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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_scholar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_scholar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Private scholar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_scholar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professor_in_Göttingen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professor_in_Göttingen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Professor in Göttingen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professor_in_Göttingen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gauss's_brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gauss's_brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Gauss's brain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gauss's_brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Personality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Scholar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_man" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_man"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.2 Private man </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_man-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Scientific work </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific work subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algebra_and_number_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algebra_and_number_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Algebra and number theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algebra_and_number_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Fundamental theorem of algebra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Disquisitiones Arithmeticae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_investigations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_investigations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Further investigations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_investigations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numeric_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numeric_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Numeric analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numeric_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Chronology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_errors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_errors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Theory of errors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_errors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arc_measurement_and_geodetic_survey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_measurement_and_geodetic_survey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Arc measurement and geodetic survey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_measurement_and_geodetic_survey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Differential geometry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Euclidean_geometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Euclidean_geometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Non-Euclidean geometry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Euclidean_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_topology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_topology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Early topology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_topology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_mathematical_accomplishments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_mathematical_accomplishments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Minor mathematical accomplishments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_mathematical_accomplishments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetism_and_telegraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetism_and_telegraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Magnetism and telegraphy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetism_and_telegraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geomagnetism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomagnetism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11.1 Geomagnetism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geomagnetism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11.2 Electromagnetism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Potential theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 Optics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.14 Mechanics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metrology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metrology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.15 Metrology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metrology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anecdotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anecdotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Anecdotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anecdotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Honours and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Names_and_commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names_and_commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Names and commemorations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names_and_commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Selected writings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selected_writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Selected writings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Selected_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mathematics_and_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics_and_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Mathematics and astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics_and_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Physics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Together_with_Wilhelm_Weber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Together_with_Wilhelm_Weber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Together with Wilhelm Weber </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Together_with_Wilhelm_Weber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Collected works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Correspondence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fictional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fictional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Fictional </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fictional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Carl Friedrich Gauss</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 154 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-154" aria-hidden="true" > 154 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%8B%E1%8B%8D%E1%88%B5" title="ጋውስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጋውስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="كارل فريدريش غاوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كارل فريدريش غاوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9B" title="কাৰ্ল ফ্ৰিডৰিখ গাউছ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কাৰ্ল ফ্ৰিডৰিখ গাউছ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Fridrix_Qauss" title="Karl Fridrix Qauss – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Karl Fridrix Qauss" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="یوهان فردریک قاوس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یوهان فردریک قاوس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E2%80%8C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B8" title="কার্ল ফ্রিড‌রিশ গাউস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কার্ল ফ্রিড‌রিশ গাউস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81" title="Карл Фрыдрых Гаус – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Карл Фрыдрых Гаус" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81" title="Карл Фрыдрых Гаўс – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Карл Фрыдрых Гаўс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B8" title="कार्ल फ्रेडरिक गॉस – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कार्ल फ्रेडरिक गॉस" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%A7%DE%8D%DE%B0_%DE%8A%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%8B%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%9D%DE%B0_%DE%8E%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%AA%DE%90%DE%B0" title="ކާލް ފްރީދްރީޝް ގައުސް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކާލް ފްރީދްރީޝް ގައުސް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BB_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%87_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82" title="Καρλ Φρίντριχ Γκάους – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρλ Φρίντριχ Γκάους" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کارل فریدریش گاوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارل فریدریش گاوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF" title="高斯 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="高斯" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%BC_%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EB%93%9C%EB%A6%AC%ED%9E%88_%EA%B0%80%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4" title="카를 프리드리히 가우스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카를 프리드리히 가우스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%AC_%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Կառլ Գաուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կառլ Գաուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B8" title="कार्ल फ्रेडरिक गाउस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्ल फ्रेडरिक गाउस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%9C_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A1" title="קרל פרידריך גאוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרל פרידריך גאוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜೊಹಾನ್ ಕಾರ್ಲ್ ಫ್ರೆಡ್ರಿಚ್ ಗಾಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೊಹಾನ್ ಕಾರ್ಲ್ ಫ್ರೆಡ್ರಿಚ್ ಗಾಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="კარლ ფრიდრიხ გაუსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კარლ ფრიდრიხ გაუსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolus_Fridericus_Gauss" title="Carolus Fridericus Gauss – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Carolus Fridericus Gauss" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81rlis_Fr%C4%ABdrihs_Gauss" title="Kārlis Frīdrihs Gauss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kārlis Frīdrihs Gauss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/karl.fridrix.gaus" title="karl.fridrix.gaus – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="karl.fridrix.gaus" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="കാൾ ഫ്രെഡറിക് ഗോസ്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാൾ ഫ്രെഡറിക് ഗോസ്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B8" title="कार्ल फ्रीदरिश गाउस – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कार्ल फ्रीदरिश गाउस" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="კარლ ფრიდრიხ გაუსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კარლ ფრიდრიხ გაუსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جاوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جاوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کارل فریدریش گاوس – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کارل فریدریش گاوس" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%96%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%92%E1%80%9B%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ကားလ် ဖရီးဒရစ် ဂေါက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကားလ် ဖရီးဒရစ် ဂေါက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B8" title="कार्ल फ्राइडरिच गस – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="कार्ल फ्राइडरिच गस" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%AA%E3%83%92%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AC%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9" title="カール・フリードリヒ・ガウス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カール・フリードリヒ・ガウス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaarli_Firidiriish_Gaawus" title="Kaarli Firidiriish Gaawus – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kaarli Firidiriish Gaawus" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Fridrix_Gauss" title="Karl Fridrix Gauss – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Karl Fridrix Gauss" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%B8" title="ਕਾਰਲ ਫ਼ਰੀਡਰਿਸ਼ ਗੌਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਰਲ ਫ਼ਰੀਡਰਿਸ਼ ਗੌਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A4%D8%B3" title="کارل فریڈرک گاؤس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کارل فریڈرک گاؤس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%AB%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کارل فریدریش ګاوس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کارل فریدریش ګاوس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Fridrix_Gauss" title="Karl Fridrix Gauss – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Karl Fridrix Gauss" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%85_%D2%90%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81" title="Карл Фрідріх Ґаус – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Карл Фрідріх Ґаус" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гаусс, Карл