CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Battle of Siffin - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"b0df5b9b-2421-45b7-946f-78376dbaa31a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Battle_of_Siffin","wgTitle":"Battle of Siffin","wgCurRevisionId":1259287982,"wgRevisionId":1259287982,"wgArticleId":3041739,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Arabic-language text","Coordinates on Wikidata","Battles involving the Rashidun Caliphate","Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate","First Fitna","Shia days of remembrance","650s conflicts","657"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext", "wgRelevantPageName":"Battle_of_Siffin","wgRelevantArticleId":3041739,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":35.95,"lon":39.0167},"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q735876", "wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Battle of Siffin - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Battle_of_Siffin rootpage-Battle_of_Siffin skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Battle+of+Siffin" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Battle+of+Siffin" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Battle+of+Siffin" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Battle+of+Siffin" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Location </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_Uthman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_Uthman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Opposition to Uthman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_Uthman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assassination_of_Uthman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assassination_of_Uthman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Assassination of Uthman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assassination_of_Uthman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Ali_in_the_assassination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Ali_in_the_assassination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Role of Ali in the assassination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Ali_in_the_assassination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_Ali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_Ali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Election of Ali </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_Ali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uthman's_governors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uthman's_governors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Uthman's governors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uthman's_governors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mu'awiya's_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mu'awiya's_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Mu'awiya's revolt </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mu'awiya's_revolt-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mu'awiya's revolt subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mu'awiya's_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Removal_of_Mu'awiya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Removal_of_Mu'awiya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Removal of Mu'awiya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Removal_of_Mu'awiya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alliance_against_Ali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alliance_against_Ali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Alliance against Ali </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alliance_against_Ali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_secession_of_Syria_and_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_secession_of_Syria_and_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Proposed secession of Syria and Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_secession_of_Syria_and_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Declaration_of_war_by_Mu'awiya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declaration_of_war_by_Mu'awiya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Declaration of war by Mu'awiya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declaration_of_war_by_Mu'awiya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mu'awiya's_motives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mu'awiya's_motives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Mu'awiya's motives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mu'awiya's_motives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ali_and_retribution_for_Uthman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ali_and_retribution_for_Uthman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Ali and retribution for Uthman </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ali_and_retribution_for_Uthman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Mu'awiya_in_the_assassination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Mu'awiya_in_the_assassination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Role of Mu'awiya in the assassination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Mu'awiya_in_the_assassination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_preparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_preparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 War preparations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_preparations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle War preparations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-War_preparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iraq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Iraq </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Comparisons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skirmishes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skirmishes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Skirmishes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skirmishes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_battle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_battle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Main battle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_battle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Call_to_arbitration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Call_to_arbitration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Call to arbitration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Call_to_arbitration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Call to arbitration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Call_to_arbitration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iraqis'_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraqis'_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Iraqis' reaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraqis'_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraqis'_motives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraqis'_motives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Iraqis' motives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraqis'_motives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arbitration_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arbitration_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Arbitration agreement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arbitration_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selection_of_the_arbitrators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selection_of_the_arbitrators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Selection of the arbitrators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selection_of_the_arbitrators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Content_of_the_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Content_of_the_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Content of the agreement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Content_of_the_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seceders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seceders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Seceders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seceders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Their_motives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Their_motives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Their motives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Their_motives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Their_slogan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Their_slogan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 Their slogan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Their_slogan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arbitration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arbitration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Arbitration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arbitration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Arbitration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Arbitration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_meeting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_meeting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 First meeting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_meeting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_meeting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_meeting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Second meeting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_meeting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Battle of Siffin</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86" title="معركة صفين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معركة صفين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siffeyn_d%C3%B6y%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BC" title="Siffeyn döyüşü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Siffeyn döyüşü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%88" title="صفین دؤیوشو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="صفین دؤیوشو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="সিফফিনের যুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিফফিনের যুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patampuran_Shiffin" title="Patampuran Shiffin – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Patampuran Shiffin" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_de_Siff%C3%ADn" title="Batalla de Siffín – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Batalla de Siffín" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_von_Siffin" title="Schlacht von Siffin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schlacht von Siffin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalla_de_Siff%C3%ADn" title="Batalla de Siffín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batalla de Siffín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B5%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86" title="نبرد صفین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نبرد صفین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_de_Siffin" title="Bataille de Siffin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bataille de Siffin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%ED%95%80_%EC%A0%84%ED%88%AC" title="시핀 전투 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시핀 전투" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya%C6%99in_Siffin" title="Yaƙin Siffin – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yaƙin Siffin" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertempuran_Shiffin" title="Pertempuran Shiffin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pertempuran Shiffin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battaglia_di_Siffin" title="Battaglia di Siffin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Battaglia di Siffin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%91_%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9F" title="קרב צפין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרב צפין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="სიფინის ბრძოლა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სიფინის ბრძოლა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B9%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Сиффин шайқасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сиффин шайқасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sifino_m%C5%AB%C5%A1is" title="Sifino mūšis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sifino mūšis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%80%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="സിഫ്ഫീൻ യുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സിഫ്ഫീൻ യുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86" title="معركة صفين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="معركة صفين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Siffin" title="Perang Siffin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Siffin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%82%A3%E3%83%83%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E6%88%A6%E3%81%84" title="スィッフィーンの戦い – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スィッフィーンの戦い" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaget_ved_Siffin" title="Slaget ved Siffin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Slaget ved Siffin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siffin_jangi" title="Siffin jangi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Siffin jangi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%84%DA%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="صفین دی لڑائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صفین دی لڑائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwa_pod_Siffin" title="Bitwa pod Siffin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bitwa pod Siffin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batalha_de_Sifim" title="Batalha de Sifim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Batalha de Sifim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сиффинская битва – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сиффинская битва" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagaalkii_Sifiin" title="Dagaalkii Sifiin – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dagaalkii Sifiin" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86" title="شەڕی سەفین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی سەفین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitka_kod_Sifina" title="Bitka kod Sifina – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Bitka kod Sifina" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitka_kod_Sifina" title="Bitka kod Sifina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bitka kod Sifina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siffinin_taistelu" title="Siffinin taistelu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Siffinin taistelu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaget_vid_Siffin" title="Slaget vid Siffin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Slaget vid Siffin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="ยุทธการที่ศิฟฟีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุทธการที่ศิฟฟีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%B1ffin_Muharebesi" title="Sıffin Muharebesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sıffin Muharebesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%84%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сіффінська битва – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сіффінська битва" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B5%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86" title="جنگ صفین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جنگ صفین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E8%8A%AC%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="隋芬之战 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="隋芬之战" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q735876#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Battle_of_Siffin" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Battle_of_Siffin" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Battle_of_Siffin" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&oldid=1259287982" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Battle_of_Siffin&id=1259287982&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBattle_of_Siffin">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBattle_of_Siffin">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Battle_of_Siffin&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Battle_of_Siffin" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q735876" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Siffin&params=35.9500_N_39.0167_E_source:wikidata">35°57′00″N 39°01′00″E / 35.9500°N 39.0167°E / 35.9500; 39.0167</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">657 battle of the First Fitna</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Battle of Siffin معركة صفين</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Syria_campaign_of_Ali" title="Second Syria campaign of Ali">Second Syria campaign of Ali</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>July 26 to July 28, 657 AD (8 Safar to 10 Safar, 37 AH)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Siffin (<a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Tell Abu Hureyra</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> See <a href="#Arbitration">Arbitration</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Ali's forces of Iraq<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Mu'awiya's forces of Syria<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Ali" title="Abbas ibn Ali">Abbas ibn Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_al-Hanafiyya" title="Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya">Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malik_al-Ashtar" title="Malik al-Ashtar">Malik al-Ashtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qays_ibn_Sa%27d" title="Qays ibn Sa'd">Qays ibn Sa'd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Abbas" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd Allah ibn Abbas">Abd Allah ibn Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uwais_al-Qarani" class="mw-redirect" title="Uwais al-Qarani">Uwais al-Qarani</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Abd_Allah" title="Jabir ibn Abd Allah">Jabir ibn Abd Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzaima_ibn_Thabit" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzaima ibn Thabit">Khuzaima ibn Thabit</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashim_ibn_Utba" title="Hashim ibn Utba">Hashim ibn Utba</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Ashtar" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar">Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhajir_ibn_Khalid" title="Muhajir ibn Khalid">Muhajir ibn Khalid</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan ibn al-Hakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-A%27war_al-Sulami" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-A'war al-Sulami">Abu al-A'war al-Sulami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habib_ibn_Maslama_al-Fihri" title="Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri">Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busr_ibn_Abi_Artat" title="Busr ibn Abi Artat">Busr ibn Abi Artat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utba_ibn_Abi_Sufyan" title="Utba ibn Abi Sufyan">Utba ibn Abi Sufyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_Uqba" title="Muslim ibn Uqba">Muslim ibn Uqba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Numayr_al-Sakuni" title="Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni">Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dahhak_ibn_Qays_al-Fihri" title="Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri">Al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zufar_ibn_al-Harith_al-Kilabi" title="Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi">Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bahdal" title="Ibn Bahdal">Hassan ibn Malik al-Kalbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Umar" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Umar">Ubayd Allah ibn Umar</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_ibn_Khalid" title="Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid">Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawh_ibn_Zinba_al-Judhami" title="Rawh ibn Zinba al-Judhami">Rawh ibn Zinba al-Judhami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 100,000–150,000 men<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 130,000–150,000 men<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 25,000 killed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9-2">[2]</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 45,000 killed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9-2">[2]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_wars_of_the_early_Caliphates" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Civil_Wars_of_the_Early_Caliphates" title="Template:Campaignbox Civil Wars of the Early Caliphates"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Civil_Wars_of_the_Early_Caliphates" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Civil Wars of the Early Caliphates"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Civil_Wars_of_the_Early_Caliphates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Civil Wars of the Early Caliphates"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_wars_of_the_early_Caliphates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Civil wars of the early Caliphates</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Ash%27ath" title="Ibn al-Ash'ath">Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashdaq" title="Al-Ashdaq">Revolt of al-Ashdaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_al-Muhallab" title="Yazid ibn al-Muhallab">Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Surayj" title="Al-Harith ibn Surayj">Revolt of Harith b. Surayj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Zayd_ibn_Ali" title="Revolt of Zayd ibn Ali">Revolt of Zayd b. Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a></li> <li>Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Zayd" title="Yahya ibn Zayd">Yahya ibn Zayd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">Third Fitna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_revolt" title="Ibadi revolt">Ibadi revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">Zab River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Wasit" title="Siege of Wasit">Wasit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fakhkh" title="Battle of Fakhkh">Battle of Fakhkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qays%E2%80%93Yaman_war_(793%E2%80%93796)" title="Qays–Yaman war (793–796)">Qays–Yaman war (793–796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">Fourth Fitna</a> <ul><li>Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Saraya" title="Abu'l-Saraya">Abu'l-Saraya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_expeditions_to_East_Africa" title="Abbasid expeditions to East Africa">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashmurian_revolts" title="Bashmurian revolts">Bashmurian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_civil_war_(865%E2%80%93866)" title="Abbasid civil war (865–866)">Fifth Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijite_Rebellion_(866%E2%80%93896)" title="Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)">Kharijite Rebellion (866–896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="First_Fitna" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_First_Fitna" title="Template:Campaignbox First Fitna"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_First_Fitna" title="Template talk:Campaignbox First Fitna"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_First_Fitna" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox First Fitna"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_Fitna" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel" title="Battle of the Camel">The Camel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Siffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahrawan" title="Battle of Nahrawan">Nahrawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busr_ibn_Abi_Artat" title="Busr ibn Abi Artat">Busr's campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syria_campaign_of_Ali" title="Second Syria campaign of Ali">Syria campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The Battle of Siffin (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: مَعْرَكَة صِفِّينَ, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Maʿraka Ṣiffīn) was fought in 657 CE (37 <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">AH</a>) between the fourth Rashidun caliph <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a> and the rebellious governor of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan</a>. The battle is named after its location Siffin on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>. The fighting stopped after the Syrians called for arbitration to escape defeat, to which Ali agreed under pressure from some of his troops. The arbitration process ended inconclusively in 658 though it strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali. The battle is considered part of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a> and a major step towards the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location">Location</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Location">edit</a>]</div> The battlefield was located in Siffin, a ruined <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a>-era village at the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> in present-day Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">[3]</a> It has been identified with the modern village of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa Governorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_Uthman">Opposition to Uthman</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Opposition to Uthman">edit</a>]</div> Ali frequently accused the third caliph, <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, of deviating from the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108-6">[6]</a> and was joined in his criticism by most of the senior <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">companions</a> of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Talha_ibn_Ubayd_Allah" title="Talha ibn Ubayd Allah">Talha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam" title="Zubayr ibn al-Awwam">Zubayr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198521-7">[7]</a> Uthman was also widely accused of nepotism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199787-8">[8]</a> corruption,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197067-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202284-10">[10]</a> and injustice,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201252-11">[11]</a> and Ali is known to have protested his conduct,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997113-12">[12]</a> including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197953-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108-6">[6]</a> Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as <a href="/wiki/Abu_Dharr_al-Ghifari" title="Abu Dharr al-Ghifari">Abu Dharr al-Ghifari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammar_ibn_Yasir" title="Ammar ibn Yasir">Ammar ibn Yasir</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467-14">[14]</a> from Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997109-15">[15]</a> Ali appears in early sources as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467-14">[14]</a> Some supporters of Ali were also part of the opposition to Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a> joined in their efforts by Talha<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199798-18">[18]</a> and Zubayr, and by <a href="/wiki/Aisha" title="Aisha">Aisha</a>, a widow of Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997100–2-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a> The last was critical of Uthman for religious innovations and nepotism, but also objected to him for reducing her pension.