Cathal+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoBHJ1eK_tcoC%26pg%3DPA710&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onnekink-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnnekink2013" class="citation book cs1">Onnekink, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XfmhAgAAQBAJ"><i>War and Religion after Westphalia, 1648–1713</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 1–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781409480211" title="Special:BookSources/9781409480211"><bdi>9781409480211</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Religion+after+Westphalia%2C+1648%E2%80%931713&rft.pages=1-8&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781409480211&rft.aulast=Onnekink&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXfmhAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Hearsey_McMillan_Salmon" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John Hearsey McMillan Salmon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Wars-of-Religion">"The Wars of Religion"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912150913/https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Wars-of-Religion">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Wars+of+Religion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.au=John+Hearsey+McMillan+Salmon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fhistory-of-Europe%2FThe-Wars-of-Religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, Steven</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/The_Better_Angels_of_Our_Nature" title="The Better Angels of Our Nature"><i>The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143122012" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143122012"><bdi>978-0143122012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Better+Angels+of+Our+Nature%3A+Why+Violence+Has+Declined&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0143122012&rft.aulast=Pinker&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPM-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IPM_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treaty of Münster 1648</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harvard-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarro,_R._J.McCleary,_R._M." class="citation web cs1">Barro, R. J. & McCleary, R. M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060830180138/http://economics.uchicago.edu/download/state_religion_03-03.pdf">"Which Countries have State Religions?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economics.uchicago.edu/download/state_religion_03-03.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 30 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Which+Countries+have+State+Religions%3F&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.au=Barro%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=McCleary%2C+R.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconomics.uchicago.edu%2Fdownload%2Fstate_religion_03-03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacCulloch735-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacCulloch735_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacCulloch2004" class="citation book cs1">MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZ5D2WOqidoC&pg=PT735"><i>Reformation: Europe's House Divided 1490–1700</i></a>. Penguin UK. p. 670. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141926605" title="Special:BookSources/978-0141926605"><bdi>978-0141926605</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reformation%3A+Europe%27s+House+Divided+1490%E2%80%931700&rft.pages=670&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0141926605&rft.aulast=MacCulloch&rft.aufirst=Diarmaid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKZ5D2WOqidoC%26pg%3DPT735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawDemy2017" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Jeffrey M.; Demy, Timothy J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA845"><i>War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict</i></a>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 845. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610695176" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610695176"><bdi>978-1610695176</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Religion%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Faith+and+Conflict&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=845&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1610695176&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+M.&rft.au=Demy%2C+Timothy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKDlFDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowell-Meyers2002" class="citation book cs1">Cowell-Meyers, Kimberly (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9CGPaIE5z1MC&pg=PA1"><i>Religion and Politics in the Nineteenth Century: The Party Faithful in Ireland and Germany</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275971854" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275971854"><bdi>978-0275971854</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Politics+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+The+Party+Faithful+in+Ireland+and+Germany&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0275971854&rft.aulast=Cowell-Meyers&rft.aufirst=Kimberly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9CGPaIE5z1MC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshay2008" class="citation book cs1">Ishay, Micheline (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YTh22XQrtlQC&pg=PA99"><i>The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era</i></a>. Oakland: University of California Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520256415" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520256415"><bdi>978-0520256415</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Human+Rights%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Globalization+Era&rft.place=Oakland&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0520256415&rft.aulast=Ishay&rft.aufirst=Micheline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYTh22XQrtlQC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onnekink9-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink9_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Onnekink, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisconti2003" class="citation book cs1">Visconti, Joseph (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4TmARujuu-EC&pg=PA300"><i>The Waldensian Way to God</i></a>. Xulon Press. pp. 299–325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781591607922" title="Special:BookSources/9781591607922"><bdi>9781591607922</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Waldensian+Way+to+God&rft.pages=299-325&rft.pub=Xulon+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781591607922&rft.aulast=Visconti&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4TmARujuu-EC%26pg%3DPA300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998175-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998175_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurgess1998">Burgess 1998</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998196–197_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurgess1998">Burgess 1998</a>, p. 196–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998198–200-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgess1998198–200_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurgess1998">Burgess 1998</a>, p. 198–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Kightly1975" class="citation web cs1">Charles Kightly (September 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2538/1/DX197636.pdf">"The early Lollards"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of York</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019080038/http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2538/1/DX197636.