Фридрих" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="कार्ल फ्राइडरिक गास – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="कार्ल फ्राइडरिक गास" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A" title="කාල් ෆ්‍රෙඩ්රික් ගවුස් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කාල් ෆ්‍රෙඩ්රික් ගවුස්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%B5_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3" title="کارڵ فریدریش گاوس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کارڵ فریدریش گاوس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="கார்ல் பிரீடிரிக் காஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கார்ல் பிரீடிரிக் காஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%9Bl_Fridiritc_Guss" title="Kaṛl Fridiritc Guss – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Kaṛl Fridiritc Guss" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Fridrix_Gauss" title="Karl Fridrix Gauss – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Karl Fridrix Gauss" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="కార్ల్ ఫ్రెడెరిక్ గాస్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కార్ల్ ఫ్రెడెరిక్ గాస్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="คาร์ล ฟรีดริช เกาส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คาร์ล ฟรีดริช เกาส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Карл Фридрих Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Fredrih_Gauss" title="Karl Fredrih Gauss – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Karl Fredrih Gauss" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81" title="Карл Фрідріх Гаусс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Карл Фрідріх Гаусс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DA%A9_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A4%D8%B3" title="کارل فریڈرک گاؤس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کارل فریڈرک گاؤس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%87%D8%B3" title="گائۇس – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="گائۇس" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss_Karl_Fridrih" title="Gauss Karl Fridrih – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Gauss Karl Fridrih" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F" title="Carl Friedrich Gauß – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauß" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussi_Carl_Friedrich" title="Gaussi Carl Friedrich – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Gaussi Carl Friedrich" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF" title="高斯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="高斯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF" title="卡尔·弗里德里希·高斯 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="卡尔·弗里德里希·高斯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9C_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A1" title="קארל פרידריך גאוס – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" 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							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Special:Badtitle/Message">reviewed</a> on 20 November 2024.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German mathematician, astronomer, geodesist, and physicist (1777–1855)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Gauss" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Gauss_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gauss (disambiguation)">Gauss (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Carl Friedrich Gauss</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of arl Friedrich Gauss 1840 by Jensen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg/220px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg/330px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg/440px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_1840_by_Jensen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1639" data-file-height="2088" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Albrecht_Jensen" title="Christian Albrecht Jensen">Christian Albrecht Jensen</a>, 1840 (copy from Gottlieb Biermann, 1887)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss</div> (1777-04-30)30 April 1777 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Brunswick</a>, Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Holy Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">23 February 1855(1855-02-23) (aged 77) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, Kingdom of Hanover, German Confederation</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braunschweig_University_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Braunschweig University of Technology">Collegium Carolinum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Helmstedt" title="University of Helmstedt">University of Helmstedt</a> (PhD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss">Full list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Johanna Osthoff</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1805; died 1809)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Minna Waldeck</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1810; died 1831)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">6</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lalande_Prize" title="Lalande Prize">Lalande Prize</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1838)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category">Mathematics, Astronomy, Geodesy, Magnetism</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data">University of Göttingen</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-rara.ch/zut/content/titleinfo/1336299">Demonstratio nova...</a> (1799)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Pfaff" title="Johann Friedrich Pfaff">Johann Friedrich Pfaff</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div> </div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dedekind" title="Richard Dedekind">Richard Dedekind</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Ludwig_Gerling" title="Christian Ludwig Gerling">Christian Ludwig Gerling</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Klinkerfues" title="Wilhelm Klinkerfues">Wilhelm Klinkerfues</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Benedict_Listing" title="Johann Benedict Listing">Johann Benedict Listing</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/August_Ritter_(civil_engineer)" title="August Ritter (civil engineer)">August Ritter</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Staudt" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl von Staudt">Karl von Staudt</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div> </div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Eisenstein" title="Gotthold Eisenstein">Gotthold Eisenstein</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Franz_Encke" title="Johann Franz Encke">Johann Franz Encke</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wolfgang_Benjamin_Goldschmidt" title="Carl Wolfgang Benjamin Goldschmidt">Carl Wolfgang Benjamin Goldschmidt</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Theodor_Kupffer" title="Adolph Theodor Kupffer">Adolph Theodor Kupffer</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/August_Ferdinand_M%C3%B6bius" title="August Ferdinand Möbius">August Ferdinand Möbius</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Stern" class="mw-redirect" title="Moritz Stern">Moritz Stern</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Frederik_Ursin" title="Georg Frederik Ursin">Georg Frederik Ursin</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Ludwig_George_Wichmann" title="Moritz Ludwig George Wichmann">Moritz Ludwig Wichmann</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg/150px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg/225px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg/300px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="756" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (German: Gauß <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[kaʁl ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɡaʊs]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a1\/De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg\/De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg/De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg" title="File:De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg">ⓘ</a>;<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Carolus Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who contributed to many fields in mathematics and science. He was director of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Observatory" title="Göttingen Observatory">Göttingen Observatory</a> and professor of astronomy from 1807 until his death in 1855. He is widely considered one of the greatest mathematicians ever. While studying at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>, he propounded several mathematical <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a>. Gauss completed his <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">masterpieces</a> <a href="/wiki/Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae" title="Disquisitiones Arithmeticae">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a> and Theoria motus corporum coelestium as a private scholar. He gave the second and third complete proofs of the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra" title="Fundamental theorem of algebra">fundamental theorem of algebra</a>, made contributions to <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>, and developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms. Gauss was instrumental in the identification of <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a> as a dwarf planet. His work on the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets led to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_gravitational_constant" title="Gaussian gravitational constant">Gaussian gravitational constant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Least_squares" title="Least squares">method of least squares</a>, which he had discovered before <a href="/wiki/Adrien-Marie_Legendre" title="Adrien-Marie Legendre">Adrien-Marie Legendre</a> published it. Gauss was in charge of the extensive geodetic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover together with an arc measurement project from 1820 to 1844; he was one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysics</a> and formulated the fundamental principles of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>. Fruits of his practical work were the inventions of the <a href="/wiki/Heliotrope_(instrument)" title="Heliotrope (instrument)">heliotrope</a> in 1821, a <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometer</a> in 1833 and – alongside <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> – the first electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a> in 1833. Gauss was the first to discover and study <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean geometry</a>, coining the term as well. He further developed a <a href="/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform">fast Fourier transform</a> some 160 years before <a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Cooley" title="James Cooley">James Cooley</a>. Gauss refused to publish incomplete work and left several works to be edited <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_publication" title="Posthumous publication">posthumously</a>. He believed that the act of learning, not possession of knowledge, provided the greatest enjoyment. Gauss confessed to disliking teaching, but some of his students became influential mathematicians, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dedekind" title="Richard Dedekind">Richard Dedekind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Bernhard Riemann</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Youth_and_education">Youth and education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Youth and education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_(1914).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg/170px-Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg/255px-Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg/340px-Braunschweig_Brunswick_Geburtshaus_CF_Gauss_%281914%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>House of birth in Brunswick (destroyed in World War II)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG/170px-Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG/255px-Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG/340px-Goe.Kurze.Geismarstr.Gauss.Wohnhaus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Gauss's home as student in Göttingen</figcaption></figure> Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Brunswick</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a> (now in the German state of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>). His family was of relatively low social status.