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECappucci201419-20">[20]</a> Among the supporters of Ali were <a href="/wiki/Malik_al-Ashtar" title="Malik al-Ashtar">Malik al-Ashtar</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 657) and other religiously-learned<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197959-21">[21]</a> qurra (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Quran readers').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108-6">[6]</a> These wanted to see Ali as the next caliph, though there is no evidence that he communicated or coordinated with them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107–8-22">[22]</a> Ali is also said to have rejected the requests to lead the rebels,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">[23]</a> although he might have sympathized with their grievances,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197962-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">[23]</a> and was thus considered a natural focus for the opposition,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201462-26">[26]</a> at least morally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a> It is also likely that some companions supported the protests with the hope of either deposing Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a> or changing his policies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">[27]</a> thus underestimating the severity of the opposition to Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assassination_of_Uthman">Assassination of Uthman</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Assassination of Uthman">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Uthman" title="Assassination of Uthman">Assassination of Uthman</a></div> As their grievances mounted, discontented groups from provinces began arriving in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> in 35/656.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> On their first attempt,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997121-29">[29]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to send a delegation to negotiate with Uthman, unlike Talha and Ammar, who might have encouraged the Egyptians to advance on the town.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997118–9-30">[30]</a> Ali similarly asked the <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</a> opposition to avoid violence, which was heeded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128-31">[31]</a> He also acted as a mediator between Uthman and the provincial dissidents<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197962-24">[24]</a> more than once<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111-33">[33]</a> to address their economical<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197068-34">[34]</a> and political<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> grievances. In particular, he negotiated and guaranteed on behalf of Uthman the promises that persuaded the rebels to return home and ended the first siege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111,_119-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Ali then urged Uthman to publicly repent, which he did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997122-36">[36]</a> The caliph soon retracted his statement, however, possibly because his secretary <a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan</a> convinced him that repentance would only embolden the opposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997123-37">[37]</a> On their way back home, some Egyptian rebels intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They now returned to Medina and laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time, demanding that he abdicate. The caliph refused and claimed he was unaware of the letter,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112-38">[38]</a> for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201471-41">[41]</a> Ali and another companion, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Maslamah" title="Muhammad ibn Maslamah">Muhammad ibn Maslama</a>, sided with Uthman about the letter,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112-38">[38]</a> and suspected Marwan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126-42">[42]</a> while a report by the Sunni historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 892) suggests that the caliph accused Ali of forging the letter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126-42">[42]</a> This is likely when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849-25">[25]</a> That Ali was behind the letter is also the opinion of the Islamicist <a href="/wiki/Leone_Caetani" title="Leone Caetani">Leone Caetani</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1935). Among other Western historians, <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Levi_Della_Vida" title="Giorgio Levi Della Vida">Giorgio Levi della Vida</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1967) is unsure, while <a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Wilferd Madelung</a> strongly rejects the accusation, saying that it "stretches the imagination" in the absence of any evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126-42">[42]</a> In turn, he accuses Marwan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127-39">[39]</a> the bellicose secretary of Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127,_135-43">[43]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh N. Kennedy</a> holds Uthman responsible for the letter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201564-44">[44]</a> The caliph was assassinated soon afterward in the final days of 35 AH (June 656) by the Egyptian rebels,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127-39">[39]</a> during a raid on his residence in Medina.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001c423-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199781-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010152-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Ali_in_the_assassination">Role of Ali in the assassination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Role of Ali in the assassination">edit</a>]</div> Ali played no role in the deadly attack,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201565-49">[49]</a> and his son <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan</a> was injured while guarding the besieged residence of Uthman at the request of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021d-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021-50">[50]</a> He also convinced the rebels not to prevent the delivery of water to Uthman's house during the siege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467-14">[14]</a> Beyond this, historians disagree about his measures to protect the third caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">[27]</a> Ali is represented by the Sunni historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 923) as an honest negotiator genuinely concerned for Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201476-52">[52]</a> Madelung and the modern historian <a href="/wiki/Husain_Mohammad_Jafri" title="Husain Mohammad Jafri">Husain M. Jafri</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 2019) highlight the attempts by Ali for reconciliation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997§3-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a> and the Islamicist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Hinds" title="Martin Hinds">Martin Hinds</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1988) believes that Ali could not have done anything more for Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467-14">[14]</a> The Islamic author <a href="/wiki/Reza_Shah-Kazemi" title="Reza Shah-Kazemi">Reza Shah-Kazemi</a> points to Ali's "constructive criticism" of Uthman and his opposition to violence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202285-54">[54]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Bahai</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Moojan_Momen" title="Moojan Momen">Moojan Momen</a> writes that Ali mediated between Uthman and the rebels, urging the former to alter his policies and refusing the requests from the latter to lead them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">[23]</a> This is similar to the view of the Islamicist John McHugo, who adds that Ali withdrew in frustration when his peace efforts where thwarted by Marwan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849-25">[25]</a> The historians <a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Fred Donner</a> and Robert Gleave suggest that Ali was the immediate beneficiary of Uthman's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a> In turn, their opinion is challenged by Madelung, who argues that Aisha would have not actively opposed Uthman if Ali had been the prime mover of the rebellion and its future beneficiary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107-55">[55]</a> He and others observe the hostility of Aisha toward Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197928-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§1.III-58">[58]</a> which resurfaced immediately after his accession in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel" title="Battle of the Camel">Battle of the Camel</a> (656).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107-55">[55]</a> The orientalist <a href="/wiki/Laura_Veccia_Vaglieri" title="Laura Veccia Vaglieri">Laura Veccia Vaglieri</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1989) believes that Ali refused to lead the rebellion but still sympathized with them and possibly agreed with their calls for abdication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197069-59">[59]</a> Among other scholars, <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Hossein Nasr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asma_Afsaruddin" title="Asma Afsaruddin">Asma Afsaruddin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021-50">[50]</a> Levi della Vida,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012-40">[40]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wellhausen" title="Julius Wellhausen">Julius Wellhausen</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1918) believe that Ali remained neutral in this conflict,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192749-60">[60]</a> while Caetani labels Ali as the chief culprit in the murder of Uthman, even though the evidence suggests otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997106-61">[61]</a> The Muslim scholar <a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_M._Ayoub" title="Mahmoud M. Ayoub">Mahmoud M. Ayoub</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 2021) notes the often pro-Umayyad stance of the Western classical orientalists, with the exception of Madelung.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201464-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_Ali">Election of Ali</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Election of Ali">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Election_of_Ali_to_the_caliphate" title="Election of Ali to the caliphate">Election of Ali to the caliphate</a></div> When Uthman was killed in 656 CE by the Egyptian rebels,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127-39">[39]</a> the potential candidates for the caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, and the provincial rebels and the <a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a> (early Medinan Muslims) were in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basrans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufans</a>, who had heeded Ali's call for nonviolence, and most of the Ansar supported Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997141-63">[63]</a> Some authors add the (majority of the) <a href="/wiki/Muhajirun" title="Muhajirun">Muhajirun</a> (early Meccan Muslims) to this list of Ali's supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">[16]</a> The key tribal chiefs also seem to have favored Ali at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201456-64">[64]</a> The caliphate was thus offered by these groups to Ali, who was initially reluctant to accept it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a> saying that he preferred to be a minister (wazir).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Soon after, possibly after it became clear that he enjoyed popular support, Ali did accept the caliphate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a> demanding a public pledge at the mosque.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201481-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997142–3-67">[67]</a> One factor in his decision to accept the caliphate might have been to prevent further chaos,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197071-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a> but his nomination by the rebels nevertheless left Ali exposed to accusations of complicity in the assassination of Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a> It also appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for pledge and, among others, <a href="/wiki/Sa%27ad_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" title="Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab">Abd-Allah ibn Umar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997145-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_ibn_al-As" title="Sa'id ibn al-As">Sa'id ibn al-As</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_ibn_Uqba" title="Al-Walid ibn Uqba">al-Walid ibn Uqba</a>, and Marwan likely refused to give their oaths, some possibly motivated by their personal grudges against Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201481-66">[66]</a> On the whole, Madelung suggests that there is less evidence for any violence here than in the case of the first caliph, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 632–634), even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144–5-70">[70]</a> At the same time, that the majority favored Ali in Medina might have created an intimidating atmosphere for those opposed to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uthman's_governors">Uthman's governors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Uthman's governors">edit</a>]</div> At the time of the assassination, the key governorships were in the hands of the Umayyads,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198524-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.I-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958159-74">[74]</a> their often late conversion to Islam<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201464-62">[62]</a> might have suggested expediency to Ali and the Ansar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§1.III-58">[58]</a> Ali was nevertheless advised to initially confirm the governors of Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997148-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> some of whom were unpopular,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158-56">[56]</a> to consolidate his caliphate. He rejected this advice and replaced nearly all those who had served Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158-56">[56]</a> saying that the likes of those men should not be appointed to any office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997148-76">[76]</a> In this and other decisions, Ali was driven by his sense of religious mission, writes Madelung,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149-77">[77]</a> while Poonawala suggests that Ali changed the governors to please the rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Donner has a similar view to Madelung and Shah-Kazemi maintains that justice was the key principle that molded Ali's policies in all domains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201541-78">[78]</a> Even so, Madelung views this decision of Ali as politically naive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149–50-79">[79]</a> His view is in turn rejected by the Shia scholar Ali Bahramian, who believes that replacing the governors was the only available course of action, both on principle and in practice. He contends that injustice was the main grievance of the provincial rebels and they would have turned against Ali had he confirmed Uthman's governors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Among these governors was Uthman's cousin <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya</a>, who had been appointed as the governor of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> by the second caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 634–644) and then reconfirmed by Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds2012-80">[80]</a> Having ruled Syria for almost twenty years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a> without interruption and almost since its conquest, Mu'awiya had a power base in Syria which made his removal difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">[81]</a> Ali replaced Mu'awiya with <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abbas" title="Ibn Abbas">Ibn Abbas</a>, who feared the retaliation of Mu'awiya and asked Ali to postpone his appointment until his rule was firmly established, according to al-Baladhuri.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mu'awiya's_revolt">Mu'awiya's revolt</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mu'awiya's revolt">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Removal_of_Mu'awiya">Removal of Mu'awiya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Removal of Mu'awiya">edit</a>]</div> There are some reports of early correspondence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958164-83">[83]</a> and al-Baladhuri writes about a letter by Ali that asked Mu'awiya to report to him in Medina.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Alternatively, Madelung suggests that Ali contacted Mu'awiya only after arriving in Kufa, following his victory in the Battle of the Camel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">[82]</a> He might have waited this long perhaps to have the upper hand after his victory or perhaps because Mu'awiya was not a serious contender for the caliphate anyway,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">[82]</a> considering that he was a taliq (those pardoned by Muhammad when Mecca fell to Muslims),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> the son of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb" title="Abu Sufyan ibn Harb">Abu Sufyan</a>, who had led the confederates against Muslims,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997209-85">[85]</a> and Hind,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds2012-80">[80]</a> who was responsible for mutilating the body of Muhammad's uncle <a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Hamza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas202160-86">[86]</a> For his part, Mu'awiya had waited through the Battle of the Camel,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">[82]</a> and was perhaps emboldened by that challenge to the authority of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496-87">[87]</a> Once in Kufa, Ali dispatched his first emissary, Jarir ibn Abd-Allah al-Bajali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958165-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497-89">[89]</a> a notable <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemenite</a> and Uthman's governor of <a href="/wiki/Hamadan_province" title="Hamadan province">Hamadan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997193-90">[90]</a> who volunteered to represent Ali because of his personal ties with the Umayyads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">[82]</a> His was nevertheless deemed unfit for the task by some, including Malik al-Ashtar,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> who questioned his loyalty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> Jarir carried with him a letter to Mu'awiya that demanded his pledge of allegiance to Ali and made it clear that he would be dismissed from his post afterward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> The caliph argued in his letter that his election in Medina was binding on Mu'awiya in Syria because he was elected by the same people who had pledged to his predecessors, as reported in Waq'at Siffin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> authored by the Shia Nasr ibn Muzahim (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 828), one of the earliest historians of the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201493-91">[91]</a> The letter added that the election of the caliph was the right of the Muhajiran and the Ansar, thus explicitly excluding Mu'awiya, as a late convert (taliq), from any shura,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> and from the caliphate itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494-92">[92]</a> The letter also urged Mu'awiya to leave justice for Uthman to Ali, promising that he would deal with the issue in due course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494-92">[92]</a> By this time, Mu'awiya had already publicly charged Ali in the death of Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190-93">[93]</a> Having failed to intimidate Ali's governor of Egypt to switch sides,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191-94">[94]</a> Mu'awiya had also forged a letter from the governor to himself in which the latter supported the former's right for revenge, according to Madelung.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014136-95">[95]</a> In response to Ali's letter, Mu'awiya asked Jarir for time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195-96">[96]</a> then addressed the congregation at the next prayer, appealed to their Syrian patriotism, and received their pledge as amir to revenge Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201498-97">[97]</a> as detailed by Ibn Muzahim and the Shia historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_A%27tham_al-Kufi" title="Ibn A'tham al-Kufi">Ibn A'tham al-Kufi</a> (ninth century).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201498-97">[97]</a> He soon launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, charging Ali in the death of Uthman and calling for revenge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021144-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alliance_against_Ali">Alliance against Ali</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Alliance against Ali">edit</a>]</div> Mu'awiya also wrote to <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> to join him in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958165-88">[88]</a> possibly to draw on his political and military expertise,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997198-99">[99]</a> or perhaps he hoped that Amr would bring the neighboring Egypt under his rule,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> having failed earlier to intimidate Ali's governor of Egypt to switch sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191-94">[94]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Qurayshite</a> companion of Muhammad and a military strategist,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499-101">[101]</a> Amr was believed to be an illegitimate child of Abu Sufyan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997185-102">[102]</a> He had conquered,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100-104">[104]</a> and then governed Egypt, but was later removed by Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997188-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">[3]</a> After his dismissal, Amr incited rebellion against Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a> and later publicly took some credit for the assassination of Uthman by the Egyptian rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187-106">[106]</a> However, he soon changed his tone and pinned the murder on Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187-106">[106]</a> possibly fearing the Umayyads' wrath,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187-106">[106]</a> or perhaps realizing that he would not receive a post in Ali's government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997160–1-107">[107]</a> After arriving in Damascus, Amr officially swore his allegiance to Mu'awiya in 657.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a> He thus pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for the life-long governorship of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997196-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201569-109">[109]</a> This pact turned a suspect in the assassination of Uthman into his avenger,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997197-110">[110]</a> and also later gave rise to a story recorded by some historians, including al-Baladhuri and the Shia-leaning <a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">al-Ya'qubi</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 897-8).