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+York&rft.atitle=The+early+Lollards&rft.date=1975-09&rft.au=Charles+Kightly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.whiterose.ac.uk%2F2538%2F1%2FDX197636.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell1989" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Edward (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tVgjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149"><i>Kingship, Law, and Society: Criminal Justice in the Reign of Henry V</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192537881" title="Special:BookSources/9780192537881"><bdi>9780192537881</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220313095423/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVgjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship%2C+Law%2C+and+Society%3A+Criminal+Justice+in+the+Reign+of+Henry+V&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780192537881&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtVgjDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onnekink2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink2_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Onnekink, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onnekink3-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink3_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Onnekink, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pepplinkhuizen-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pepplinkhuizen_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pepplinkhuizen_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoen2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Coen, Pepplinkhuizen (2000). "De aanslager der wederdopers in Amsterdam". <i>Het aanzien van een millennium</i> (in Dutch). Utrecht: Het Spectrum. pp. 43–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027468443" title="Special:BookSources/9027468443"><bdi>9027468443</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=De+aanslager+der+wederdopers+in+Amsterdam&rft.btitle=Het+aanzien+van+een+millennium&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.pages=43-45&rft.pub=Het+Spectrum&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9027468443&rft.aulast=Coen&rft.aufirst=Pepplinkhuizen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan2006580-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolan2006580_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNolan2006">Nolan 2006</a>, p. 580.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeidler2014" class="citation book cs1">Beidler, James (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iKTzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66"><i>The Family Tree German Genealogy Guide</i></a>. Cincinnati: Family Tree Books. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1440330674" title="Special:BookSources/978-1440330674"><bdi>978-1440330674</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Family+Tree+German+Genealogy+Guide&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Family+Tree+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1440330674&rft.aulast=Beidler&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiKTzAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Onnekink7-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Onnekink7_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Onnekink, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2011" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Peter (2011). <i>The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy</i>. London: Belknap Press. pp. 766–767. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06231-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06231-3"><bdi>978-0-674-06231-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War%3A+Europe%27s+Tragedy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=766-767&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06231-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._H._Bolhuis1986" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">H. H. Bolhuis (1 November 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digibron.nl/search/detail/fa16141ff5fff292d2a4bb4451caec3e/de-geschiedenis-der-waldenzen">"De geschiedenis der Waldenzen. Uit de diepte naar de hoogte"</a>. <i>Protestants Nederland</i> (in Dutch). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190923225659/https://www.digibron.nl/search/detail/fa16141ff5fff292d2a4bb4451caec3e/de-geschiedenis-der-waldenzen">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Protestants+Nederland&rft.atitle=De+geschiedenis+der+Waldenzen.+Uit+de+diepte+naar+de+hoogte&rft.date=1986-11-01&rft.au=H.+H.+Bolhuis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digibron.nl%2Fsearch%2Fdetail%2Ffa16141ff5fff292d2a4bb4451caec3e%2Fde-geschiedenis-der-waldenzen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Switzerland-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Switzerland_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Switzerland_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchHead2013" class="citation book cs1">Church, Clive H.; Head, Randolph C. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JjjuDausY3MC&pg=PA95"><i>A Concise History of Switzerland</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107244191" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107244191"><bdi>978-1107244191</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Switzerland&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=95-97&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1107244191&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=Clive+H.&rft.au=Head%2C+Randolph+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJjjuDausY3MC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_Jacobite-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_Jacobite_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_Jacobite_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_S._Morrill2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John S. Morrill (7 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jacobite-British-history">"Jacobite"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190416142218/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jacobite-British-history">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jacobite&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2018-02-07&rft.au=John+S.+Morrill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FJacobite-British-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Scott (1989). <i>Thomas Müntzer: Theology and Revolution in the German Reformation</i>, p. 24, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-33346-498-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-33346-498-2">0-33346-498-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael A. Mullett (2004), <i>Martin Luther</i>, p. 166, London, Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415261685" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415261685">978-0415261685</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Zwitserland". <i><a href="/wiki/Encarta" title="Encarta">Encarta</a> Encyclopedie <a href="/wiki/Winkler_Prins" title="Winkler Prins">Winkler Prins</a></i> (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zwitserland&rft.btitle=Encarta+Encyclopedie+Winkler+Prins&rft.pub=Microsoft+Corporation%2FHet+Spectrum&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merriman, John (1996). <i>A History of Modern Europe, Volume One: From the Renaissance to the Age of Napoleon</i> (First ed.), p. 110, New York: W.W. Norton. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-96888-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-96888-X">0-393-96888-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clodfelter-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015</i>. McFarland. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786474707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786474707"><bdi>978-0786474707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0786474707&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blok, P.J., History of the People of the Netherlands, New York, (1898), p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Op. Cit., Motley, Vol. II, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ibid., p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durant-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Durant_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durant_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durant_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Durant_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1961" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LO_betbQgNoC&pg=PA454"><i>The Age of Reason Begins: A History of European Civilization in the Period of Shakespeare, Bacon, Montaigne, Rembrandt, Galileo, and Descartes: 1558–1648</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671013202" title="Special:BookSources/9780671013202"><bdi>9780671013202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reason+Begins%3A+A+History+of+European+Civilization+in+the+Period+of+Shakespeare%2C+Bacon%2C+Montaigne%2C+Rembrandt%2C+Galileo%2C+and+Descartes%3A+1558%E2%80%931648&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780671013202&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLO_betbQgNoC%26pg%3DPA454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salmon, pp. 136–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jouanna, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jouanna, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jouanna, pp. 184–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorgeshistorie.noInstitutt_for_arkeologi" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Norgeshistorie.no, Om; Institutt for arkeologi, konservering og historie (IAKH) ved UiO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.norgeshistorie.no/senmiddelalder/makt-og-politikk/1011-norge-blir-et-lydrike.html">"Norge blir et lydrike – Norgeshistorie"</a>. <i>www.norgeshistorie.no</i> (in Norwegian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180628182143/http://www.norgeshistorie.no/senmiddelalder/makt-og-politikk/1011-norge-blir-et-lydrike.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.norgeshistorie.no&rft.atitle=Norge+blir+et+lydrike+%E2%80%93+Norgeshistorie&rft.aulast=Norgeshistorie.no&rft.aufirst=Om&rft.au=Institutt+for+arkeologi%2C+konservering+og+historie+%28IAKH%29+ved+UiO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.norgeshistorie.no%2Fsenmiddelalder%2Fmakt-og-politikk%2F1011-norge-blir-et-lydrike.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellis, S. "The Tudors and the origins of the modern Irish states: A standing army". In: Bartlett, Thomas, <i>A Military History of Ireland</i> (Cambridge 1996), pp. 125–31).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacGregor1957">MacGregor 1957</a>, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WhiteTYW-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WhiteTYW_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WhiteTYW_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_White2012" class="citation web cs1">Matthew White (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">"The Thirty Years War (1618–48)"</a>. <i>Necrometrics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311130500/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Necrometrics&rft.atitle=The+Thirty+Years+War+%281618%E2%80%9348%29&rft.date=2012-01&rft.au=Matthew+White&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fpre1700a.htm%2330YrW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WhiteHuguenot-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WhiteHuguenot_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WhiteHuguenot_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_White2012" class="citation web cs1">Matthew White (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">"France, Religious Wars, Catholic vs. Huguenot (1562–1598)"</a>. <i>Necrometrics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311130500/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#30YrW">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Necrometrics&rft.atitle=France%2C+Religious+Wars%2C+Catholic+vs.+Huguenot+%281562%E2%80%931598%29&rft.date=2012-01&rft.au=Matthew+White&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fpre1700a.htm%2330YrW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WhiteWTK-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WhiteWTK_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_White2012" class="citation web cs1">Matthew White (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#EnglCW">"British Isles, 1641–52"</a>. <i>Necrometrics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311130500/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#EnglCW">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Necrometrics&rft.atitle=British+Isles%2C+1641%E2%80%9352&rft.date=2012-01&rft.au=Matthew+White&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fpre1700a.htm%23EnglCW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-remilitari-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-remilitari_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-remilitari_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9.htm">"Victimario Histórico Militar"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701062501/http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario9.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Victimario+Hist%C3%B3rico+Militar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fremilitari.com%2Fguias%2Fvictimario9.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_wars_of_religion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgess1998" class="citation journal cs1">Burgess, Glenn (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3817797">"Was the English Civil War a War of Religion? The Evidence of Political Propaganda"</a>. <i>Huntington Library Quarterly</i>. <b>61</b> (2). University of California Press: 173–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3817797">10.2307/3817797</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3817797">3817797</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Huntington+Library+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Was+the+English+Civil+War+a+War+of+Religion%3F+The+Evidence+of+Political+Propaganda&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-201&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3817797&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3817797%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Burgess&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3817797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Greengrass, Mark. <i>The European Reformation 1500–1618</i>. Longman, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-06174-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-06174-1">0-582-06174-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCulloch" title="Diarmaid MacCulloch">MacCulloch, Diarmaid</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Reformation:_A_History" title="The Reformation: A History">The Reformation: A History</a></i>. New York: Penguin 