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> His father Gebhard Dietrich Gauss (1744–1808) worked variously as a butcher, bricklayer, gardener, and treasurer of a death-benefit fund. Gauss characterized his father as honourable and respected, but rough and dominating at home. He was experienced in writing and calculating, whereas his second wife Dorothea, Carl Friedrich's mother, was nearly illiterate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048-5">[5]</a> He had one elder brother from his father's first marriage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048–9-6">[6]</a> Gauss was a <a href="/wiki/Child_prodigy" title="Child prodigy">child prodigy</a> in mathematics. When the elementary teachers noticed his intellectual abilities, they brought him to the attention of the <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Duke of Brunswick</a> who sent him to the local Collegium Carolinum,<a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a> which he attended from 1792 to 1795 with <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_August_Wilhelm_von_Zimmermann" title="Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann">Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann</a> as one of his teachers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193310-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200414-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ullrich-11">[10]</a> Thereafter the Duke granted him the resources for studies of mathematics, sciences, and <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classical languages</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> until 1798.<a href="#cite_note-scientificmonthly-12">[11]</a> His professor in mathematics was <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner" title="Abraham Gotthelf Kästner">Abraham Gotthelf Kästner</a>, whom Gauss called "the leading mathematician among poets, and the leading poet among mathematicians" because of his <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigrams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200424-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[b]</a> Astronomy was taught by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Felix_Seyffer" title="Karl Felix Seyffer">Karl Felix Seyffer</a>, with whom Gauss stayed in correspondence after graduation;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426-15">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Matthias_Olbers" title="Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers">Olbers</a> and Gauss mocked him in their correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> On the other hand, he thought highly of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Georg Christoph Lichtenberg</a>, his teacher of physics, and of <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottlob_Heyne" title="Christian Gottlob Heyne">Christian Gottlob Heyne</a>, whose lectures in classics Gauss attended with pleasure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426-15">[13]</a> Fellow students of this time were <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Benzenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Friedrich Benzenberg">Johann Friedrich Benzenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farkas_Bolyai" title="Farkas Bolyai">Farkas Bolyai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Brandes" title="Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes">Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426-15">[13]</a> He was likely a self-taught student in mathematics since he independently rediscovered several theorems.<a href="#cite_note-Ullrich-11">[10]</a> He solved a geometrical problem that had occupied mathematicians since the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greeks</a>, when he determined in 1796 which regular <a href="/wiki/Polygon" title="Polygon">polygons</a> can be constructed by <a href="/wiki/Compass_and_straightedge_constructions" class="mw-redirect" title="Compass and straightedge constructions">compass and straightedge</a>. This discovery ultimately led Gauss to choose mathematics instead of <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> as a career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200428-17">[15]</a> Gauss's mathematical diary, a collection of short remarks about his results from the years 1796 until 1814, shows that many ideas for his mathematical magnum opus <a href="/wiki/Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae" title="Disquisitiones Arithmeticae">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a> (1801) date from this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200437-18">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_scholar">Private scholar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Private scholar">edit</a>]</div> Gauss graduated as a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> in 1799, not in Göttingen, as is sometimes stated,<a href="#cite_note-20">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marsden-19">[17]</a> but at the Duke of Brunswick's special request from the University of Helmstedt, the only state university of the duchy. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Pfaff" title="Johann Friedrich Pfaff">Johann Friedrich Pfaff</a> assessed his doctoral thesis, and Gauss got the degree <a href="/wiki/Graduation" title="Graduation">in absentia</a> without further oral examination.<a href="#cite_note-Ullrich-11">[10]</a> The Duke then granted him the cost of living as a private scholar in Brunswick. Gauss subsequently refused calls from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Peterburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Peterburg">St. Peterburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Landshut University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reich2000-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a> Later, the Duke promised him the foundation of an observatory in Brunswick in 1804. Architect <a href="/wiki/Peter_Joseph_Krahe" title="Peter Joseph Krahe">Peter Joseph Krahe</a> made preliminary designs, but one of <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">Napoleon's wars</a> cancelled those plans:<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> the Duke was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena%E2%80%93Auerstedt" title="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt">battle of Jena</a> in 1806. The duchy was abolished in the following year, and Gauss's financial support stopped. When Gauss was calculating asteroid orbits in the first years of the century, he established contact with the astronomical community of <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lilienthal,_Lower_Saxony" title="Lilienthal, Lower Saxony">Lilienthal</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Olbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Olbers">Wilhelm Olbers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_Harding" title="Karl Ludwig Harding">Karl Ludwig Harding</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Bessel" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel">Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</a>, as part of the informal group of astronomers known as the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_police" title="Celestial police">Celestial police</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200450,_54–55,_74–77-24">[21]</a> One of their aims was the discovery of further planets. They assembled data on asteroids and comets as a basis for Gauss's research on their orbits, which he later published in his astronomical magnum opus <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theoria_motus_corporum_coelestium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theoria motus corporum coelestium (page does not exist)">Theoria motus corporum coelestium</a> (1809).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200491–92-25">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professor_in_Göttingen">Professor in Göttingen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Professor in Göttingen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg/220px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg/330px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg/440px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_01.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2996" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Old Göttingen observatory, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800</figcaption></figure> In November 1807, Gauss followed a call to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a>, then an institution of the newly founded <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Kingdom of Westphalia</a> under <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bonaparte" title="Jérôme Bonaparte">Jérôme Bonaparte</a>, as full professor and director of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Observatory" title="Göttingen Observatory">astronomical observatory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200485–87-26">[23]</a> and kept the chair until his death in 1855. He was soon confronted with the demand for two thousand <a href="/wiki/Franc" title="Franc">francs</a> from the Westphalian government as a war contribution, which he could not afford to pay. Both Olbers and <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Laplace</a> wanted to help him with the payment, but Gauss refused their assistance. Finally, an anonymous person from <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, later discovered to be <a href="/wiki/Prince-primate" title="Prince-primate">Prince-primate</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Theodor_Anton_Maria_von_Dalberg" title="Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg">Dalberg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200486–87-27">[24]</a> paid the sum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200485–87-26">[23]</a> Gauss took on the directorate of the 60-year-old observatory, founded in 1748 by <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">Prince-elector</a> <a href="/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a> and built on a converted fortification tower,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192981–82-28">[25]</a> with usable, but partly out-of-date instruments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192949-29">[26]</a> The construction of a new observatory had been approved by Prince-elector <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> in principle since 1802, and the Westphalian government continued the planning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192983-30">[27]</a> but Gauss could not move to his new place of work until September 1816.<a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a> He got new up-to-date instruments, including two <a href="/wiki/Meridian_circle" title="Meridian circle">meridian circles</a> from <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Repsold" title="Johann Georg Repsold">Repsold</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192984-31">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach" title="Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach">Reichenbach</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929119-32">[29]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Heliometer" title="Heliometer">heliometer</a> from <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer" title="Joseph von Fraunhofer">Fraunhofer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192956-33">[30]</a> The scientific activity of Gauss, besides pure mathematics, can be roughly divided into three periods: astronomy was the main focus in the first two decades of the 19th century, geodesy in the third decade, and physics, mainly magnetism, in the fourth decade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein19797-34">[31]</a> Gauss made no secret of his aversion to giving academic lectures.<a href="#cite_note-Reich2000-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a> But from the start of his academic career at Göttingen, he continuously gave lectures until 1854.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004405–410-35">[32]</a> He often complained about the burdens of teaching, feeling that it was a waste of his time. On the other hand, he occasionally described some students as talented.<a href="#cite_note-Reich2000-21">[18]</a> Most of his lectures dealt with astronomy, geodesy, and <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> and only three lectures on subjects of pure mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-Reich2000-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[d]</a> Some of Gauss's students went on to become renowned mathematicians, physicists, and astronomers: <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Cantor" title="Moritz Cantor">Moritz Cantor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dedekind" title="Richard Dedekind">Dedekind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enno_Dirksen" title="Enno Dirksen">Dirksen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Franz_Encke" title="Johann Franz Encke">Encke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould" title="Benjamin Apthorp Gould">Gould</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[e]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Heine" title="Eduard Heine">Heine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Klinkerfues" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Klinkerfues">Klinkerfues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Theodor_Kupffer" title="Adolph Theodor Kupffer">Kupffer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Benedict_Listing" title="Johann Benedict Listing">Listing</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_Ferdinand_M%C3%B6bius" title="August Ferdinand Möbius">Möbius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bernhard_Gottfried_Nicolai" title="Friedrich Bernhard Gottfried Nicolai">Nicolai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Riemann" title="Bernhard Riemann">Riemann</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_Ritter_(civil_engineer)" title="August Ritter (civil engineer)">Ritter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Christian_Julius_Schering" title="Ernst Christian Julius Schering">Schering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Scherk" title="Heinrich Scherk">Scherk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Christian_Schumacher" title="Heinrich Christian Schumacher">Schumacher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Georg_Christian_von_Staudt" title="Karl Georg Christian von Staudt">von Staudt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Abraham_Stern" title="Moritz Abraham Stern">Stern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Frederik_Ursin" title="Georg Frederik Ursin">Ursin</a>; as geoscientists <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sartorius_von_Waltershausen" title="Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen">Sartorius von Waltershausen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Eduard_Wapp%C3%A4us" title="Johann Eduard Wappäus">Wappäus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reich2000-21">[18]</a> Gauss did not write any textbook and disliked the <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popularization</a> of scientific matters. His only attempts at popularization were his works on the date of Easter (1800/1802) and the essay Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer of 1836.