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997197-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193333–4-111">[111]</a> Amr privately confesses in this story to selling his religion for worldly gain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499–100-112">[112]</a> Even though the story itself is apocryphal, Ayoub suggests that it may portray the popular perception of the conflict between the Ali and Mu'awiya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499-101">[101]</a> which the story presents as a conflict between "the people of religion" and "the people of this world," respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100-104">[104]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazilite</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi%27l-Hadid" title="Ibn Abi'l-Hadid">Ibn Abi'l-Hadid</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1258) gives Amr the credit for successfully spreading the rumor that Ali had killed Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100–1-113">[113]</a> Mu'awiya also brought into his camp the influential Syrian <a href="/wiki/Shurahbil_ibn_Simt" title="Shurahbil ibn Simt">Shurahbil ibn Simt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> whom he convinced that Ali was guilty in the death of Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997199–202-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107-115">[115]</a> probably with false witnesses and reports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997199–202-114">[114]</a> After some hesitation, Shurahbil became an enthusiastic advocate for Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107-115">[115]</a> Mu'awiya also reached out to the religious elite in Mecca and Medina,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208–9-116">[116]</a> asked them to hold Ali accountable for sheltering the murderers of Uthman, and proposed that the next caliph should be elected by general consultation, emphasizing that he was not interested in the caliphate himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101-117">[117]</a> According to Ayoub, the Medinans rejected his request and accused him of deception and treachery, citing al-Kufi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101-117">[117]</a> Madelung similarly writes that <a href="/wiki/Al-Miswar_ibn_Makhrama" title="Al-Miswar ibn Makhrama">al-Miswar ibn Makhrama</a> refused to support Mu'awiya on behalf of the holy cities, asking him in a letter what a taliq whose father had led the confederate armies against Muslims had to do with the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208–9-116">[116]</a> Mu'awiya did, however, win to his side <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Umar" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Umar">Ubayd Allah</a>, son of the second caliph Umar and a triple murderer, who had fled after learning that Ali intended to apply the <a href="/wiki/Lex_talionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex talionis">lex talionis</a> to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997209-85">[85]</a> Mu'awiya also separately wrote to Abd-Allah ibn Umar and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas among the Muhajirun, and Muhammad ibn Maslama among the Ansar. These all vowed neutrality in response. The last one also accused Mu'awiya of abandoning Uthman in his life and taking advantage of his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101–3-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_secession_of_Syria_and_Egypt">Proposed secession of Syria and Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Proposed secession of Syria and Egypt">edit</a>]</div> Mu'awiya soon privately visited Ali's emissary, Jarir, and proposed to recognize Ali as the caliph in return for Syria and Egypt and their revenues during the caliphates of Ali and his successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997203-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">[5]</a> The major historical accounts are unaware of this proposal, writes Madelung, which is nevertheless mentioned in a poem by <a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_ibn_Uqba" title="Al-Walid ibn Uqba">al-Walid ibn Uqba</a>, who was close to Mu'awiya. The latter kept this proposal secret evidently because it contradicted the public statements that his goal was to revenge Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997203-119">[119]</a> Jarir conveyed this proposal to Ali in a letter, who rejected it,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204-120">[120]</a> possibly perceiving the proposal as a stratagem for Mu'awiya to take over the caliphate step by step.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"a_mere_ruse_from_Muawiya"-121">[121]</a> Alternatively, had Ali accepted Mu'awiya's proposal, the Islamic territory might have been irreversibly divided into two parts, suggests McHugo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declaration_of_war_by_Mu'awiya">Declaration of war by Mu'awiya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Declaration of war by Mu'awiya">edit</a>]</div> Mu'awiya now sent Jarir back to Kufa with a formal declaration of war, which charged Ali with the murder of Uthman and vowed that the Syrians would fight Ali until he surrendered Uthman's murderers. Then there would be a Syrian council (shura) to elect the next caliph, the declaration continued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204–5-123">[123]</a> Ali replied to this letter that he was innocent and that the accusations of Mu'awiya lacked any evidence. He also challenged Mu'awiya to name any Syrian who would qualify to vote in a shura. As for handing Uthman's killers to Mu'awiya, Ali asked the latter to pledge allegiance and then present his case before Ali's court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205–6-124">[124]</a> Ali viewed this as a rebellion against the legitimate Muslim caliph, that is, a challenge to "God's authority."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mu'awiya's_motives">Mu'awiya's motives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mu'awiya's motives">edit</a>]</div> Modern authors often suggest that Mu'awiya defied Ali after he deposed him as the governor of Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202293-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051-126">[126]</a> or conditioned his pledge to Ali on the revenge for Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198957–8-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201352–3-128">[128]</a> knowing that Ali would dismiss him after giving his oath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">[84]</a> At the time, Mu'awiya was repeatedly accused of abandoning Uthman during the deadly siege of his residence, and Ayoub thus views Mu'awiya's claim of revenge as a pretext.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014104-129">[129]</a> Other modern authors similarly tend to consider Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a guise,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197073-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202295–6-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997186-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> intended initially to maintain his rule over Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997186-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> or to seize the caliphate altogether later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197545-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193334-135">[135]</a> For McHugo, this view is corroborated by Mu'awiya's secret offer to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> An exception is Kennedy, who believes that Mu'awiya was sincerely seeking justice for Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">[81]</a> Some authors instead regard the call for revenge as a pious cloak for broader issues: Hinds and Poonawala trace back Mu'awiya's revolt to his demands to rule over an autonomous Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b94-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> which was kept free (unlike Iraq) from uncontrolled immigration to check the Byzantine threats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197074-137">[137]</a> In contrast, after the Byzantines' defeats,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197074-137">[137]</a> Ali might have expected all provinces to equally share the burden of immigration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Shaban has a similar view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197073-131">[131]</a> Verse 17:33 of the Quran was cited by Mu'awiya to justify revenge,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a> "If anyone is killed wrongfully, We give his next-of-kin authority, but let him not be extravagant in killing, surely he is being helped," although Madelung suggests that the clause about a commensurate response was later ignored in the "frenzy of patriotic self-righteousness" created by Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195-96">[96]</a> Mu'awiya's other justification for revolting against Ali was that he had not participated in the election of Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> or that the rebels were involved in the election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">[75]</a> Regarding the emphasis on a Syrian shura after Ali, Mu'awiya's justification was that the people of <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> had abandoned the truth and it was now the Syrians who had to uphold the justice, as explained in a letter attributed to him shortly before the Battle of Siffin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105-138">[138]</a> In reality, however, this emphasis was likely to ensure his own caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> Madelung comments here that Mu'awiya later designated his son <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid</a> as his successor without any shura.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205-139">[139]</a> As for whether and when Mu'awiya first aspired to the caliphate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103-140">[140]</a> it is the conclusion of Ayoub that he might have had two scenarios in mind: The first one was keeping the rule of Syria and annexing Egypt, as he indeed proposed to Ali's envoy, Jarir. Another clause of this same proposal was that Mu'awiya would not recognize the successor of Ali in case of his death, which suggests that Mu'awiya might have considered himself the future caliph after Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103–4-141">[141]</a> The second scenario was that Mu'awiya would succeed in removing Ali from office. This is evident in some speeches and letters attributed to Mu'awiya before the Battle of Siffin, in which his case for the caliphate and seizing it by force is defended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103–4-141">[141]</a> Gaining political power by force soon became the common practice for Muslim rulers and was also legitimized by some (Sunni) jurists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ali_and_retribution_for_Uthman">Ali and retribution for Uthman</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ali and retribution for Uthman">edit</a>]</div> Ali was openly critical of the conduct of Uthman, though he generally neither justified his violent death nor condemned his killers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997151-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201853-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> While he did not condone the assassination,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197965-144">[144]</a> Ali probably held Uthman responsible through his injustice for the protests that led to his death,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997151-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen200810-145">[145]</a> a view for which Poonawala cites Waq'at Siffin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> From this same source, Ayoub cites the account of the negotiations before the Battle of Siffin, in which Ali is quoted as saying that Uthman was killed by those indignant about his transgressions. Even when pressed by Mu'awiya's envoys, the report adds that Ali refused to say that Uthman was killed wrongfully.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014113-146">[146]</a> Madelung sides with this judgment of Ali from a judicial point of view, saying that Uthman probably did not sanction the murder of Niyar ibn Iyad Aslami, which triggered the deadly raid on his residence, but he obstructed justice by preventing an investigation into the murder, fearing that his aide Marwan was behind it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256-147">[147]</a> Still, in his letters to Mu'awiya and elsewhere,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997206-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016407-149">[149]</a> Ali insisted that he would bring the murderers to justice in due course,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202290-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016407-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197965-144">[144]</a> probably after establishing his authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856-151">[151]</a> Quoting al-Ya'qubi and al-Kufi, Ayoub suggests that a mob from various tribes murdered Uthman and that Ali could have not punished them without risking widespread tribal conflict, even if he could identify them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201482-152">[152]</a> Here, the Islamicists <a href="/wiki/Farhad_Daftary" title="Farhad Daftary">Farhad Daftary</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Kelsay" title="John Kelsay">John Kelsay</a> say that the actual murderers soon fled (Medina) after the assassination,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsay199384-153">[153]</a> a view for which Jafri cites al-Tabari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197964,_99n32-154">[154]</a> Closely associated with Ali was Malik al-Ashtar, a leader of the qurra,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.II-155">[155]</a> who had led the Kufan delegation against Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">[81]</a> even though they had heeded Ali's call for nonviolence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128-31">[31]</a> and did not participate in the deadly siege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128-31">[31]</a> A leading Egyptian rebel with links to Ali was his stepson, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr</a>, who was allegedly among those who killed Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856-151">[151]</a> Other authors have rejected this accusation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201474-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997139n195-157">[157]</a> though most sources seem to agree that Muhammad visited Uthman shortly before his death and rebuked him for his conduct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201474-156">[156]</a> These two men and some other supporters of Ali were implicated by Mu'awiya in the assassination of Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a> In this light, some authors suggest that Ali was unwilling or unable to punish these individuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856–7-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014134-160">[160]</a> In any case, the revenge for Uthman soon became the pretext for two revolts against Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199237-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197968-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Mu'awiya_in_the_assassination">Role of Mu'awiya in the assassination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Role of Mu'awiya in the assassination">edit</a>]</div> Other authors have instead implicated Mu'awiya or his close associates in the assassination of Uthman. Madelung writes that Amr ibn al-As, a close ally of Mu'awiya, had earlier publicly taken credit for the assassination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187-106">[106]</a> At the time, Mu'awiya was also repeatedly accused of abandoning Uthman during the deadly siege of his residence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014104-129">[129]</a> and this view is echoed by the Islamic author <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Abbas_(scholar)" title="Hassan Abbas (scholar)">Hassan Abbas</a> and by the Shia scholar <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabatabai" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai">Muhammad H. Tabatabai</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1981).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"having_advised_Marwan"-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197545-134">[134]</a> Similarly, a letter ascribed to the besieged Uthman by al-Tabari and al-Ya'qubi alleges that Mu'awiya deliberately withheld the requested reinforcements to benefit politically from the caliph's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197564-164">[164]</a> It is also commonly believed that Marwan, the secretary of Uthman, was responsible for the intercepted instructions to punish the rebels that set off the final siege. However, <a href="/wiki/Lesley_Hazleton" title="Lesley Hazleton">Lesley Hazleton</a>, an author on religion and politics, further suggests that Marwan may have done so at the instigation of Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009183-165">[165]</a> Abbas shares this view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"having_advised_Marwan"-163">[163]</a> Tabatabai writes that, during his own caliphate, Mu'awiya no longer pursued vengeance for Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197546-166">[166]</a> which was the basis for his claim to the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201493-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_preparations">War preparations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: War preparations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript,_Persia,_Safavid,_dated_1516.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg/220px-An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg/330px-An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg/440px-An_Illustrated_and_Illuminated_leaf_from_a_Persian_Manuscript%2C_Persia%2C_Safavid%2C_dated_1516.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="4528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a>, likely depicting Ali at the Battle of Siffin, created in <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a>, dated 1516</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq">Iraq</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Iraq">edit</a>]</div> In Iraq, Ali called a council of the Muhajirun and the Ansar who unanimously urged him to fight Mu'awiya after the latter declared war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215-167">[167]</a> Some apparently suggested that Ali remain in Kufa and send a force against Mu'awiya, but the caliph preferred to take the command himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> As for the public, the Kufans were not united in supporting the war, either simply because of its expected toll,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> or because they were reluctant to shed other Muslims' blood,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> or perhaps because the Syrians had never pledged allegiance to Ali in the first place,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105-138">[138]</a> even though similar cases were judged to be apostasy by Abu Bakr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215-167">[167]</a> This last argument was also put forward to justify the rebellion in a letter directed at Ali and attributed to Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105-138">[138]</a> Elsewhere, Ali is said to have barred his followers from cursing the Syrians, saying that it might jeopardize any remaining hopes for a peaceful resolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997218–9-168">[168]</a> One such report is in connection with <a href="/wiki/Hujr_ibn_Adi" title="Hujr ibn Adi">Hujr ibn Adi</a> and Amr ibn al-Hamiq, both loyal to Ali. When the caliph learned that they were openly dissociating from and cursing the Syrians, he asked them to describe the evil in their actions instead of vilifying them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201265–6-169">[169]</a> After the Battle of Siffin, however, Ali introduced a curse on Mu'awiya in the <a href="/wiki/Qunut" title="Qunut">qunuts</a> of his <a href="/wiki/Fajr_prayer" title="Fajr prayer">fajr</a> congregational prayers when the latter declared himself caliph in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257–8-170">[170]</a> A report by al-Tabari indicates that Ali directly negotiated with the Kufan tribal leaders and enlisted in his army some 40,000 muqatila (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'fighting men'), 17,000 of their sons who had reached the fighting age, and 8,000 clients and slaves. In Basra, however, Ali's governor was only able to recruit some 3200 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy20138–9-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syria">Syria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Syria">edit</a>]</div> In Syria, Uthman's bloodstained shirt was taken from town to town to incite the people to revenge,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997220-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> though the support for the war was also not unanimous there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997220-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> Among others, Shurahbil ibn Simt rallied support against Ali across Syria, directly accusing the caliph of killing Uthman in his speeches, according to Ibn Muzahim.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107–8-173">[173]</a> To show the success of Mu'awiya's campaign against Ali, Bahramian cites a report by al-Tabari, according to which a Syrian soldier told his Iraqi counterpart that their prayers were invalid because they were led by Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Mua'wiya also secured the Byzantine borders by agreeing to a truce at the cost of a "humiliating" tribute to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997221-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197074-137">[137]</a> He left the protection of his western borders to three local Palestinian commanders, probably because Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr faced internal problems as Ali's new governor in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997224-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons">Comparisons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Comparisons">edit</a>]</div> Siffin is described in Arabic sources as a conflict between the people of Iraq and Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051-126">[126]</a> in which most tribes were represented on both sides,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Khath%27am" title="Khath'am">Banu Kath'am</a>, which was divided to Iraqi and Syrian branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014116-176">[176]</a> The number of troops is uncertain. According to Nasr ibn Muzahim (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 828), both armies numbered around 150,000 by one report, whereas another report puts the numbers at 100,000 and 130,000 for Ali and Mu'awiya, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> As for their Islamic credentials, a considerable number of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful of companions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> In the opinion of Ayoub, the Syrian army was loyal to Mu'awiya, whereas Ali's troops were mostly semi-nomadic men unaccustomed to a central authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–7-178">[178]</a> To support his view, Ayoub cites a tradition attributed to al-Hajjaj ibn Khuzayma. He reportedly brought the news of the assassination to Mu'awiya, praised the loyalty of his army, and added that with Ali were men who often interrupted his speech and questioned his command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497-89">[89]</a> As for the recruitments, the historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lecker" title="Michael Lecker">Michael Lecker</a> considers Mua'wiya's "fierce and at times cynical" propaganda more successful than Ali's. The former also promised better material benefits to tribal leaders compared to Ali, who applied strict measures to governors who embezzled money, and this in turn led to their defection to Mu'awiya's side. Lecker thus considers Mu'awiya's hilm or well-considered opportunism to be more successful at Siffin than Ali's piety.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> Some Arabic sources further contrast Mu'awiya's hilm or opportunism with Ali's futuwwa (<a href="/wiki/Futuwwa" title="Futuwwa">Islamic chivalry</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958168-179">[179]</a> Shia sources also describe Siffin as a confrontation of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law with the son of Muhammad's arch-enemy, Abu Sufyan, who had led the confederate armies against Muslims in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench" title="Battle of the Trench">Battle of the Trench</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> This attitude is also reflected in a report by the Sunni al-Tabari, in which a companion of Ali likens the battle against Mu'awiya to Muhammad's battle against the polytheists (mushrikun) or rather its continuation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> In Iraq, it is the view of historian <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 2018) that the position of Ali was weakened by tribal disunity and insubordination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200262-180">[180]</a> To illustrate the division among Kufans, Ayoub cites an account by Ibn Muzahim to the effect that some asked Ali for permission to accompany his army without engaging in battle until they made up their minds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014108-181">[181]</a> In contrast, Syria was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> before Islam, and the Syrians were thus accustomed to a central authority and obedient to Mu'awiya, according to Wellhausen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192755-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Skirmishes">Skirmishes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Skirmishes">edit</a>]</div> After leaving Kufa, Ali's army took the route through <a href="/wiki/Al-Mada%27in" title="Al-Mada'in">al-Mada'in</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> They reached Siffin early in the summer of 36/657, a location west of the Euphrates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">[183]</a> There, the forces of Mu'awiya were already waiting for them,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">[183]</a> and prevented them from accessing the watering place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">[183]</a> A messenger of Ali now told Mu'awiya that they did not wish to fight the Syrians without proper warning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">[183]</a> to which Mu'awiya responded by fortifying the forces who were guarding the water.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227-184">[184]</a> Their justification for depriving Iraqis of water was their claim that their enemies were the murderers of Uthman. This is indeed what <a href="/wiki/Al-Imama_wa_al-siyasa" title="Al-Imama wa al-siyasa">al-Imama wa al-siyasa</a> quotes from al-Walid ibn Uqba, an advisor to Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014111-185">[185]</a> In the opinion of Madelung, however, Mu'awiya and the Syrians were perhaps carried away by their own propaganda against Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227-184">[184]</a> In a related account, al-Ya'qubi quotes Mu'awiya as saying, "May God not allow me and [my father] Abu Sufyan drink from the <a href="/wiki/Al-Kawthar" title="Al-Kawthar">spring</a> (hawd) of the messenger of God if they [the enemies] ever drink from this water."