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGregor1957" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Geddes_MacGregor" title="Geddes MacGregor">MacGregor, Geddes</a> (1957), <i>The Thundering Scot</i>, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/740182">740182</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thundering+Scot&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=The+Westminster+Press&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F740182&rft.aulast=MacGregor&rft.aufirst=Geddes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+wars+of+religion" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religious_persecution" title="Template talk:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration" title="Desecration">Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">Extrajudicial punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cleansing" title="Population cleansing">Population cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Canaanite_Pagans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Persecution of Canaanite Pagans (page does not exist)">Persecution of Canaanite Pagans</a> (1210 BC-1200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a> (64–313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a> (c. 324–c. 491)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a> (c.550–c. 1200)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> (c.184–c. 205)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> (732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a> (1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Jerusalem massacre</a> (1099)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> (643–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> (1184–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Ayyadieh" title="Massacre at Ayyadieh">Massacre at Ayyadieh</a> (1191)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> (12th–16th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crusades_to_Europe_and_the_Holy_Land#Crusades_against_heretics_and_schismatics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land">Crusades against schismatics</a> (13th–15th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain</a> (1500–1526)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">European wars of religion</a> (1522–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a> (1526–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> (1561–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a> (1609–1614)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_Acts" title="Test Acts">Test Acts</a> (1673–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> (1683–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_S%C3%A1mi_people" title="Christianization of the Sámi people">Christianization of the Sámi people</a> (1700s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolutionary dechristianisation</a> (1789–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> (1915–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a> (1917–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Soviet persecution</a> (1922–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1970–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ahovi%C4%87i_massacre" title="Šahovići massacre">Šahovići massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror (Spain)</a> (1936–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses" title="Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1939–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Communist Polish persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Communist Romanian persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Bihar_riots" title="1946 Bihar riots">1946 Bihar riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Rawalpindi_massacres" title="1947 Rawalpindi massacres">Rawalpindi massacres</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Pakistan#Decline_and_persecution" title="Hinduism in Pakistan">Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Muslims_in_independent_India" title="Violence against Muslims in independent India">Violence against Muslims in India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#India" title="Persecution of Hindus">Violence against Hindus in independent India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a> (1948–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a> (1949–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_and_uprisings_in_Tibet_since_1950" title="Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950">Persecution of Tibetans</a> (1950–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Religious violence in Nigeria</a> (1953–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a> (1963) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3n_shootings" title="Huế Phật Đản shootings">Huế Phật Đản shootings</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thích Quảng Đức">Thích Quảng Đức</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A1_L%E1%BB%A3i_Pagoda_raids" title="Xá Lợi Pagoda raids">Xá Lợi Pagoda raids</a> (1963)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famen_Temple#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Famen Temple">Famen Temple</a> (1966)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh genocide</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#Bangladesh" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh</a> (1971–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> (1975–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_anti-Sikh_riots" title="1984 anti-Sikh riots">1984 anti-Sikh riots</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_Process" title="Revival Process">Revival Process</a> (1984–1989) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Excursion" title="Big Excursion">Big Excursion</a> (1989)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus" title="Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus">Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> (1991–2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War" title="Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War">Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War</a> (1992–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">War crimes in the Kosovo War</a> (1999)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walisongo_school_massacre" title="Walisongo school massacre">Walisongo school massacre</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosheh_massacres" title="Kosheh massacres">Kosheh massacres</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">2002 Gujarat riots</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency" title="South Thailand insurgency">South Thailand insurgency</a> (2004–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations" title="Maspero demonstrations">Maspero demonstrations</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_by_Islamic_extremists_in_Bangladesh" title="Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh">Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya genocide</a> (2016–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings" title="Christchurch mosque shootings">Christchurch mosque shootings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings" title="2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings">2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots" title="2020 Delhi riots">2020 Delhi riots</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Istanbul_church_shooting" title="2024 Istanbul church shooting">2024 Istanbul church shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocus_City_Hall_attack" title="Crocus City Hall attack">Crocus City Hall attack</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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