<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-40">[35]</a> Gauss published his papers and books exclusively in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[g]</a> He wrote Latin in a classical style but used some customary modifications set by contemporary mathematicians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200437–38-45">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg/220px-Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg/330px-Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg/440px-Universit%C3%A4ts-Sternwarte_G%C3%B6ttingen_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>The new Göttingen observatory of 1816; Gauss's living rooms were in the western wing (right)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg/170px-Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg/255px-Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg/340px-Die_G%C3%B6ttinger_Sieben_von_Eduard_Ritm%C3%BCller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2174" data-file-height="3128" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Weber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Ewald" title="Heinrich Ewald">Heinrich Ewald</a> (first row) as members of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Seven" title="Göttingen Seven">Göttingen Seven</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed,_1855.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg/220px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg/330px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg/440px-Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_on_his_Deathbed%2C_1855.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption>Gauss on his deathbed (1855) (daguerreotype from Philipp Petri)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004324-46">[39]</a></figcaption></figure> In his inaugural lecture at Göttingen University from 1808, Gauss claimed reliable observations and results attained only by a strong calculus as the sole tasks of astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> At university, he was accompanied by a staff of other lecturers in his disciplines, who completed the educational program; these included the mathematician Thibaut with his lectures,<a href="#cite_note-47">[40]</a> the physicist <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tobias_Mayer" title="Johann Tobias Mayer">Mayer</a>, known for his textbooks,<a href="#cite_note-48">[41]</a> his successor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Weber</a> since 1831, and in the observatory <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_Harding" title="Karl Ludwig Harding">Harding</a>, who took the main part of lectures in practical astronomy. When the observatory was completed, Gauss took his living accommodation in the western wing of the new observatory and Harding in the eastern one.<a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a> They had once been on friendly terms, but over time they became alienated, possibly – as some biographers presume – because Gauss had wished the equal-ranked Harding to be no more than his assistant or observer.<a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[h]</a> Gauss used the new meridian circles nearly exclusively, and kept them away from Harding, except for some very seldom joint observations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929106–108-51">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Brendel" title="Martin Brendel">Brendel</a> subdivides Gauss's astronomic activity chronologically into seven periods, of which the years since 1820 are taken as a "period of lower astronomical activity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel19297,_128-52">[44]</a> The new, well-equipped observatory did not work as effectively as other ones; Gauss's astronomical research had the character of a one-man enterprise without a long-time observation program, and the university established a place for an assistant only after Harding died in 1834.<a href="#cite_note-Küssner-49">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929106–108-51">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[i]</a> Nevertheless, Gauss twice refused the opportunity to solve the problem by accepting offers from Berlin in 1810 and 1825 to become a full member of the Prussian Academy without burdening lecturing duties, as well as from <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig University</a> in 1810 and from <a href="/wiki/Vienna_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna University">Vienna University</a> in 1842, perhaps because of the family's difficult situation.<a href="#cite_note-Küssner-49">[42]</a> Gauss's salary was raised from 1000 <a href="/wiki/Reichsthaler" title="Reichsthaler">Reichsthaler</a> in 1810 to 2400 Reichsthaler in 1824,<a href="#cite_note-Beuermann-22">[19]</a> and in his later years he was one of the best-paid professors of the university.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a> When Gauss was asked for help by his colleague and friend <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Bessel" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel">Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</a> in 1810, who was in trouble at <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Königsberg University">Königsberg University</a> because of his lack of an academic title, Gauss provided a <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">doctorate honoris causa</a> for Bessel from the Philosophy Faculty of Göttingen in March 1811.<a href="#cite_note-Bessel-57">[j]</a> Gauss gave another recommendation for an honorary degree for <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Germain" title="Sophie Germain">Sophie Germain</a> but only shortly before her death, so she never received it.<a href="#cite_note-58">[48]</a> He also gave successful support to the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Eisenstein" title="Gotthold Eisenstein">Gotthold Eisenstein</a> in Berlin.<a href="#cite_note-59">[49]</a> Gauss was loyal to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hanover" title="House of Hanover">House of Hanover</a>. After King <a href="/wiki/William_IV" title="William IV">William IV</a> died in 1837, the new Hanoverian King <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Augustus,_King_of_Hanover" title="Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover">Ernest Augustus</a> annulled the 1833 constitution. Seven professors, later known as the "<a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Seven" title="Göttingen Seven">Göttingen Seven</a>", protested against this, among them his friend and collaborator Wilhelm Weber and Gauss's son-in-law Heinrich Ewald. All of them were dismissed, and three of them were expelled, but Ewald and Weber could stay in Göttingen. Gauss was deeply affected by this quarrel but saw no possibility to help them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004195–200-60">[50]</a> Gauss took part in academic administration: three times he was elected as <a href="/wiki/Dean_(education)" title="Dean (education)">dean</a> of the Faculty of Philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288-61">[51]</a> Being entrusted with the widow's <a href="/wiki/Pension_fund" title="Pension fund">pension fund</a> of the university, he dealt with <a href="/wiki/Actuarial_science" title="Actuarial science">actuarial science</a> and wrote a report on the strategy for stabilizing the benefits. He was appointed director of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Göttingen for nine years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288-61">[51]</a> Gauss remained mentally active into his old age, even while suffering from <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a> and general unhappiness. On 23 February 1855, he died of a heart attack in Göttingen;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200424-13">[12]</a> and was interred in the <a href="/wiki/Albanifriedhof" title="Albanifriedhof">Albani Cemetery</a> there. <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Ewald" title="Heinrich Ewald">Heinrich Ewald</a>, Gauss's son-in-law, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sartorius_von_Waltershausen" title="Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen">Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen</a>, Gauss's close friend and biographer, gave eulogies at his funeral.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856104-62">[52]</a> Gauss was a successful investor and accumulated considerable wealth with stocks and securities, finally a value of more than 150 thousand Thaler; after his death, about 18 thousand Thaler were found hidden in his rooms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004237-63">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gauss's_brain">Gauss's brain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gauss's brain">edit</a>]</div> The day after Gauss's death his brain was removed, preserved, and studied by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Wagner" title="Rudolf Wagner">Rudolf Wagner</a>, who found its mass to be slightly above average, at 1,492 grams (3.29 lb).<a href="#cite_note-64">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[55]</a> Wagner's son <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Wagner_(geographer)" title="Hermann Wagner (geographer)">Hermann</a>, a geographer, estimated the cerebral area to be 219,588 square millimetres (340.362 sq in) in his doctoral thesis.<a href="#cite_note-66">[56]</a> In 2013, a neurobiologist at the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Biophysical_Chemistry" title="Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry">Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry</a> in Göttingen discovered that Gauss's brain had been mixed up soon after the first investigations, due to mislabelling, with that of the physician <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Heinrich_Fuchs" title="Conrad Heinrich Fuchs">Conrad Heinrich Fuchs</a>, who died in Göttingen a few months after Gauss.<a href="#cite_note-67">[57]</a> A further investigation showed no remarkable anomalies in the brains of both persons. Thus, all investigations on Gauss's brain until 1998, except the first ones of Rudolf and Hermann Wagner, actually refer to the brain of Fuchs.<a href="#cite_note-68">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Family">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck,_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg/170px-Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg/255px-Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg/340px-Minna_Gau%C3%9F_geb._Waldeck%2C_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="878" data-file-height="1279" /></a><figcaption>Gauss's second wife Wilhelmine Waldeck</figcaption></figure> Gauss married Johanna Osthoff on 9 October 1805 in St. Catherine's church in Brunswick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200466-69">[59]</a> They had two sons and one daughter: Joseph (1806–1873), Wilhelmina (1808–1840), and Louis (1809–1810). Johanna died on 11 October 1809, one month after the birth of Louis, who himself died a few months later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198244-70">[60]</a> Gauss chose the first names of his children in honour of <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Piazzi" title="Giuseppe Piazzi">Giuseppe Piazzi</a>, Wilhelm Olbers, and Karl Ludwig Harding, the discoverers of the first asteroids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200477,_88,_93-71">[61]</a> On 4 August 1810, Gauss married Wilhelmine (Minna) Waldeck, a friend of his first wife, with whom he had three more children: Eugen (later Eugene) (1811–1896), Wilhelm (later William) (1813–1879), and Therese (1816–1864). Minna Gauss died on 12 September 1831 after being seriously ill for more than a decade.<a href="#cite_note-72">[62]</a> Therese then took over the household and cared for Gauss for the rest of his life; after her father's death, she married actor Constantin Staufenau.