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112-186">[186]</a> Soon, however, the Iraqis drove off the Syrians and seized control of the watering place, though Ali permitted the enemies to freely access the water source.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193335-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958167-188">[188]</a> For Ayoub, this episode is an example of how Mu'awiya used religious language for military and political gain, while Ali held religious imperatives above all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112-186">[186]</a> The two sides at Siffin engaged in skirmishes and negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201456-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> This continued for some three months,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> certainly through the month of <a href="/wiki/Muharram" title="Muharram">Muharram</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> in which fighting is prohibited in Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112-186">[186]</a> The long idle period reflects the troops' reluctance for battle,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> possibly because they were averse to shedding other Muslims' blood,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">[3]</a> or because most tribes were represented on both sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> Donner believes that neither of the two leaders enjoyed strong support among their armies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> At any rate, the negotiations failed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> possibly on 18 July 657, and the two sides readied for battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997231-189">[189]</a> Per Arab customs, prominent figures fought with small retinues prior to the main battle, which took place a week later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_battle">Main battle</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Main battle">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg/220px-Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg/330px-Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg/440px-Sword_and_shield_reproduction_from_Bab_al_Nasr_gate_Cairo_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zulfiqar" title="Zulfiqar">Zulfiqar</a> with and without the shield. The <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> depiction of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>'s sword as carved on the Gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr.</figcaption></figure> Historical materials are abundant about the Battle of Siffin but they often describe disconnected episodes of the war. Lecker and Wellhausen have thus found it impossible to establish the course of the battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> Nevertheless, it can be said with some certainty that the battle began on Wednesday, 26 July 657,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a> and continued to Friday or Saturday morning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities, according to al-Tabari,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> and fought with his men on the frontline when the main battle broke out, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009198-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234-192">[192]</a> At the end of the first day, having pushed back Ali's right-wing, Mu'awiya had fared better overall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232–3-193">[193]</a> Amr ibn al-As was one of the commanders of the Syrian army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Their advance guard was led by <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-A%27war_al-Sulami" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-A'war al-Sulami">Abu al-A'war al-Sulami</a>, who is credited with depriving Ali's troops from drinking water prior to battle. On the other side, Kennedy suggests that Malik al-Ashtar was an inspiration on the battlefield to many of the Iraqis, at one point saving his men from fleeing in panic. Early on, he is said to have challenged Abu al-A'war to single combat, but the latter refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201311-194">[194]</a> On the second day, Mu'awiya concentrated his assault on Ali's left wing but his forces were pushed back by the Iraqis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234-192">[192]</a> Mu'awiya was compelled to flee his pavilion and took shelter in an army tent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234-192">[192]</a> On this day, Ubayd Allah ibn Umar was killed fighting for Mu'awiya. He had earlier fled to Syria when he learned that Ali intended to punish him for murdering some <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> innocent in the assassination of Umar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997233-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> On the other side, Ammar ibn Yasir, an octogenarian companion of Muhammad, was killed fighting for Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234-192">[192]</a> In the canonical Sunni sources <a href="/wiki/Sahih_al-Bukhari" title="Sahih al-Bukhari">Sahih al-Bukhari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Muslim" title="Sahih Muslim">Sahih Muslim</a>, a prophetic <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'saying') predicts Ammar's death at the hands of al-fi'a al-baghiya (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'rebellious aggressive group') who invite to hellfire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021149-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">[1]</a> On the third day, Mu'awiya turned down the proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali, brought forward separately by Ali and some of Mu'awiya's followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997235-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014119-198">[198]</a> Urwa ibn Dawud al-Dimashqi volunteered to fight instead of Mu'awiya and was promptly "cleft in two" by Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997235-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> After another indecisive day, the battle continued throughout laylat al-harir (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the night of rumble').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997237-199">[199]</a> Unlike Ali, Mu'awiya did not allow the enemy to recover and bury their dead when he advanced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997237-199">[199]</a> It was perhaps around this time that Mu'awiya repeated his earlier offer for peace in return for the rule of Syria, according to Ibn Muzahim. His account adds that Ali rejected the offer again, saying that he would not abandon jihad against the enemies of God, even if he were to be killed in His way seventy times and revived each time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014120-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997240–1-201">[201]</a> According to the same source, also around the same time did Mu'awiya send his brother <a href="/wiki/Utba_ibn_Abi_Sufyan" title="Utba ibn Abi Sufyan">Utba</a> to negotiate a separate truce with <a href="/wiki/Al-Ash%27ath_ibn_Qays" title="Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays">al-Ash'ath ibn Qays</a>, the influential Yemenite tribal leader, who was not closely associated with Ali or his cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Call_to_arbitration">Call to arbitration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Call to arbitration">edit</a>]</div> By the next morning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> the balance had moved in favor of Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011136–7-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190-204">[204]</a> as also suggested by al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Before noon, however, some of the Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> The fighting thus stopped at once.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> Bahramian lists two precedents for this: Before the Battle of the Camel, a representative of Ali, carrying a copy of the Quran, had summoned the rebels to the book. The war broke out when that man was killed by the rebels. Then during the Battle of the Camel, Ka'b ibn Sur al-Azdi, the judge (qadi) of Basra, who counted among the rebels, walked to the battlefield with a copy of the Quran and pleaded for the fighting to stop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> By this point at Siffin, Ali is estimated to have lost 25,000 men, while Mu'awiya might have lost 45,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuir1924261-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1848522-206">[206]</a> It was consistently Mu'awiya's position that battle was the only option acceptable to the Syrians. The Syrians' call for arbitration thus indicates that Mu'awiya had sensed imminent defeat, argue Madelung and McHugo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> This tends to be the view of many other modern authors,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016406-208">[208]</a> some of whom add that Mu'awiya was advised to do so by Amr ibn al-As,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001b49-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> citing al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri, among others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraqis'_reaction">Iraqis' reaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Iraqis' reaction">edit</a>]</div> The Syrians' call to arbitration on the basis of the Quran has thus been interpreted as an offer to surrender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> Even so, Ali's army stopped fighting, perhaps because devout Muslims in his camp had been fighting to enforce the rule of the Quran all along,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97–8-211">[211]</a> or simply because both armies were exhausted and a truce must have appealed to them,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193335-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014122-212">[212]</a> or because some in his camp saw the ceasefire as an opportunity to regain their influence over Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190-204">[204]</a> While this majority wanted the fighting to stop,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123-213">[213]</a> there was also probably a minority that was certain of victory and wanted the fight to continue,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> and yet another minority that followed Ali unconditionally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123-213">[213]</a> For his part, Ali is said to have exhorted his men to continue fighting, telling them to no avail that raising the Quran was for deception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> The account of Ibn Muzahim too reflects this attitude of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014124-214">[214]</a> Despite his pleas, the majority<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> of the qurra<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070-209">[209]</a> and those reluctant for war insisted on accepting the call to arbitration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202296-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> In the former group, Mis'ar ibn Fadaki and Zayd ibn Hisn al-Ta'i, who both later became <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijite</a> leaders, threatened to kill Ali if he did not answer the Syrians' call.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123–4-216">[216]</a> The latter group included the ridda tribesmen of Kufa and all newcomers to the city from their clans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">[103]</a> These formed the largest bloc in Ali's army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">[103]</a> They followed al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, who told Ali that his clan would not fight for him if he refused the Syrians' call,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> as reported in Waq'at Siffin and Moruj.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Ali might have thus faced a mutiny,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> and was forced to recall al-Ashtar,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> who is said to have advanced far towards the Syrian camp,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> reportedly separated from victory by "a horse's gallop."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125-218">[218]</a> He initially refused to stop fighting,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> perhaps sensing imminent victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> Contrary to all these reports, an account by al-Kufi suggests that Ali welcomed the call to arbitration, even comparing it to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Hudaybiyyah">Treaty of Hudaybiyya</a> (628) by Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014124-214">[214]</a> This account is also what <a href="/wiki/John_Kelsay" title="John Kelsay">John Kelsay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reza_Aslan" title="Reza Aslan">Reza Aslan</a> prefer,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsay199384-153">[153]</a> with the latter saying that most of his men pleaded with Ali to ignore the call to arbitration but he accepted it and cited the Quranic verse 2:193, "if [the enemy] desists, then you must also cease hostilities."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137-207">[207]</a> Fred Donner writes that Ali only reluctantly accepted arbitration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> Notwithstanding these two, modern authors tend to view Ali as opposed to the arbitration, including Madelung,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a> McHugo,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> Poonawala,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> and Ayoub.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraqis'_motives">Iraqis' motives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Iraqis' motives">edit</a>]</div> As for the motives of al-Ash'ath, Ali had confirmed him in his post as the governor of <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a> under Uthman, but also warned him in a letter about embezzling public funds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201495-219">[219]</a> The governor might have done so during his tenure under Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201495-219">[219]</a> and thus perhaps contemplated joining Mu'awiya in rebellion but was dissuaded from doing so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–6-220">[220]</a> Ali later supported Hujr ibn Adi, a rival of al-Ash'ath within the <a href="/wiki/Kinda_(tribe)" title="Kinda (tribe)">Kinda</a> tribe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> and then removed the latter from his military post just before leaving Iraq, replacing him with Hasan ibn Makhduj. These last two belonged to different Yemenite tribes and the appointment thus rekindled old tribal rivalries, according to Ayoub.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014110-221">[221]</a> While al-Ash'ath is also known to have expressed concern over the insecurity of Iran and the Byzantines' threat during the civil war,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b93-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123-213">[213]</a> Kennedy suggests that he also preferred a weakened Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> Jafri similarly writes that al-Ash'ath and other Kufan tribal leaders would have benefited from a deadlock between Ali and Mu'awiya: On the one hand, they would have lost their tribal power under a victorious Ali, who likely intended to restore the Islamic leadership in Kufa at the cost of its tribal aristocracy that had emerged under Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987-223">[223]</a> On the other hand, Mu'awiya's victory would have meant the subjugation and loss of Iraq as the base of their power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987-223">[223]</a> Therefore, they reluctantly participated in Siffin and readily accepted the arbitration offers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987–8-224">[224]</a> The opinion of Hinds is close,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97-217">[217]</a> while Shaban similarly writes that the Kufan tribes had benefited from Uthman's policies and were not enthusiastic about the war with Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">[103]</a> Jafri further suggests that the Kufan tribal leaders probably resented the egalitarian policies of Ali, as he divided the treasury funds equally among Arabs and non-Arabs, and among late- and new-comers to Kufa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197988-225">[225]</a> This is also the view of Ayoub.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014141-226">[226]</a> There are different views as to why the qurra preferred arbitration. Perhaps they welcomed arbitration by the Quran because they had been fighting to enforce the rule of the Quran all along.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97–8-211">[211]</a> Alternatively, Kennedy suggests that the qurra may have wanted a compromise with the Syrians that would have restricted the caliph. His argument is that the Iraqi qurra had opposed Uthman to gain more financial and political autonomy. They were thus willing to grant the same autonomy to the Syrians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">[158]</a> In contrast, Jafri first argues that the term qurra in early sources loosely refers to two groups: The first group was the Kufan qurra who revolted against Uthman and loyally supported Ali, led by the likes of Malik al-Ashtar and Hujr ibn Adi. The second group was the Basran qurra and other tribesmen who conveniently advanced their claims under the cloak of Islamic priority. It was this second group that backed the arbitration proposal, following the tribal leaders, who then nominated as their representative Abu Musa al-Ash'ari with a known preference for Qurayshite domination. It was at this point that the disillusioned second group rejected the arbitration and formed the Kharijites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197988-225">[225]</a> That the Kharijites consisted primarily of Basran tribesmen is also the view of the modern Islamicist <a href="/wiki/Maria_Massi_Dakake" title="Maria Massi Dakake">Maria M. Dakake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201262-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arbitration_agreement">Arbitration agreement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Arbitration agreement">edit</a>]</div> Mu'awiya then conveyed his proposal that representatives from both sides should together reach a binding solution on the basis of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98-228">[228]</a> He was silent at this point about revenge for Uthman and removal of Ali from office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98–9-229">[229]</a> Ibn Muzahim names <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-A%27war" title="Abu al-A'war">Abu al-A'war al-Sulami</a> as Mu'awiya's envoy to Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125-218">[218]</a> The proposal of Mu'awiya was accepted by the majority of Ali's army, reports al-Tabari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> Nevertheless, the opposition to arbitration was a sizeable minority in Ali's camp,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b100-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> consisting of those who now realized the political motives of Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> This minority wanted Ali to resume fighting,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> and their proposal was likely favored by Ali too.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> He declined it, however, saying that they would be crushed by the majority and the Syrians who all demanded arbitration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> Some of these dissidents left for Kufa, while others stayed, perhaps hoping that Ali might later change his mind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">[230]</a> Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali thus accepted the arbitration proposal,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241-232">[232]</a> most likely against his own judgment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241-232">[232]</a> Here, Madelung criticizes Ali for this decision and suggests that he acted more like a tribal chief than the caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243-233">[233]</a> Later Ali defended his decision in Kufa, saying that he considered continuing the fight, alongside that minority, but feared that Hasan and Husayn would perish and with them the lineage of Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997224-175">[175]</a> It is also possible that he expected the arbitration to collapse but reluctantly went along with it to exhaust this option which was favored by the majority in his camp who apparently hoped for an honorable settlement with Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245-234">[234]</a> In any case, the arbitration agreement divided the camp of Ali, as many there could not accept that he would negotiate with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. It also handed Mu'awiya a moral victory as an equal contender for the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selection_of_the_arbitrators">Selection of the arbitrators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Selection of the arbitrators">edit</a>]</div> In Ali's camp, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Musa_al-Ash%27ari" title="Abu Musa al-Ash'ari">Abu Musa al-Ashari</a> was proposed as the representative by al-Ash'ath and the Iraqi qurra, who were led by Zayd ibn Hisn al-T'a'i and Mis'ar ibn Fadaki.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241-232">[232]</a> Abu Musa was the former governor of Kufa, installed by the Iraqi rebels and later confirmed by Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2012c-235">[235]</a> who was dissuaded from removing him by al-Ashtar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997165-236">[236]</a> Anyway, he was soon dismissed after opposing the war preparations for the Battle of the Camel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125-218">[218]</a> The majority in Ali's army also pressed for Abu Musa, even though he was reportedly neutral, and despite the opposition of Ali,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201353-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051–2-238">[238]</a> who said he could not trust Abu Musa because he had earlier agitated against him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Ali was also apparently concerned about Abu Musa's political naivety,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFadel201343-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021c-242">[242]</a> or about his neutrality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198959-243">[243]</a> The alternatives proposed by Ali were Ibn Abbas and al-Ashtar, according to Ibn Muzahim, both of whom were rejected by al-Ash'ath and other Yemenites,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125–6-244">[244]</a> and also by the Iraqi qurra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Veccia Vaglieri and Rahman write that the Iraqis were so convinced of the legitimacy of their cause that they insisted on the neutral Abu Musa,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958–9-245">[245]</a> whereas others suggest that they were impressed by his piety,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">[100]</a> or his beautiful recitations of the Quran,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">[122]</a> or that he stood for provincial autonomy in Kufans' view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b99-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Mu'awiya was represented by his top general, Amr ibn al-As,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2-240">[240]</a> who acted solely in the interest of Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Content_of_the_agreement">Content of the agreement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Content of the agreement">edit</a>]</div> The arbitration agreement was written and signed by both parties on 15 <a href="/wiki/Safar" title="Safar">Safar</a> 37 (2 August 657).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243-233">[233]</a> Abu Musa and Amr represented Ali and Mu'awiya, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2-240">[240]</a> The two representatives committed to meet on neutral territory,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051-126">[126]</a> to adhere to the Quran and Sunna and to save the community from war and division,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a> a clause added evidently to appease the peace party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243-233">[233]</a> Citing Ibn Muzahim, Ayoub gives additional details: The arbitrators were to find guidance in the "uniting" and not "dividing" Sunna of Muhammad, and to do so only if they could not find their answer in the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">[247]</a> Making peace was the only objective listed in the agreement,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202296-215">[215]</a> which also guaranteed the safety of the arbitrators and made their ruling binding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">[247]</a> The agreement also initially referred to Ali by his official title of amir al-mu'minin (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'commander of the faithful') but this was omitted at the behest of Mu'awiya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014127-248">[248]</a> or Amr ibn al-As.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242–3-249">[249]</a> This was pressed by al-Ash'ath upon Ali, who reluctantly accepted it, apparently comparing it with the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, in which Muhammad was not referred to as the messenger of God at the request of the infidels. Variations of this account are given by al-Tabari, Ibn Muzahim,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242–3-249">[249]</a> al-Kufi, and Ibn Abi'l-Hadid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014127-248">[248]</a> The agreement thus treated Ali and Mu'awiya as equal contenders for the caliphate, rather than a rebellious Mu'awiya against the sitting caliph, Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">[247]</a> The two arbitrators were given a year to come to a decision,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">[247]</a> or until the end of <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a>, some seven months later, but this deadline was flexible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> In case they failed, hostilities would resume.