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004374-73">[63]</a> Her sister Wilhelmina married the orientalist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Ewald" title="Heinrich Ewald">Heinrich Ewald</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004206-74">[64]</a> Gauss's mother Dorothea lived in his house from 1817 until she died in 1839.<a href="#cite_note-scientificmonthly-12">[11]</a> The eldest son Joseph, while still a schoolboy, helped his father as an assistant during the survey campaign in the summer of 1821. After a short time at university, in 1824 Joseph joined the <a href="/wiki/Hanoverian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanoverian army">Hanoverian army</a> and assisted in surveying again in 1829. In the 1830s he was responsible for the enlargement of the survey network to the western parts of the kingdom. With his geodetical qualifications, he left the service and engaged in the construction of the railway network as director of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Hanoverian_State_Railways" title="Royal Hanoverian State Railways">Royal Hanoverian State Railways</a>. In 1836 he studied the railroad system in the US for some months.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[k]</a> Eugen left Göttingen in September 1830 and emigrated to the United States, where he joined the army for five years. He then worked for the <a href="/wiki/American_Fur_Company" title="American Fur Company">American Fur Company</a> in the Midwest. Later, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> and became a successful businessman.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a> Wilhelm married a niece of the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Bessel">Bessel</a>;<a href="#cite_note-78">[67]</a> he then moved to Missouri, started as a farmer and became wealthy in the shoe business in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis</a> in later years.<a href="#cite_note-79">[68]</a> Eugene and William have numerous descendants in America, but the Gauss descendants left in Germany all derive from Joseph, as the daughters had no children.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Gau%C3%9F,_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph Gauss"><img alt="Joseph Gauss" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/65px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="65" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/98px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/131px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="1023" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Joseph Gauss</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Gau%C3%9F,_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sophie Gauss née Erythropel Joseph's wife"><img alt="Sophie Gauss née Erythropel Joseph's wife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/94px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/142px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/189px-Joseph_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1911" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sophie Gauss née Erythropel Joseph's wife</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F,_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wilhelmina Gauss"><img alt="Wilhelmina Gauss" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/98px-Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/146px-Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/195px-Minna_Ewald_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="1089" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wilhelmina Gauss</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ewald,_Georg_Heinrich_August_(1803-1875).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heinrich Ewald Wilhelmina's husband"><img alt="Heinrich Ewald Wilhelmina's husband" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg/83px-Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg/124px-Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg/165px-Ewald%2C_Georg_Heinrich_August_%281803-1875%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="948" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Ewald" title="Heinrich Ewald">Heinrich Ewald</a> Wilhelmina's husband</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Eugen_Gau%C3%9F,_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eugen (Eugene) Gauss"><img alt="Eugen (Eugene) Gauss" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/78px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/117px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/156px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="1054" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Eugen (Eugene) Gauss</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Eugen_Gau%C3%9F,_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Henrietta Gauss née Fawcett Eugene's wife"><img alt="Henrietta Gauss née Fawcett Eugene's wife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/84px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/126px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/167px-Eugen_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="1309" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Henrietta Gauss née Fawcett Eugene's wife</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F,_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wilhelm (Charles William) Gauss"><img alt="Wilhelm (Charles William) Gauss" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg/76px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg/114px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg/153px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="1066" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Wilhelm (Charles William) Gauss</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F,_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Louisa Aletta Gauss née Fallenstein William's wife"><img alt="Louisa Aletta Gauss née Fallenstein William's wife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/90px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/135px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg/180px-Wilhelm_Gau%C3%9F%2C_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="894" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Louisa Aletta Gauss née Fallenstein William's wife</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F,_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Therese Gauss"><img alt="Therese Gauss" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg/100px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg/151px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg/201px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1796" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Therese Gauss</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F,_010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Constantin Staufenau Therese's husband"><img alt="Constantin Staufenau Therese's husband" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg/80px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg/121px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg/161px-Therese_Staufenau_geb._Gau%C3%9F%2C_010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="654" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Constantin Staufenau Therese's husband</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality">Personality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Personality">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholar">Scholar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scholar">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner,_1795.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg/220px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg/330px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg/440px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Karikatur_von_Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner%2C_1795.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2023" data-file-height="1484" /></a><figcaption>A student draws his professor of mathematics: Caricature of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Gotthelf_K%C3%A4stner" title="Abraham Gotthelf Kästner">Abraham Gotthelf Kästner</a> by Gauss (1795)<a href="#cite_note-80">[l]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/170px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/255px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg/340px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="2229" /></a><figcaption>A student draws his professor of mathematics: Gauss sketched by his student <a href="/wiki/Johann_Benedict_Listing" title="Johann Benedict Listing">Johann Benedict Listing</a>, 1830</figcaption></figure> In the first two decades of the 19th century, Gauss was the only important mathematician in Germany, comparable to the leading French ones;<a href="#cite_note-Schubring-81">[69]</a> his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae was the first mathematical book from Germany to be translated into the French language.<a href="#cite_note-82">[70]</a> Gauss was "in front of the new development" with documented research since 1799, his wealth of new ideas, and his rigour of demonstration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein1894100–101-83">[71]</a> Whereas previous mathematicians like <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> let the readers take part in their reasoning for new ideas, including certain erroneous deviations from the correct path,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein19795–6-84">[72]</a> Gauss however introduced a new style of direct and complete explanation that did not attempt to show the reader the author's train of thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004217-85">[73]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Gauss was the first to restore that rigor of demonstration which we admire in the ancients and which had been forced unduly into the background by the exclusive interest of the preceding period in new developments.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#CITEREFKlein1894">Klein 1894</a>, p. 101</cite></div></blockquote> But for himself, he propagated a quite different ideal, given in a letter to Farkas Bolyai as follows:<a href="#cite_note-86">[74]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment. When I have clarified and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go into darkness again.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 416</cite></div></blockquote> The posthumous papers, his scientific <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_diary" title="Gauss's diary">diary</a>,<a href="#cite_note-87">[75]</a> and short glosses in his own textbooks show that he worked to a great extent in an empirical way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19224–6-88">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193318-89">[77]</a> He was a lifelong busy and enthusiastic calculator, who made his calculations with extraordinary rapidity, mostly without precise controlling, but checked the results by masterly estimation. Nevertheless, his calculations were not always free from mistakes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen193064–65-90">[78]</a> He coped with the enormous workload by using skillful tools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen19304–9-91">[79]</a> Gauss used a lot of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_table" title="Mathematical table">mathematical tables</a>, examined their exactness, and constructed new tables on various matters for personal use.<a href="#cite_note-92">[80]</a> He developed new tools for effective calculation, for example the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_elimination" title="Gaussian elimination">Gaussian elimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[81]</a> It has been taken as a curious feature of his working style that he carried out calculations with a high degree of precision much more than required, and prepared tables with more decimal places than ever requested for practical purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen19303-94">[82]</a> Very likely, this method gave him a lot of material which he used in finding theorems in number theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen19304–9-91">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19225-95">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GaussSiegel1777-1855.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/GaussSiegel1777-1855.png/170px-GaussSiegel1777-1855.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/GaussSiegel1777-1855.png/255px-GaussSiegel1777-1855.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/GaussSiegel1777-1855.png/340px-GaussSiegel1777-1855.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Gauss's <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seal</a> with his motto Pauca sed Matura</figcaption></figure> Gauss refused to publish work that he did not consider complete and above criticism. This <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(psychology)" title="Perfectionism (psychology)">perfectionism</a> was in keeping with the motto of his personal <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seal</a> Pauca sed Matura ("Few, but Ripe"). Many colleagues encouraged him to publicize new ideas and sometimes rebuked him if he hesitated too long, in their opinion. Gauss defended himself, claiming that the initial discovery of ideas was easy, but preparing a presentable elaboration was a demanding matter for him, for either lack of time or "serenity of mind".<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-40">[35]</a> Nevertheless, he published many short communications of urgent content in various journals, but left a considerable literary estate, too.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197929-96">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004420–430-97">[85]</a> Gauss referred to mathematics as "the queen of sciences" and arithmetics as "the queen of mathematics",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185679-98">[86]</a> and supposedly once espoused a belief in the necessity of immediately understanding <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_identity" title="Euler's identity">Euler's identity</a> as a benchmark pursuant to becoming a first-class mathematician.<a href="#cite_note-First-Class-99">[87]</a> On certain occasions, Gauss claimed that the ideas of another scholar had already been in his possession previously. Thus his concept of priority as "the first to discover, not the first to publish" differed from that of his scientific contemporaries.<a href="#cite_note-Stigler-100">[88]</a> In contrast to his perfectionism in presenting mathematical ideas, he was criticized for a negligent way of quoting. He justified himself with a very special view of correct quoting: if he gave references, then only in a quite complete way, with respect to the previous authors of importance, which no one should ignore; but quoting in this way needed knowledge of the history of science and more time than he wished to spend.<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-40">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Private_man">Private man</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Private man">edit</a>]</div> Soon after Gauss's death, his friend Sartorius published the first biography (1856), written in a rather enthusiastic style. Sartorius saw him as a serene and forward-striving man with childlike modesty,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856102-101">[89]</a> but also of "iron character"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185695-102">[90]</a> with an unshakeable strength of mind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen18568-103">[91]</a> Apart from his closer circle, others regarded him as reserved and unapproachable "like an <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Olympian</a> sitting enthroned on the summit of science".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198241-104">[92]</a> His close contemporaries agreed that Gauss was a man of difficult character. He often refused to accept compliments. His visitors were occasionally irritated by his grumpy behaviour, but a short time later his mood could change, and he would become a charming, open-minded host.<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-40">[35]</a> Gauss abominated polemic natures; together with his colleague <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Ludwig_Hausmann" title="Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann">Hausmann</a> he opposed to a call for <a href="/wiki/Justus_Liebig" class="mw-redirect" title="Justus Liebig">Justus Liebig</a> on a university chair in Göttingen, "because he was always involved in some polemic."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004253-105">[93]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%B6ttingen,_Kurze_Stra%C3%9Fe_15,_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/G%C3%B6ttingen%2C_Kurze_Stra%C3%9Fe_15%2C_001.jpg/220px-G%C3%B6ttingen%2C_Kurze_Stra%C3%9Fe_15%2C_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/G%C3%B6ttingen%2C_Kurze_Stra%C3%9Fe_15%2C_001.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption>Gauss's residence from 1808 to 1816 in the first floor</figcaption></figure> Gauss's life was overshadowed by severe problems in his family. When his first wife Johanna suddenly died shortly after the birth of their third child, he revealed the grief in a last letter to his dead wife in the style of an ancient <a href="/wiki/Threnody" title="Threnody">threnody</a>, the most personal surviving document of Gauss.<a href="#cite_note-106">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200494–95-107">[95]</a> The situation worsened when <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> ultimately destroyed the health of his second wife Minna over 13 years; both his daughters later suffered from the same disease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004206,_374-108">[96]</a> Gauss himself gave only slight hints of his distress: in a letter to Bessel dated December 1831 he described himself as "the victim of the worst domestic sufferings".<a href="#cite_note-Biermann-40">[35]</a> By reason of his wife's illness, both younger sons were educated for some years in <a href="/wiki/Celle" title="Celle">Celle</a>, far from Göttingen. The military career of his elder son Joseph ended after more than two decades with the rank of a poorly paid <a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant" title="First lieutenant">first lieutenant</a>, although he had acquired a considerable knowledge of geodesy. He needed financial support from his father even after he was married.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a> The second son Eugen shared a good measure of his father's talent in computation and languages, but had a vivacious and sometimes rebellious character. He wanted to study philology, whereas Gauss wanted him to become a lawyer. Having run up debts and caused a scandal in public,<a href="#cite_note-gausschildren-109">[97]</a> Eugen suddenly left Göttingen under dramatic circumstances in September 1830 and emigrated via Bremen to the United States. He wasted the little money he had taken to start, after which his father refused further financial support.<a href="#cite_note-Gerardy-54">[45]</a> The youngest son Wilhelm wanted to qualify for agricultural administration, but had difficulties getting an appropriate education, and eventually emigrated as well. Only Gauss's youngest daughter Therese accompanied him in his last years of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004374-73">[63]</a> Collecting numerical data on very different things, useful or useless, became a habit in his later years, for example, the number of paths from his home to certain places in Göttingen, or the number of living days of persons; he congratulated Humboldt in December 1851 for having reached the same age as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> at his death, calculated in days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185671-110">[98]</a> Similar to his excellent knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> he was also acquainted with modern languages. At the age of 62, he began to teach himself <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, very likely to understand scientific writings from Russia, among them those of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Lobachevsky" title="Nikolai Lobachevsky">Lobachevsky</a> on non-Euclidean geometry.<a href="#cite_note-111">[99]</a> Gauss read both classical and modern literature, and English and French works in the original languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004241-112">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[m]</a> His favorite English author was <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, his favorite German <a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198280-115">[102]</a> Gauss liked singing and went to concerts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198281-116">[103]</a> He was a busy newspaper reader; in his last years, he used to visit an academic press salon of the university every noon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694-117">[104]</a> Gauss did not care much for philosophy, and mocked the "splitting hairs of the so-called metaphysicians", by which he meant proponents of the contemporary school of <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198279-118">[105]</a> Gauss had an "aristocratic and through and through conservative nature", with little respect for people's intelligence and morals, following the motto "<a href="/wiki/Mundus_vult_decipi,_ergo_decipiatur" title="Mundus vult decipi, ergo decipiatur">mundus vult decipi</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694-117">[104]</a> He disliked Napoleon and his system, and all kinds of violence and revolution caused horror to him. Thus he condemned the methods of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>, though he agreed with some of their aims, such as the idea of a unified Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185695-102">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[n]</a> As far as the political system is concerned, he had a low estimation of the constitutional system; he criticized parliamentarians of his time for a lack of knowledge and logical errors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694-117">[104]</a> Some Gauss biographers have speculated on his religious beliefs. He sometimes said "God arithmetizes"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185697-120">[106]</a> and "I succeeded – not on account of my hard efforts, but by the grace of the Lord."<a href="#cite_note-121">[107]</a> Gauss was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran church">Lutheran church</a>, like most of the population in northern Germany. It seems that he did not believe all <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a> or understand the Holy Bible quite literally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004300-122">[108]</a> Sartorius mentioned Gauss's <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a>, and estimated his "insatiable thirst for truth" and his sense of justice as motivated by religious convictions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856100-123">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_work">Scientific work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Scientific work">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algebra_and_number_theory">Algebra and number theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Algebra and number theory">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra">Fundamental theorem of algebra</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fundamental theorem of algebra">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg/170px-DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg/255px-DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg/340px-DBP_1977_928_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption>German stamp commemorating Gauss's 200th anniversary: the <a href="/wiki/Complex_plane" title="Complex plane">complex plane</a> or Gauss plane</figcaption></figure> In his doctoral thesis from 1799, Gauss proved the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra" title="Fundamental theorem of algebra">fundamental theorem of algebra</a> which states that every non-constant single-variable <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomial</a> with complex coefficients has at least one complex <a href="/wiki/Root_of_a_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Root of a function">root</a>. Mathematicians including <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> had produced false proofs before him, and Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. He subsequently produced three other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts clarified the concept of complex numbers considerably along the way.<a href="#cite_note-124">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Disquisitiones Arithmeticae">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae" title="Disquisitiones Arithmeticae">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a></div> In the preface to the Disquisitiones, Gauss dates the beginning of his work on number theory to 1795. By studying the works of previous mathematicians like Fermat, Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre, he realized that these scholars had already found much of what he had discovered by himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19228-125">[111]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Disquisitiones_Arithmeticae" title="Disquisitiones Arithmeticae">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a>, written since 1798 and published in 1801, consolidated number theory as a discipline and covered both elementary and algebraic <a href="/wiki/Number_theory" title="Number theory">number theory</a>. Therein he introduces the <a href="/wiki/Triple_bar" title="Triple bar">triple bar</a> symbol (≡) for <a href="/wiki/Congruence_relation" title="Congruence relation">congruence</a> and uses it for a clean presentation of <a href="/wiki/Modular_arithmetic" title="Modular arithmetic">modular arithmetic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19228–9-126">[112]</a> It deals with the <a href="/wiki/Unique_factorization_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Unique factorization theorem">unique factorization theorem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primitive_root_modulo_n" title="Primitive root modulo n">primitive roots modulo n</a>. In the main sections, Gauss presents the first two proofs of the law of <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_reciprocity" title="Quadratic reciprocity">quadratic reciprocity</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192216–25-127">[113]</a> and develops the theories of <a href="/wiki/Binary_quadratic_form" title="Binary quadratic form">binary</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192214–16,_25-128">[114]</a> and ternary <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_form" title="Quadratic form">quadratic forms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192225–28-129">[115]</a> The Disquisitiones include the <a href="/wiki/Gauss_composition_law" title="Gauss composition law">Gauss composition law</a> for binary quadratic forms, as well as the enumeration of the number of representations of an integer as the sum of three squares. As an almost immediate corollary of his <a href="/wiki/Legendre%27s_three-square_theorem" title="Legendre's three-square theorem">theorem on three squares</a>, he proves the triangular case of the <a href="/wiki/Fermat_polygonal_number_theorem" title="Fermat polygonal number theorem">Fermat polygonal number theorem</a> for n = 3.