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">[247]</a> Two days after this agreement both armies left the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997247-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seceders">Seceders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Seceders">edit</a>]</div> As Ali returned to Kufa, some of his men seceded and gathered outside of Kufa in protest to the arbitration agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997247-250">[250]</a> Bahramian puts their number at 12,000, citing al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Ali visited them and told them that they had opted for the arbitration despite his warnings,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987-223">[223]</a> according to al-Tabari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249n400-252">[252]</a> The seceders agreed and told Ali that they had repented for their sins and now demanded that Ali followed suit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> To this, he responded with the general declaration, "I repent to God and ask for his forgiveness for every sin,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">[253]</a> and also ensured them that the judgment of the arbitrators would not be binding if they deviated from the Quran and Sunna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248–9-255">[255]</a> He thus largely regained their support at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248–9-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010163-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a> But when the seceders returned to Kufa, they spread that Ali had nullified the arbitration agreement,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">[253]</a> which he denied,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191-257">[257]</a> saying that he was committed to the formal agreement with Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">[253]</a> Similar statements are attributed to Ali by Ibn Muzahim and Ibn Abi'l-Hadid, in which the caliph vows to uphold the covenant with Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014129-258">[258]</a> In another account by al-Tabari, Ali cites verse 16:91 for upholding the treaty when two Kharijites, namely, Zur'a ibn al-Burj al-Ta'i and Hurqus ibn Zuhayr al-Sa'di, appealed to him to revoke it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997251-259">[259]</a> Many of the dissidents apparently accepted Ali's position,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">[253]</a> while the rest left for <a href="/wiki/Al-Nahrawan" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahrawan">al-Nahrawan</a>, a town near al-Mada'in, and there declared <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Wahb_al-Rasibi" title="Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi">Abd-Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 658) as their leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> These formed the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> ' seceders'), who later took up arms against Ali in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahrawan" title="Battle of Nahrawan">Battle of Nahrawan</a> (658).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_Vida2021-260">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> They soon labeled anyone who opposed them as nonbelievers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202297-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen200811-262">[262]</a> who had to be fought,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">[254]</a> thus becoming the forerunners of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a>, according to some.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199241-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009144-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021152-265">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Their_motives">Their motives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Their motives">edit</a>]</div> Donner suggests that the seceders, among them many of the qurra,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b100-231">[231]</a> may have feared being held accountable for their role in the assassination of Uthman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">[254]</a> Alternatively, Hinds and Poonawala believe that the seceders were disillusioned with the arbitration process, particularly by the removal of Ali's title of amir al-mu'minin in the final agreement and by its reference to the Sunna next to the Quran,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> as noted also in Waq'at Sifin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101–2-267">[267]</a> After being silent about it initially, the Syrians now said that they also wanted the arbitrators to judge whether the killing of Uthman was justified, about which the qurra had no doubts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Hinds and Poonawala thus regard the arbitration as a skilfully-planned manoeuvre to disintegrate the coalition of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> For Ayoub, the seceders were frustrated with a costly war that had achieved nothing and denounced the agreement that questioned the authority of the legitimate Muslim caliph, in their view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128–9-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Their_slogan">Their slogan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Their slogan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhakkimite_Creed.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Muhakkimite_Creed.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="66" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="186" data-file-height="66" /></a><figcaption>Kharijites' slogan in Arabic, "No judgment but that of God"</figcaption></figure> The seceders adopted the slogan, "No judgment but that of God,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a> highlighting their rejection of the arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9, "If two parties of the Believers fight with one another, make peace between them; but if one rebels against the other, then fight against the one that rebels, until they return to obedience to God."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190–1-270">[270]</a> When they interrupted Ali's sermon with this slogan, he commented that it was a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood. He added that they were repudiating government even though a ruler was indispensable in the conduct of religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249–50-271">[271]</a> Ali nevertheless did not bar their entry to mosques or deprive them of their shares in the treasury, saying that they should be fought only if they initiate hostilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997250-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arbitration">Arbitration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Arbitration">edit</a>]</div> The accounts of the arbitration are highly tendentious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200263-273">[273]</a> Nevertheless, after some months of preparation, or perhaps even a year after the initial agreement,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197077-274">[274]</a> it appears that the two arbitrators met together, first in <a href="/wiki/Dumat_al-Jandal" title="Dumat al-Jandal">Dumat al-Jandal</a>, halfway between Iraq and Syria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014129-258">[258]</a> and then in <a href="/wiki/Udhruh" title="Udhruh">Udhruh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> This is the understanding of Madelung, Veccia Vaglieri, Caetani,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5-275">[275]</a> and Bahramian,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> while some others believe that the two arbitrators met only once.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5-275">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_meeting">First meeting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: First meeting">edit</a>]</div> In Dumat al-Jandal, the proceedings lasted for (possibly three) weeks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">[130]</a> likely extending to mid-April 658.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5-275">[275]</a> The account of al-Tabari depicts Abu Musa as opposed to the caliphates of both Ali and Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014130-276">[276]</a> As an early companion of Muhammad, it is similarly the understanding of Madelung that Abu Musa did not support the caliphate of Mu'awiya, a taliq. With a strong preference for peace among Muslims, Abu Musa was likely willing to confirm Ali as the caliph, provided that he would reinstate Mu'awiya as the governor of Syria, perhaps because he was well-liked by his army, and on the condition that Mu'awiya would, in turn, recognize Ali as the caliph. Ideally, however, Abu Musa may have preferred a broad shura that included Ali and Abd-Allah ibn Umar. The latter was his son-in-law and also favorite for the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256-147">[147]</a> The similar account of Ibn Muzahim is that Abu Musa proposed removing Ali and installing the neutral Abd-Allah ibn Umar for the caliphate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131-277">[277]</a> even though Abd-Allah was probably uninterested in it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208-278">[278]</a> This attitude of Abu Musa is also evident in an account given by al-Kufi and al-Tabari, who write that Mu'awiya sent <a href="/wiki/Al-Mughira" title="Al-Mughira">al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba</a> to assess the arbitrators' progress. He reportedly asked both what they thought of those who remained neutral in the conflict between Ali and Mu'awiya. Abu Musa answered that they were the best of mankind for they did not carry its burden, while Amr answered that they were the worst of mankind for neither they upheld a truth nor repudiated a falsehood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014130-276">[276]</a> Perhaps as an opener for the peace negotiations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a> the two arbitrators first discussed the assassination of Uthman,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070-209">[209]</a> most likely at the initiative of Amr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a> They reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> but could not agree on anything else, either because Amr blocked the choice of Ali for the caliphate or a fresh shura,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256-147">[147]</a> or because Abu Musa was adamant in his opposition to Mu'awiya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131-277">[277]</a> Madelung views the verdict about Uthman as a political one, a judicial misjudgment, and a blunder of the naive Abu Musa, who might have hoped that Amr would later reciprocate his concession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256-147">[147]</a> From the perspective of Abu Musa himself, his verdict did not authorize Mu'awiya to claim the caliphate, a prerogative which was reserved for the Muhajirun in his view,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201255-280">[280]</a> as reported by Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Muzahim.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake2012261n12-281">[281]</a> The verdict was not made public but both parties learned of it anyway.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> In particular, Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a new expedition to Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_meeting">Second meeting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Second meeting">edit</a>]</div> Evidently not endorsed by Ali, the second meeting was convened in <a href="/wiki/Udhruh" title="Udhruh">Udhruh</a> in January 659,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a> or in August-September 658,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> probably to discuss the succession to Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20052-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Not part of the arbitration process, this second meeting was solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a> who also invited the sons of prominent companions to take part, including Abd-Allah ibn Umar, Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba, and some others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997284-284">[284]</a> Some of these were from Hejaz and had remained neutral throughout the conflict, perhaps lured to Udhruh by the promise of a broad shura for choosing the next caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997283-285">[285]</a> Their presence was nevertheless a major coup, suggests Madelung, because Hejaz was still controlled by Ali at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997284-284">[284]</a> In particular, that Abd-Allah ibn Umar accepted the invitation of Mu'awiya hints at his interest in the caliphate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997286-286">[286]</a> contrary to the rumors showing him uninterested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208-278">[278]</a> The negotiations failed eventually,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">[282]</a> as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001a40-287">[287]</a> who stood down in the interest of unity by his own account,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> or more likely because he was intimidated by Mu'awiya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997286-286">[286]</a> who also publicly threatened him in the closing gala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997285-288">[288]</a> As for the final scene of the Udhruh meeting, one popular account is that Abu Musa deposed both Ali and Mu'awiya and called for a council to appoint the new caliph per his earlier agreement with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali but confirmed Mu'awiya as the new caliph, thus violating his agreement with Abu Musa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001a40-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010165-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a> Similar variants of this account are recounted by Ibn Muzahim and al-Kufi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131–3-290">[290]</a> The Kufan delegation then reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">[282]</a> and he fled to Mecca in disgrace, whereas Amr was well-received by Mu'awiya upon his return to Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">[282]</a> The common view is that the arbitration failed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201353-237">[237]</a> or was inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFadel201343-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191-257">[257]</a> This sentiment is perhaps summed up by the early historian <a href="/wiki/Khalifah_ibn_Khayyat" title="Khalifah ibn Khayyat">Khalifah ibn Khayyat</a> (<abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 854) in one sentence, "The arbiters agreed on nothing."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102-268">[268]</a> The arbitration nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197965-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201331-291">[291]</a> It also gave the former an opportunity to regroup, according to Momen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> After the conclusion of the arbitration, Syrians pledged their allegiance to Mu'awiya as the next caliph in 659,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds2012-80">[80]</a> or by the end of April-May 658, according to Bahramian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">[65]</a> Upon learning that Mu'awiya had declared himself caliph, Ali broke off all communications with him and introduced a curse on him in his congregational prayers, following the precedent of Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257–8-170">[170]</a> Mu'awiya soon reciprocated by introducing a curse on Ali, his sons, and his top general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997258-292">[292]</a> With the news of their violence against civilians, Ali had to postpone his new Syria campaign to subdue the Kharijites in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997259-293">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010163-256">[256]</a> Just before embarking on his second campaign to Syria in 661,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137-207">[207]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Ali" title="Assassination of Ali">Ali was assassinated</a> by a Kharijite during the morning prayers at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kufa" title="Great Mosque of Kufa">Mosque of Kufa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi200637-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200415-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">[177]</a> In the long term, it is the opinion of Ayoub that the Battle of Siffin crystalized the emerging divide in the Muslim community and changed its course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014106-296">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELecker2012-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELecker2012_1-19">t</a> <a href="#CITEREFLecker2012">Lecker 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon190698–9_2-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibbon1906">Gibbon 1906</a>, pp. 98–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958_3-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahman1989">Rahman 1989</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021a_4-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021a">Veccia Vaglieri 2021a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGleave2021-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGleave2021_5-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFGleave2021">Gleave 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997108_6-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198521-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198521_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199787-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung199787_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197067-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197067_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970">Veccia Vaglieri 1970</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202284-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202284_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201252-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake201252_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2012">Dakake 2012</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997113-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997113_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197953-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197953_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a467_14-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972a">Hinds 1972a</a>, p. 467. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997109-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997109_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197963-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197963_16-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201330_17-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaftary2013">Daftary 2013</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199798-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung199798_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997100–2-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997100–2_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 100–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECappucci201419-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECappucci201419_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCappucci2014">Cappucci 2014</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197959-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197959_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107–8-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107–8_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 107–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198522-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198522_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198522_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198522_23-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198522_23-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198522_23-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197962-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197962_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197962_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201849_25-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201462-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201462_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157_27-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010157_27-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-33">ah</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-34">ai</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-35">aj</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-36">ak</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoonawala1982_28-37">al</a> <a href="#CITEREFPoonawala1982">Poonawala 1982</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997121-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997121_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997118–9-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997118–9_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 118–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997128_31-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony201331_32-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2013">Anthony 2013</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197068-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197068_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970">Veccia Vaglieri 1970</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111,_119-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997111,_119_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 111, 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997122-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997122_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997123-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997123_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997112_38-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127_39-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012">Levi Della Vida & Khoury 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201471-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201471_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997126_42-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127,_135-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997127,_135_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 127, 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201564-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201564_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2015">Kennedy 2015</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001c423-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001c423_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlassé2001c">Glassé 2001c</a>, p. 423. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung199781-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung199781_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972a_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972a">Hinds 1972a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010152-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010152_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201565-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201565_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2015">Kennedy 2015</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENasrAfsaruddin2021_50-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNasrAfsaruddin2021">Nasr & Afsaruddin 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021d-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021d_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021d">Veccia Vaglieri 2021d</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201476-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201476_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997§3-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997§3_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. §3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202285-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202285_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997107_55-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010158_56-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197928-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197928_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§1.III-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§1.III_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§1.III_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, §1.III. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197069-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197069_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970">Veccia Vaglieri 1970</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192749-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192749_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWellhausen1927">Wellhausen 1927</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997106-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997106_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201464-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201464_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201464_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997141-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997141_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201456-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidus201456_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidus201456_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2014">Lapidus 2014</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBahramian2015_65-26">aa</a> <a href="#CITEREFBahramian2015">Bahramian 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201481-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201481_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201481_66-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997142–3-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997142–3_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 142–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197071-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197071_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaban1970">Shaban 1970</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997145-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997145_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144–5-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144–5_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 144–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997144_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198524-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198524_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.I-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.I_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, §2.I. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958159-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958159_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen1958">Petersen 1958</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010160_75-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997148-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997148_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997148_76-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201541-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201541_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2015">Shah-Kazemi 2015</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149–50-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997149–50_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 149–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds2012-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds2012_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds2012_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds2012_80-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds2012">Hinds 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566_81-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566_81-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201566_81-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2015">Kennedy 2015</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184_82-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184_82-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997184_82-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958164-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958164_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen1958">Petersen 1958</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997194_84-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997209-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997209_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997209_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas202160-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas202160_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958165-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958165_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958165_88-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen1958">Petersen 1958</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201497_89-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997193-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997193_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201493-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201493_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201493_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201494_92-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997190_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997191_94-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014136-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014136_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195_96-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997195_96-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201498-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201498_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201498_97-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021144-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021144_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997198-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997198_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010161_100-13">n</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499_101-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997185-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997185_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197075-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197075_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197075_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197075_103-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197075_103-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197075_103-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaban1970">Shaban 1970</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100_104-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997188-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997188_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187_106-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187_106-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997187_106-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997160–1-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997160–1_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 160–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997196-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997196_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201569-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201569_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2015">Kennedy 2015</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997197-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997197_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997197_110-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193333–4-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193333–4_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonaldson1933">Donaldson 1933</a>, pp. 33–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499–100-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201499–100_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 99–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100–1-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014100–1_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 100–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997199–202-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997199–202_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997199–202_114-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 199–202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107_115-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208–9-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208–9_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208–9_116-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 208–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101–3-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014101–3_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 101–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997203-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997203_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997203_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"a_mere_ruse_from_Muawiya"-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"a_mere_ruse_from_Muawiya"_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, "a mere ruse from Muawiya". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo20182.III_122-16">q</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, 2.III. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204–5-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997204–5_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 204–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205–6-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205–6_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 205–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202293-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202293_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20051_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20051_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20051_126-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20051_126-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2005">Dakake 2005</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198957–8-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198957–8_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahman1989">Rahman 1989</a>, pp. 57–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201352–3-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201352–3_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAfsaruddin2013">Afsaruddin 2013</a>, pp. 52–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014104-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014104_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014104_129-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi201423_130-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2014">Shah-Kazemi 2014</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197073-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197073_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197073_131-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaban1970">Shaban 1970</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202295–6-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202295–6_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, pp. 95–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997186-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997186_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997186_133-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197545-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabatabai197545_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabatabai197545_134-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTabatabai1975">Tabatabai 1975</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193334-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193334_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonaldson1933">Donaldson 1933</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b94-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b94_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197074-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197074_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197074_137-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197074_137-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaban1970">Shaban 1970</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105_138-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014105_138-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997205_139-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103–4-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103–4_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014103–4_141-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 103–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997151-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997151_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997151_142-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201853-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201853_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197965-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197965_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197965_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197965_144-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen200810-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen200810_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen2008">Petersen 2008</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014113-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014113_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256_147-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256_147-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997256_147-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997206-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997206_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016407-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016407_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016407_149-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdamec2016">Adamec 2016</a>, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202290-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202290_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856_151-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201482-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201482_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsay199384-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelsay199384_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelsay199384_153-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelsay1993">Kelsay 1993</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197964,_99n32-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197964,_99n32_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, pp. 64, 99n32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.II-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo2018§2.II_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, §2.II. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201474-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201474_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201474_156-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997139n195-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997139n195_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 139n195. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201567_158-9">j</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2015">Kennedy 2015</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856–7-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcHugo201856–7_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcHugo2018">McHugo 2018</a>, pp. 56–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014134-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014134_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199237-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito199237_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito1992">Esposito 1992</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197968-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197968_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"having_advised_Marwan"-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"having_advised_Marwan"_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021"having_advised_Marwan"_163-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, "having advised Marwan". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197564-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabatabai197564_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTabatabai1975">Tabatabai 1975</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009183-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009183_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHazleton2009">Hazleton 2009</a>, p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETabatabai197546-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETabatabai197546_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTabatabai1975">Tabatabai 1975</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215_167-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215_167-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997215_167-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997218–9-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997218–9_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 218–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201265–6-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake201265–6_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2012">Dakake 2012</a>, pp. 65–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257–8-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257–8_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257–8_170-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 257–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy20138–9-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy20138–9_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2013">Kennedy 2013</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997220-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997220_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997220_172-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107–8-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014107–8_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 107–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997221-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997221_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997224-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997224_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997224_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014116-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014116_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen198525-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198525_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198525_177-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198525_177-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198525_177-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen198525_177-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–7-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–7_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 96–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958168-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958168_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen1958">Petersen 1958</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200262-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis200262_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2002">Lewis 2002</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014108-181"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014108_181-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192755-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWellhausen192755_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWellhausen1927">Wellhausen 1927</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226-183">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226_183-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226_183-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226_183-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226_183-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997226_183-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997227_184-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014111-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014111_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112_186-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112_186-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014112_186-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193335-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193335_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldson193335_187-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonaldson1933">Donaldson 1933</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958167-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen1958167_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen1958">Petersen 1958</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997231-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997231_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009198-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009198_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHazleton2009">Hazleton 2009</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234_192-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234_192-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997234_192-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232–3-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997232–3_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 232–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy201311-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy201311_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2013">Kennedy 2013</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997233-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997233_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021149-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021149_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997235-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997235_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997235_197-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014119-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014119_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997237-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997237_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997237_199-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014120-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014120_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997240–1-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997240–1_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 240–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997238_202-15">p</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011136–7-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAslan2011136–7_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAslan2011">Aslan 2011</a>, pp. 136–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190_204-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeisal2007">Feisal 2007</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuir1924261-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuir1924261_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuir1924">Muir 1924</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbon1848522-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbon1848522_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibbon1848">Gibbon 1848</a>, p. 522. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137_207-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137_207-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAslan2011137_207-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAslan2011">Aslan 2011</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016406-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2016406_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdamec2016">Adamec 2016</a>, p. 406. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070_209-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070_209-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri197070_209-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970">Veccia Vaglieri 1970</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001b49-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001b49_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlassé2001b">Glassé 2001b</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97–8-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97–8_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97–8_211-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, pp. 97–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014122-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014122_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123_213-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123_213-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123_213-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014124-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014124_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014124_214-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202296-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202296_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202296_215-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123–4-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014123–4_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 123–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97_217-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b97_217-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125_218-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125_218-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125_218-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201495-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201495_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201495_219-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–6-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub201496–6_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 96–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014110-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014110_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b93-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b93_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197987_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197987_223-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197987_223-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197987–8-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197987–8_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, pp. 87–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJafri197988-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197988_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJafri197988_225-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJafri1979">Jafri 1979</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014141-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014141_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201262-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake201262_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2012">Dakake 2012</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98–9-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b98–9_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, pp. 98–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997239_230-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b100-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b100_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b100_231-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241_232-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243_233-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243_233-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997243_233-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997245_234-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2012c-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2012c_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2012c">Veccia Vaglieri 2012c</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997165-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997165_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201353-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201353_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAfsaruddin201353_237-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAfsaruddin2013">Afsaruddin 2013</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20051–2-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20051–2_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2005">Dakake 2005</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242_239-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2_240-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997241–2_240-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 241–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFadel201343-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFadel201343_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFadel201343_241-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFadel2013">Fadel 2013</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021c-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVeccia_Vaglieri2021c_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021c">Veccia Vaglieri 2021c</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198959-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198959_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahman1989">Rahman 1989</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125–6-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014125–6_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 125–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahman198958–9-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahman198958–9_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRahman1989">Rahman 1989</a>, pp. 58–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b99-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b99_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128_247-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128_247-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128_247-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128_247-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014127-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014127_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014127_248-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242–3-249">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242–3_249-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997242–3_249-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 242–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997247-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997247_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997247_250-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249n400-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249n400_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 249n400. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249-253">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249_253-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249_253-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249_253-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249_253-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249_253-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162_254-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162_254-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162_254-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010162_254-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248–9-255">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248–9_255-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997248–9_255-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 248–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010163-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010163_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010163_256-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191_257-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007191_257-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeisal2007">Feisal 2007</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014129-258">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014129_258-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014129_258-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997251-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997251_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_Vida2021-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevi_Della_Vida2021_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevi_Della_Vida2021">Levi Della Vida 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202297-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi202297_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022">Shah-Kazemi 2022</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen200811-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersen200811_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetersen2008">Petersen 2008</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito199241-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito199241_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito1992">Esposito 1992</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009144-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHazleton2009144_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHazleton2009">Hazleton 2009</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021152-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbbas2021152_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbbas2021">Abbas 2021</a>, p. 152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101–2-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b101–2_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, pp. 101–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102-268">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102_268-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102_268-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinds1972b102_268-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHinds1972b">Hinds 1972b</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128–9-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014128–9_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 128–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190–1-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFeisal2007190–1_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFeisal2007">Feisal 2007</a>, pp. 190–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249–50-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997249–50_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 249–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997250-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997250_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200263-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis200263_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2002">Lewis 2002</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban197077-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban197077_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaban1970">Shaban 1970</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5-275">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5_275-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5_275-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5_275-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997254–5_275-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, pp. 254–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014130-276">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014130_276-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014130_276-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131_277-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208-278">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208_278-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997208_278-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997255_279-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 255. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake201255-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake201255_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2012">Dakake 2012</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake2012261n12-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake2012261n12_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2012">Dakake 2012</a>, p. 261n12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257_282-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257_282-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257_282-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997257_282-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 257. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDakake20052-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDakake20052_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDakake2005">Dakake 2005</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997284-284">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997284_284-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997284_284-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997283-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997283_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997286-286">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997286_286-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997286_286-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001a40-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001a40_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlassé2001a40_287-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlassé2001a">Glassé 2001a</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997285-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997285_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonner2010165-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonner2010165_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonner2010">Donner 2010</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131–3-290"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014131–3_290-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, pp. 131–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary201331-291"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary201331_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDaftary2013">Daftary 2013</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997258-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997258_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997259-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadelung1997259_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung 1997</a>, p. 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi200637-294"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah-Kazemi200637_294-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShah-Kazemi2006">Shah-Kazemi 2006</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200415-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito200415_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2004">Esposito 2004</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014106-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAyoub2014106_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAyoub2014">Ayoub 2014</a>, p. 106. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbbas2021" class="citation book cs1">Abbas, Hassan (2021). The Prophet's Heir: The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300252057" title="Special:BookSources/9780300252057"><bdi>9780300252057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%27s+Heir%3A+The+Life+of+Ali+ibn+Abi+Talib&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780300252057&rft.aulast=Abbas&rft.aufirst=Hassan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamec2016" class="citation book cs1">Adamec, Ludwig W. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historical-dictionary-of-islam-third-edition/mode/">Historical Dictionary of Islam</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442277243" title="Special:BookSources/9781442277243"><bdi>9781442277243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781442277243&rft.aulast=Adamec&rft.aufirst=Ludwig+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorical-dictionary-of-islam-third-edition%2Fmode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAfsaruddin2013" class="citation book cs1">Afsaruddin, Asma (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-first-muslims-history-and-memory-by-asma-afsaruddin/mode/2up">The First Muslims: History and Memory</a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780744483" title="Special:BookSources/9781780744483"><bdi>9781780744483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Muslims%3A+History+and+Memory&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781780744483&rft.aulast=Afsaruddin&rft.aufirst=Asma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-first-muslims-history-and-memory-by-asma-afsaruddin%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Anthony, Sean W. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/">"'Ali b. Abi Talib (ca. 599–661)"</a>. In Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 30–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691134840" title="Special:BookSources/9780691134840"><bdi>9780691134840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Ali+b.+Abi+Talib+%28ca.+599%E2%80%93661%29&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+encyclopedia+of+Islamic+political+thought&rft.pages=30-32&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780691134840&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=Sean+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincetonencyclo0000unse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAslan2011" class="citation book cs1">Aslan, Reza (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nogodbutgodorigi0000asla_n9k1/mode/2up">No god But God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812982442" title="Special:BookSources/9780812982442"><bdi>9780812982442</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+god+But+God%3A+The+Origins%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Future+of+Islam&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780812982442&rft.aulast=Aslan&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnogodbutgodorigi0000asla_n9k1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyoub2014" class="citation book cs1">Ayoub, Mahmoud M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crisisofmuslimhi0000ayou/mode/2up">The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam</a>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780746746" title="Special:BookSources/9781780746746"><bdi>9781780746746</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+Muslim+History%3A+Religion+and+Politics+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781780746746&rft.aulast=Ayoub&rft.aufirst=Mahmoud+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrisisofmuslimhi0000ayou%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBahramian2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bahramian, Ali (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252">"ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib 3. Caliphate"</a>. In Daftary, Farhad (ed.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0252">10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+b.+Ab%C4%AB+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib+3.+Caliphate&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Islamica&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0252&rft.aulast=Bahramian&rft.aufirst=Ali&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCappucci2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cappucci, John (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/page/18/mode/2up">"'A'ISHA (614–678)"</a>. In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 18–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610691789" title="Special:BookSources/9781610691789"><bdi>9781610691789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27A%27ISHA+%28614%E2%80%93678%29&rft.btitle=Muhammad+in+History%2C+Thought%2C+and+Culture%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Prophet+of+God&rft.pages=18-20&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781610691789&rft.aulast=Cappucci&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1%2Fpage%2F18%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaftary2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Farhad_Daftary" title="Farhad Daftary">Daftary, Farhad</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013/mode/2up">A History of Shi'i Islam</a>. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780755608669" title="Special:BookSources/9780755608669"><bdi>9780755608669</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Shi%27i+Islam&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780755608669&rft.aulast=Daftary&rft.aufirst=Farhad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakake2012" class="citation book cs1">Dakake, Maria Massi (2012). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791480342" title="Special:BookSources/9780791480342"><bdi>9780791480342</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Charismatic+Community%3A+Shi%27ite+Identity+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780791480342&rft.aulast=Dakake&rft.aufirst=Maria+Massi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakake2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dakake, Maria Massi (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol5/page/n3/mode/2up">"Ṣiffīn, Battle of"</a>. In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān. Vol. 5. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12356-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12356-4"><bdi>978-90-04-12356-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%A2iff%C4%ABn%2C+Battle+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%CA%BC%C4%81n&rft.pages=1-2&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12356-4&rft.aulast=Dakake&rft.aufirst=Maria+Massi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEncyclopaediaOfTheQuranVol5%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldson1933" class="citation book cs1">Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpV7QwAACAAJ&pg=PA190">The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraḳ</a>. AMS Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shi%27ite+Religion%3A+A+History+of+Islam+in+Persia+and+Ira%E1%B8%B3&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Donaldson&rft.aufirst=Dwight+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZpV7QwAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner2010" class="citation book cs1">Donner, Fred M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadbeliever0000donn/mode/2up">Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674064140" title="Special:BookSources/9780674064140"><bdi>9780674064140</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+and+the+Believers%3A+At+the+Origins+of+Islam&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780674064140&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadbeliever0000donn%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito1992" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John L. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo/mode/2up">Islam: The Straight Path</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195074727" title="Special:BookSources/9780195074727"><bdi>9780195074727</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780195074727&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamstraightpat0001espo%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2004" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada/mode/2up">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199757268" title="Special:BookSources/9780199757268"><bdi>9780199757268</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780199757268&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxforddictionary00bada%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadel2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fadel, Mohammad (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/">"arbitration"</a>. In Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J.; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 43–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691134840" title="Special:BookSources/9780691134840"><bdi>9780691134840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=arbitration&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.pages=43-44&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780691134840&rft.aulast=Fadel&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincetonencyclo0000unse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeisal2007" class="citation book cs1">Feisal, Abdul Rauf (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0001unse/page/184/mode/2up">"What Is Sunni Islam?"</a>. In Cornell, Vincent J. (ed.). Voices of Islam. Vol. 1. Praeger Publishers. pp. 185–216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98732-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98732-9"><bdi>978-0-275-98732-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Sunni+Islam%3F&rft.btitle=Voices+of+Islam&rft.pages=185-216&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98732-9&rft.aulast=Feisal&rft.aufirst=Abdul+Rauf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoicesofislam0001unse%2Fpage%2F184%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1906" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1906). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Fred de Fau and Co. Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Fred+de+Fau+and+Co.+Publishers&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1848" class="citation book cs1">Gibbon, Edward (1848). The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.date=1848&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassé2001a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2001a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/39/mode/2up">"'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (598–40/598–661)"</a>. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. pp. 39–441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780759101890" title="Special:BookSources/9780759101890"><bdi>9780759101890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Al%C4%AB+ibn+Ab%C4%AB+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib+%28598%E2%80%9340%2F598%E2%80%93661%29&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=39-441&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780759101890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000glas%2Fpage%2F39%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassé2001b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2001b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/48/mode/2up">"'Amr ibn al-'Āsī (d. 42/663)"</a>. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780759101890" title="Special:BookSources/9780759101890"><bdi>9780759101890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Amr+ibn+al-%27%C4%80s%C4%AB+%28d.+42%2F663%29&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780759101890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000glas%2Fpage%2F48%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassé2001c" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2001c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/422/mode/2up">"Shi'ism"</a>. The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. pp. 422–428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780759101890" title="Special:BookSources/9780759101890"><bdi>9780759101890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shi%27ism&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=422-428&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780759101890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000glas%2Fpage%2F422%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleave2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gleave, Robert M. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/ali-b-abi-talib-COM_26324">"ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib"</a>. Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+b.+Ab%C4%AB+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Gleave&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-3%2Fali-b-abi-talib-COM_26324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazleton2009" class="citation book cs1">Hazleton, Lesley (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aftertheprophettheepicstoryoftheshiasunnisplitinislampdfdrive.com/mode/2up">After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385532099" title="Special:BookSources/9780385532099"><bdi>9780385532099</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Prophet%3A+The+Epic+Story+of+the+Shia-Sunni+Split+in+Islam&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780385532099&rft.aulast=Hazleton&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faftertheprophettheepicstoryoftheshiasunnisplitinislampdfdrive.com%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds1972a" class="citation journal cs1">Hinds, Martin (1972a). "The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 3 (4): 450–469. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800025216">10.1017/S0020743800025216</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159763369">159763369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Murder+of+the+Caliph+%27Uthman&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=450-469&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800025216&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159763369%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds1972b" class="citation journal cs1">Hinds, Martin (1972b). "The Siffin Arbitration Agreement". Journal of Semitic Studies. 