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192229-130">[116]</a> From several analytic results on <a href="/wiki/Ideal_class_group" title="Ideal class group">class numbers</a> that Gauss gives without proof towards the end of the fifth section,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192222–23-131">[117]</a> it appears that Gauss already knew the <a href="/wiki/Class_number_formula" title="Class number formula">class number formula</a> in 1801.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192266–69-132">[118]</a> In the last section, Gauss gives proof for the <a href="/wiki/Constructible_polygon" title="Constructible polygon">constructibility</a> of a regular <a href="/wiki/Heptadecagon" title="Heptadecagon">heptadecagon</a> (17-sided polygon) with <a href="/wiki/Compass_and_straightedge_constructions" class="mw-redirect" title="Compass and straightedge constructions">straightedge and compass</a> by reducing this geometrical problem to an algebraic one.<a href="#cite_note-Denker-133">[119]</a> He shows that a regular polygon is constructible if the number of its sides is either a <a href="/wiki/Power_of_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Power of 2">power of 2</a> or the product of a power of 2 and any number of distinct <a href="/wiki/Fermat_prime" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermat prime">Fermat primes</a>. In the same section, he gives a result on the number of solutions of certain cubic polynomials with coefficients in <a href="/wiki/Finite_field" title="Finite field">finite fields</a>, which amounts to counting integral points on an <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_curve" title="Elliptic curve">elliptic curve</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stuhler-134">[120]</a> An unfinished eighth chapter was found among left papers only after his death, consisting of work done during 1797–1799.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200444-135">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frei-136">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_investigations">Further investigations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further investigations">edit</a>]</div> One of Gauss's first results was the empirically found conjecture of 1792 – the later called <a href="/wiki/Prime_number_theorem" title="Prime number theorem">prime number theorem</a> – giving an estimation of the number of prime numbers by using the <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_integral_function" title="Logarithmic integral function">integral logarithm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[o]</a> When Olbers encouraged Gauss in 1816 to compete for a prize from the French Academy on proof for <a href="/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem" title="Fermat's Last Theorem">Fermat's Last Theorem</a> (FLT), he refused because of his low esteem on this matter. However, among his left works a short undated paper was found with proofs of FLT for the cases n = 3 and n = 5.<a href="#cite_note-140">[125]</a> The particular case of n = 3 was proved much earlier by <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a>, but Gauss developed a more streamlined proof which made use of <a href="/wiki/Eisenstein_integers" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenstein integers">Eisenstein integers</a>; though more general, the proof was simpler than in the real integers case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192260–61-141">[126]</a> Gauss contributed to solving the <a href="/wiki/Kepler_conjecture" title="Kepler conjecture">Kepler conjecture</a> in 1831 with the proof that a <a href="/wiki/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres" title="Close-packing of equal spheres">greatest packing density</a> of spheres in the three-dimensional space is given when the centers of the spheres form a <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">cubic face-centered</a> arrangement,<a href="#cite_note-142">[127]</a> when he reviewed a book of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_August_Seeber" title="Ludwig August Seeber">Ludwig August Seeber</a> on the theory of reduction of positive ternary quadratic forms.<a href="#cite_note-143">[128]</a> Having noticed some lacks in Seeber's proof, he simplified many of his arguments, proved the central conjecture, and remarked that this theorem is equivalent to the Kepler conjecture for regular arrangements.<a href="#cite_note-144">[129]</a> In two papers on <a href="/wiki/Quartic_reciprocity" title="Quartic reciprocity">biquadratic residues</a> (1828, 1832) Gauss introduced the <a href="/wiki/Ring_theory" title="Ring theory">ring</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_integers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaussian integers">Gaussian integers</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">Z</mi> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>i</mi> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ffa94e9e2e6d9e5e5373d5fafb954b902743fde" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.646ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]}">, showed that it is a <a href="/wiki/Unique_factorization_domain" title="Unique factorization domain">unique factorization domain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kleiner1998-145">[130]</a> and generalized some key arithmetic concepts, such as <a href="/wiki/Fermat%27s_little_theorem" title="Fermat's little theorem">Fermat's little theorem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_lemma_(number_theory)" title="Gauss's lemma (number theory)">Gauss's lemma</a>. The main objective of introducing this ring was to formulate the law of biquadratic reciprocity<a href="#cite_note-Kleiner1998-145">[130]</a> – as Gauss discovered, rings of complex integers are the natural setting for such higher reciprocity laws.<a href="#cite_note-146">[131]</a> In the second paper, he stated the general law of biquadratic reciprocity and proved several special cases of it. In an earlier publication from 1818 containing his fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity, he claimed the techniques of these proofs (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_sum" title="Gauss sum">Gauss sums</a>) can be applied to prove higher reciprocity laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann192252,_57–59-147">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Analysis">edit</a>]</div> One of Gauss's first discoveries was the notion of the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic-geometric_mean" class="mw-redirect" title="Arithmetic-geometric mean">arithmetic-geometric mean</a> (AGM) of two positive real numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193341–57-148">[133]</a> He discovered its relation to elliptic integrals in the years 1798–1799 through the <a href="/wiki/Landen%27s_transformation" title="Landen's transformation">Landen's transformation</a>, and a diary entry recorded the discovery of the connection of <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss's constant">Gauss's constant</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lemniscatic_elliptic_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemniscatic elliptic functions">lemniscatic elliptic functions</a>, a result that Gauss stated that "will surely open an entirely new field of analysis".<a href="#cite_note-Cox-149">[134]</a> He also made early inroads into the more formal issues of the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Complex_analysis" title="Complex analysis">complex analysis</a>, and from a letter to Bessel in 1811 it is clear that he knew the "fundamental theorem of complex analysis" – <a href="/wiki/Cauchy%27s_integral_theorem" title="Cauchy's integral theorem">Cauchy's integral theorem</a> – and understood the notion of <a href="/wiki/Residue_(complex_analysis)" title="Residue (complex analysis)">complex residues</a> when integrating around <a href="/wiki/Pole_(complex_analysis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pole (complex analysis)">poles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stuhler-134">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pentagonal_number_theorem" title="Pentagonal number theorem">Euler's pentagonal numbers theorem</a>, together with other researches on the AGM and lemniscatic functions, led him to plenty of results on <a href="/wiki/Jacobi_theta_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobi theta functions">Jacobi theta functions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Stuhler-134">[120]</a> culminating in the discovery in 1808 of the later called <a href="/wiki/Jacobi_triple_product_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobi triple product identity">Jacobi triple product identity</a>, which includes Euler's theorem as a special case.<a href="#cite_note-151">[136]</a> His works show that he knew modular transformations of order 3, 5, 7 for elliptic functions since 1808.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933185–186-152">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[p]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[q]</a> Several mathematical fragments in his <a href="/wiki/Nachlass" title="Nachlass">Nachlass</a> indicate that he knew parts of the modern theory of <a href="/wiki/Modular_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Modular forms">modular forms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stuhler-134">[120]</a> In his work on the <a href="/wiki/Multivalued_function" title="Multivalued function">multivalued</a> AGM of two complex numbers, he discovered a deep connection between the infinitely many values of the AGM to its two "simplest values".<a href="#cite_note-Cox-149">[134]</a> In his unpublished writings he recognized and made a sketch of the key concept of <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_domain" title="Fundamental domain">fundamental domain</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Modular_group" title="Modular group">modular group</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933101–106-156">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Houzel-157">[140]</a> One of Gauss's sketches of this kind was a drawing of a <a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">tessellation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Unit_disk" title="Unit disk">unit disk</a> by "equilateral" <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_triangle" title="Hyperbolic triangle">hyperbolic triangles</a> with all angles equal to <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \pi /4}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>4</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \pi /4}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1707aa0fec2c8ef008b9e30b6045fbf95dab9e20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.657ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \pi /4}">.<a href="#cite_note-158">[141]</a> An example of Gauss's insight in the fields of analysis is the cryptic remark that the principles of circle division by compass and straightedge can also be applied to the division of the <a href="/wiki/Lemniscate_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemniscate curve">lemniscate curve</a>, which inspired Abel's theorem on lemniscate division.<a href="#cite_note-159">[r]</a> Another example is his publication "Summatio quarundam serierum singularium" (1811) on the determination of the sign of <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_Gauss_sum" title="Quadratic Gauss sum">quadratic Gauss sum</a>, in which he solved the main problem by introducing <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_binomial_coefficient" title="Gaussian binomial coefficient">q-analogs of binomial coefficients</a> and manipulating them by several original identities that seem to stem out of his work on elliptic functions theory; however, Gauss cast his argument in a formal way that does not reveal its origin in elliptic functions theory, and only the later work of mathematicians such as Jacobi and <a href="/wiki/Hermite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermite">Hermite</a> has exposed the crux of his argument.