17 (1): 93–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjss%2F17.1.93">10.1093/jss/17.1.93</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semitic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Siffin+Arbitration+Agreement&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-129&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjss%2F17.1.93&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinds2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hinds, M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5279">"Muʿāwiya I"</a>. In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5279">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5279</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161214" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161214"><bdi>9789004161214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mu%CA%BF%C4%81wiya+I&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5279&rft.isbn=9789004161214&rft.aulast=Hinds&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJafri1979" class="citation book cs1">Jafri, S.H.M (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/OriginsAndEarlyDevelopmentOfShiaIslamBySyedHusainMohammadJafri/mode/2up">Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam</a>. London: Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+and+Early+Development+of+Shia+Islam&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Jafri&rft.aufirst=S.H.M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FOriginsAndEarlyDevelopmentOfShiaIslamBySyedHusainMohammadJafri%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelsay1993" class="citation book cs1">Kelsay, John (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamwarstudyinc0000kels/mode/2up">Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780664253028" title="Special:BookSources/9780664253028"><bdi>9780664253028</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+War%3A+A+Study+in+Comparative+Ethics&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780664253028&rft.aulast=Kelsay&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamwarstudyinc0000kels%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2013" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armiesofcaliphsm0000kenn/mode/2up">The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134531134" title="Special:BookSources/9781134531134"><bdi>9781134531134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armies+of+the+Caliphs%3A+Military+and+Society+in+the+Early+Islamic+State&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134531134&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farmiesofcaliphsm0000kenn%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2015" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up">The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century</a>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates%3A+The+Islamic+Near+East+from+the+Sixth+to+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2014" class="citation book cs1">Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofislamic0000lapi/mode/2up">A History of Islamic Societies</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521514309" title="Special:BookSources/9780521514309"><bdi>9780521514309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780521514309&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofislamic0000lapi%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLecker2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lecker, M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018">"Ṣiffīn"</a>. In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161214" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161214"><bdi>9789004161214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%A2iff%C4%ABn&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018&rft.isbn=9789004161214&rft.aulast=Lecker&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Levi Della Vida, G.; Khoury, R.G. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315">"ʿUt̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān"</a>. In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1315">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFUt%CC%B2h%CC%B2m%C4%81n+b.+%CA%BFAff%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1315&rft.aulast=Levi+Della+Vida&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Khoury%2C+R.G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevi_Della_Vida2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Levi Della Vida (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ejbrillsfirstenc0004unse/mode/2up">"Kharidjites"</a>. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kharidjites&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Levi+Della+Vida&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fejbrillsfirstenc0004unse%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabsinhistory0000lewi_w0i7/mode/">Arabs in History</a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191647161" title="Special:BookSources/9780191647161"><bdi>9780191647161</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+in+History&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780191647161&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabsinhistory0000lewi_w0i7%2Fmode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcHugo2018" class="citation book cs1">McHugo, John (2018). A Concise History of Sunnis and Shi'is. Georgetown University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781626165885" title="Special:BookSources/9781626165885"><bdi>9781626165885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Sunnis+and+Shi%27is&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781626165885&rft.aulast=McHugo&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung" title="Wilferd Madelung">Madelung, Wilferd</a> (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-64696-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-64696-0"><bdi>0-521-64696-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad%3A+A+Study+of+the+Early+Caliphate&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-64696-0&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMomen1985" class="citation book cs1">Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780853982005" title="Special:BookSources/9780853982005"><bdi>9780853982005</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Shi%27i+Islam&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780853982005&rft.aulast=Momen&rft.aufirst=Moojan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir1924" class="citation book cs1">Muir, William (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5sU2AAAAMAAJ">The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline and Fall, From Original Sources</a>. Religious tract society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate%3A+Its+Rise%2C+Decline+and+Fall%2C+From+Original+Sources&rft.pub=Religious+tract+society&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5sU2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasrAfsaruddin2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Afsaruddin, Asma (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph">"Ali"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ali&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Hossein&rft.au=Afsaruddin%2C+Asma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAli-Muslim-caliph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersen1958" class="citation journal cs1">Petersen, Erling Ladewig (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.uio.no/actaorientalia/article/view/5297/4638">"ʿAlī and Muʿāwiah: The rise of the Umayyad caliphate 656–661"</a>. Acta Orientalia. 23: 157–196.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Orientalia&rft.atitle=%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+and+Mu%CA%BF%C4%81wiah%3A+The+rise+of+the+Umayyad+caliphate+656%E2%80%93661&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=157-196&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Erling+Ladewig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.uio.no%2Factaorientalia%2Farticle%2Fview%2F5297%2F4638&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersen2008" class="citation book cs1">Petersen, Erling L. (2008) [1964]. Ali and Mu'awiya in Early Arabic Tradition: Studies on the Genesis and Growth of Islamic Historical Writing Until the End of the Ninth Century. Translated by Christensen, P. Lampe. Acls History E Book Project. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597404716" title="Special:BookSources/9781597404716"><bdi>9781597404716</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ali+and+Mu%27awiya+in+Early+Arabic+Tradition%3A+Studies+on+the+Genesis+and+Growth+of+Islamic+Historical+Writing+Until+the+End+of+the+Ninth+Century&rft.pub=Acls+History+E+Book+Project&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781597404716&rft.aulast=Petersen&rft.aufirst=Erling+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoonawala1982" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Poonawala, I.K. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ali-b-abi-taleb#pt1">"ʿALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLEB I. Life"</a>. Encyclopaedia Iranica (Online ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CA%BFAL%C4%AA+B.+AB%C4%AA+%E1%B9%AC%C4%80LEB+I.+Life&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.edition=Online&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Poonawala&rft.aufirst=I.K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fali-b-abi-taleb%23pt1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman1989" class="citation book cs1">Rahman, Habib Ur (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronologyofisla0000rahm/mode/2up">A Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE</a>. G.K. Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816190676" title="Special:BookSources/9780816190676"><bdi>9780816190676</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+of+Islamic+History%2C+570%E2%80%931000+CE&rft.pub=G.K.+Hall&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780816190676&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Habib+Ur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronologyofisla0000rahm%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaban1970" class="citation book cs1">Shaban, M.A. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/IslamicHistoryANewInterpretationVol.1/mode/2up">Islamic History: Volume 1, AD 600–750 (AH 132): A New Interpretation</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521291316" title="Special:BookSources/9780521291316"><bdi>9780521291316</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+History%3A+Volume+1%2C+AD+600%E2%80%93750+%28AH+132%29%3A+A+New+Interpretation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780521291316&rft.aulast=Shaban&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FIslamicHistoryANewInterpretationVol.1%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah-Kazemi2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/page/20/mode/2up">"'Ali IBN ABI TALIB (599–661)"</a>. In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.). Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. ABC-CLIO. pp. 20–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610691789" title="Special:BookSources/9781610691789"><bdi>9781610691789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Ali+IBN+ABI+TALIB+%28599%E2%80%93661%29&rft.btitle=Muhammad+in+History%2C+Thought%2C+and+Culture%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Prophet+of+God&rft.pages=20-24&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781610691789&rft.aulast=Shah-Kazemi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1%2Fpage%2F20%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah-Kazemi2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC">"'ALI IBN ABI TALIB"</a>. In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 36–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415966900" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415966900"><bdi>978-0415966900</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27ALI+IBN+ABI+TALIB&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=36-47&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415966900&rft.aulast=Shah-Kazemi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH-k9oc9xsuAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022" class="citation book cs1">Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reza-shah-kazemi-imam-ali-from-concise-history-to-timeless-mystery-non-ocr/mode/2up">Imam 'Ali: Concise History, Timeless Mystery</a>. I.B. Tauris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imam+%27Ali%3A+Concise+History%2C+Timeless+Mystery&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Shah-Kazemi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freza-shah-kazemi-imam-ali-from-concise-history-to-timeless-mystery-non-ocr%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah-Kazemi2015" class="citation book cs1">Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2015). "Imam Ali". In Daftary, Farhad; Sajoo, Amyn; Jiwa, Shainool (eds.). The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857727633" title="Special:BookSources/9780857727633"><bdi>9780857727633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imam+Ali&rft.btitle=The+Shi%27i+World%3A+Pathways+in+Tradition+and+Modernity&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780857727633&rft.aulast=Shah-Kazemi&rft.aufirst=Reza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabatabai1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allameh_Tabatabaei" class="mw-redirect" title="Allameh Tabatabaei">Tabatabai, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn</a> (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up">Shi'ite Islam</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Sayyid Hossein Nasr</a>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-390-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-390-8"><bdi>0-87395-390-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shi%27ite+Islam&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-87395-390-8&rft.aulast=Tabatabai&rft.aufirst=Sayyid+Mohammad+Hosayn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FShiaInIslamCopy%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2012c" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0781">"al-As̲h̲ʿarī, Abū Mūsā"</a>. In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; vanDonzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0781">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-As%CC%B2h%CC%B2%CA%BFar%C4%AB%2C+Ab%C5%AB+M%C5%ABs%C4%81&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0781&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_0781&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ali-b-abi-talib-COM_0046?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+b.+Ab%C4%AB+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib">"Ali b. Abi Talib"</a>. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ali+b.+Abi+Talib&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fali-b-abi-talib-COM_0046%3Fs.num%3D0%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2%26s.q%3D%25CA%25BFAl%25C4%25AB%2Bb.%2BAb%25C4%25AB%2B%25E1%25B9%25AC%25C4%2581lib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021c" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-ashari-abu-musa-SIM_0781?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&s.q=al-As%CC%B2h%CC%B2%CA%BFar%C4%AB%2C+Ab%C5%AB+M%C5%ABs%C4%81">"al- As̲h̲ʿarī, Abū Mūsā"</a>. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-+As%CC%B2h%CC%B2%CA%BFar%C4%AB%2C+Ab%C5%AB+M%C5%ABs%C4%81&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fal-ashari-abu-musa-SIM_0781%3Fs.num%3D0%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia%2Bof%2BIslam%26s.q%3Dal-As%25CC%25B2h%25CC%25B2%25CA%25BFar%25C4%25AB%252C%2BAb%25C5%25AB%2BM%25C5%25ABs%25C4%2581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021d" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021d). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-djamal-SIM_1962?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&s.q=al-D%CC%B2j%CC%B2amal">"al- D̲j̲amal"</a>. In Bearman, P. (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-+D%CC%B2j%CC%B2amal&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fal-djamal-SIM_1962%3Fs.num%3D0%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.cluster.Encyclopaedia%2Bof%2BIslam%26s.q%3Dal-D%25CC%25B2j%25CC%25B2amal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970" class="citation book cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, Laura (1970). "The Patriarchal and Umayyad Caliphates". In Holt, Peter M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0001unse_v9h2/mode/2up">The Cambridge History of Islam</a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Patriarchal+and+Umayyad+Caliphates&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=57-103&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehistory0001unse_v9h2%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellhausen1927" class="citation book cs1">Wellhausen, Julius (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabkingdomandit029490mbp/page/n5/mode/2up">The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall</a>. Translated by Weir, Margaret G. University of Calcutta.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Kingdom+and+Its+Fall&rft.pub=University+of+Calcutta&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Wellhausen&rft.aufirst=Julius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabkingdomandit029490mbp%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodley1946" class="citation book cs1">Bodley, R. V. C. (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/messengerlifeofm00bodl/page/348/mode/2up">The Messenger: The Life of Mohammed</a>. New York: Doubleday & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Messenger%3A+The+Life+of+Mohammed&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Company&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Bodley&rft.aufirst=R.+V.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmessengerlifeofm00bodl%2Fpage%2F348%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperson2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cooperson" title="Michael Cooperson">Cooperson, Michael</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B38tRebLIrMC&pg=PA25">Classical Arabic Biography: the Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma'mun</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42669-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42669-5"><bdi>978-1-139-42669-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Arabic+Biography%3A+the+Heirs+of+the+Prophets+in+the+Age+of+al-Ma%27mun&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-139-42669-5&rft.aulast=Cooperson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB38tRebLIrMC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMavani2013" class="citation book cs1">Mavani, Hamid (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/">Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415624404" title="Special:BookSources/9780415624404"><bdi>9780415624404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Authority+and+Political+Thought+in+Twelver+Shi%27ism%3A+From+Ali+to+Post-Khomeini&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780415624404&rft.aulast=Mavani&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligiousauthori0000mava%2Fmode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogerson2006" class="citation book cs1">Rogerson, Barnaby (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/heirsofprophetmu0000roge/mode/2up">The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad: And the Roots of the Sunni-Shia Schism</a>. Abacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780349117577" title="Special:BookSources/9780349117577"><bdi>9780349117577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heirs+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad%3A+And+the+Roots+of+the+Sunni-Shia+Schism&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780349117577&rft.aulast=Rogerson&rft.aufirst=Barnaby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fheirsofprophetmu0000roge%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2021b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/al-hasan-b-ali-b-abi-talib-COM_0272?s.num=2&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Hasan+b.+Ali">"(al-) Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib"</a>. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Reference Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%28al-%29+%E1%B8%A4asan+b.+%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+b.+Ab%C4%AB+%E1%B9%AC%C4%81lib&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Reference+Online&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2Fal-hasan-b-ali-b-abi-talib-COM_0272%3Fs.num%3D2%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2%26s.q%3DHasan%2Bb.%2BAli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABattle+of+Siffin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735876#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735876#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735876#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85122376">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543873305171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/siffin-savasi">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Siffin&params=35.9500_N_39.0167_E_source:wikidata">35°57′00″N 39°01′00″E / 35.9500°N 39.0167°E / 35.9500; 39.0167</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&oldid=1259287982">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&oldid=1259287982</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Category:Battles involving the Rashidun Caliphate">Battles involving the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate">Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Fitna" title="Category:First Fitna">First Fitna</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Shia_days_of_remembrance" title="Category:Shia days of remembrance">Shia days of remembrance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:650s_conflicts" title="Category:650s conflicts">650s conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:657" title="Category:657">657</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 10:13 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Siffin&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-jvw68","wgBackendResponseTime":136,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.130","walltime":"3.309","ppvisitednodes":{"value":46635,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":321766,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":58996,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":11,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":5,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":413137,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2982.596 1 -total"," 60.83% 1814.364 695 Template:Sfn"," 9.43% 281.404 37 Template:Cite_book"," 7.89% 235.244 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"," 4.80% 143.142 699 Template:Main_other"," 4.30% 128.263 22 Template:Cite_encyclopedia"," 3.98% 118.653 1 Template:Lang"," 3.48% 103.754 1 Template:Reflist"," 3.00% 89.543 2 Template:Campaignbox"," 2.97% 88.673 1 Template:Campaignbox_Civil_Wars_of_the_Early_Caliphates"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.001","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25173922,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbbas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamec2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfsaruddin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAslan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAyoub2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBahramian2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBodley1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCappucci2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooperson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaftary2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDakake2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDakake2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonaldson1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFadel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeisal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1848\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassé2001a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassé2001b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassé2001c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGleave2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazleton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinds1972a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinds1972b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinds2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJafri1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelsay1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLecker2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevi_Della_Vida2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevi_Della_VidaKhoury2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadelung1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMavani2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcHugo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomen1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasrAfsaruddin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersen1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoonawala1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogerson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaban1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah-Kazemi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah-Kazemi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah-Kazemi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah-Kazemi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabatabai1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2012c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2021d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellhausen1927\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox Civil Wars of the Early Caliphates\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox First Fitna\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Siffin\"] = 1,\n [\"Died in\"] = 18,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"KIA\"] = 6,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Large\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 7,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp-move-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 695,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snf\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 41,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"WIA\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","740","34.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","420","19.4"],["?","220","10.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","4.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","2.8"],["chunk \u003CModule:Footnotes\u003E","60","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","1.9"],["init \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Identifiers\u003E","40","1.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","1.9"],["[others]","360","16.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-849f99967d-js2f6","timestamp":"20241124101321","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Battle of Siffin","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Battle_of_Siffin","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q735876","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q735876","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-10-31T02:36:57Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T10:13:02Z","headline":"battle of the First Fitna in 657 AD"}</script> </body> </html>