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933122–123-160">[142]</a> In the "Disquisitiones generales circa series infinitam..." (1813), he provides the first systematic treatment of the general <a href="/wiki/Hypergeometric_function" title="Hypergeometric function">hypergeometric function</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>β</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f479aea7571b5ea41a92cbfa38a8f51826ea8471" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.064ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,x)}">, and shows that many of the functions known at the time are special cases of the hypergeometric function.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–142-161">[143]</a> This work is the first one with an exact inquiry of <a href="/wiki/Convergence_(series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergence (series)">convergence</a> of infinite series in the history of mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933142-162">[144]</a> Furthermore, it deals with infinite <a href="/wiki/Continued_fraction" title="Continued fraction">continued fractions</a> arising as ratios of hypergeometric functions which are now called <a href="/wiki/Gauss_continued_fraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss continued fraction">Gauss continued fractions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–154-163">[145]</a> In 1823, Gauss won the prize of the Danish Society with an essay on <a href="/wiki/Conformal_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Conformal mapping">conformal mappings</a>, which contains several developments that pertain to the field of complex analysis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191790–91-164">[146]</a> Gauss stated that angle-preserving mappings in the complex plane must be complex <a href="/wiki/Analytic_function" title="Analytic function">analytic functions</a>, and used the later called <a href="/wiki/Beltrami_equation" title="Beltrami equation">Beltrami equation</a> to prove the existence of <a href="/wiki/Isothermal_coordinates" title="Isothermal coordinates">isothermal coordinates</a> on analytic surfaces. The essay concludes with examples of conformal mappings into a sphere and an <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid_of_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellipsoid of revolution">ellipsoid of revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBühler1981103-165">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numeric_analysis">Numeric analysis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Numeric analysis">edit</a>]</div> Gauss often deduced theorems <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductively</a> from numerical data he had collected empirically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193318-89">[77]</a> As such, the use of efficient algorithms to facilitate calculations was vital to his research, and he made many contributions to <a href="/wiki/Numeric_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Numeric analysis">numeric analysis</a>, as the method of <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_quadrature" title="Gaussian quadrature">Gaussian quadrature</a> published in 1816.<a href="#cite_note-166">[148]</a> In a private letter to Gerling from 1823,<a href="#cite_note-167">[149]</a> he described a solution of a 4X4 system of linear equations by using <a href="/wiki/Gauss-Seidel_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss-Seidel method">Gauss-Seidel method</a> – an "indirect" <a href="/wiki/Iterative_method" title="Iterative method">iterative method</a> for the solution of linear systems, and recommended it over the usual method of "direct elimination" for systems of more than two equations.<a href="#cite_note-168">[150]</a> Gauss invented an algorithm for calculating what is now called <a href="/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform" title="Discrete Fourier transform">discrete Fourier transforms</a>, when calculating the orbits of Pallas and Juno in 1805, 160 years before <a href="/wiki/James_Cooley" title="James Cooley">Cooley</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">Tukey</a> found their similar <a href="/wiki/Cooley%E2%80%93Tukey_FFT_algorithm" title="Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm">Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[151]</a> He developed it as a <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_interpolation" title="Trigonometric interpolation">trigonometric interpolation</a> method, but the paper Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata was published only posthumously in 1876,<a href="#cite_note-170">[152]</a> preceded by the first presentation by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier" title="Joseph Fourier">Joseph Fourier</a> on the subject in 1807.<a href="#cite_note-171">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology">Chronology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chronology">edit</a>]</div> The first publication following the doctoral thesis dealt with the determination of the <a href="/wiki/Date_of_Easter#Gauss's_Easter_algorithm" title="Date of Easter">date of Easter</a> (1800), an elementary matter of mathematics. Gauss aimed to present a most convenient algorithm for people without any knowledge of ecclesiastical or even astronomical chronology, and thus avoided the usually required terms of <a href="/wiki/Golden_number_(time)" title="Golden number (time)">golden number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epact" title="Epact">epact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle_(calendar)" title="Solar cycle (calendar)">solar cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominical_letter" title="Dominical letter">domenical letter</a>, and any religious connotations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen193049–63-172">[154]</a> Biographers speculated on the reason why Gauss dealt with this matter, but it is likely comprehensible by the historical background. The replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> had caused confusion in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> since the 16th century, and was not finished in Germany until 1700, when the difference of eleven days was deleted, but the difference in calculating the date of Easter remained between Protestant and Catholic territories. A further agreement of 1776 equalized the confessional way of counting; thus in the Protestant states like the Duchy of Brunswick the Easter of 1777, five weeks before Gauss's birth, was the first one calculated in the new manner.<a href="#cite_note-Olesko-173">[155]</a> The public difficulties of replacement may be the historical background for the confusion on this matter in the Gauss family (see chapter: <a href="#Anecdotes">Anecdotes</a>). For being connected with the Easter regulations, an essay on the date of <a href="/wiki/Pesach" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesach">Pesach</a> followed soon in 1802.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200469-174">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Astronomy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_Ceres" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of Ceres">Discovery of Ceres</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz,_1803,_ohne_Rahmen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg/170px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg/255px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg/340px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Pastellgem%C3%A4lde_von_Johann_Christian_August_Schwartz%2C_1803%2C_ohne_Rahmen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1563" data-file-height="2147" /></a><figcaption>Carl Friedrich Gauss 1803 by Johann Christian August Schwartz</figcaption></figure> On 1 January 1801, Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Piazzi" title="Giuseppe Piazzi">Giuseppe Piazzi</a> discovered a new celestial object, presumed it to be the long searched planet between Mars and Jupiter according to the so-called <a href="/wiki/Titius%E2%80%93Bode_law" title="Titius–Bode law">Titius–Bode law</a>, and named it <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[157]</a> He could track it only for a short time until it disappeared behind the glare of the Sun. The mathematical tools of the time were not sufficient to extrapolate a position from the few data for its reappearance. Gauss tackled the problem and predicted a position for possible rediscovery in December 1801. This turned out to be accurate within a half-degree when <a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_von_Zach" title="Franz Xaver von Zach">Franz Xaver von Zach</a> on 7 and 31 December at <a href="/wiki/Gotha_Observatory" title="Gotha Observatory">Gotha</a>, and independently <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Matth%C3%A4us_Olbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers">Heinrich Olbers</a> on 1 and 2 January in <a href="/wiki/Bremen" title="Bremen">Bremen</a>, identified the object near the predicted position.<a href="#cite_note-176">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[s]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_method" title="Gauss's method">Gauss's method</a> leads to an equation of the eighth degree, of which one solution, the Earth's orbit, is known. The solution sought is then separated from the remaining six based on physical conditions. In this work, Gauss used comprehensive approximation methods which he created for that purpose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein19798-178">[159]</a> The discovery of Ceres led Gauss to the theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum.<a href="#cite_note-179">[160]</a> It introduced the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_gravitational_constant" title="Gaussian gravitational constant">Gaussian gravitational constant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> Since the new asteroids had been discovered, Gauss occupied himself with the <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)">perturbations</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Orbital_elements" title="Orbital elements">orbital elements</a>. Firstly he examined Ceres with analytical methods similar to those of Laplace, but his favorite object was <a href="/wiki/(2)_Pallas" class="mw-redirect" title="(2) Pallas">Pallas</a>, because of its great <a href="/wiki/Eccentricity_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccentricity (astronomy)">eccentricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">orbital inclination</a>, whereby Laplace's method did not work. Gauss used his own tools: the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean" title="Arithmetic–geometric mean">arithmetic–geometric mean</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hypergeometric_function" title="Hypergeometric function">hypergeometric function</a>, and his method of interpolation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929194–195-180">[161]</a> He found an <a href="/wiki/Orbital_resonance#Coincidental_'near'_ratios_of_mean_motion" title="Orbital resonance">orbital resonance</a> with <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> in proportion 18:7 in 1812; Gauss gave this result as <a href="/wiki/Cipher" title="Cipher">cipher</a>, and gave the explicit meaning only in letters to Olbers and Bessel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929206-181">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[t]</a> After long years of work, he finished it in 1816 without a result that seemed sufficient to him. This marked the end of his activities in theoretical astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929254-185">[165]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png/220px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png/330px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png/440px-Goettingen_Sternwarte_Besemann.png 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Göttingen observatory seen from the North-west (by Friedrich Besemann, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1835)</figcaption></figure> One fruit of Gauss's research on Pallas perturbations was the Determinatio Attractionis... (1818) on a method of theoretical astronomy that later became known as the "elliptic ring method". It introduced an averaging conception in which a planet in orbit is replaced by a fictitious ring with mass density proportional to the time taking the planet to follow the corresponding orbital arcs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929253–254-186">[166]</a> Gauss presents the method of evaluating the gravitational attraction of such an elliptic ring, which includes several steps; one of them involves a direct application of the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) algorithm to calculate an <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_integral" title="Elliptic integral">elliptic integral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933169–170-187">[167]</a> While Gauss's contributions to theoretical astronomy came to an end, more practical activities in <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a> continued and occupied him during his entire career. Even early in 1799, Gauss dealt with the determination of longitude by use of the lunar parallax, for which he developed more convenient formulas than those were in common use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel19298–9-188">[168]</a> After appointment as director of observatory he attached importance to the fundamental astronomical constants in correspondence with Bessel. Gauss himself provided tables for nutation and aberration, the solar coordinates, and refraction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel19293-189">[169]</a> He made many contributions to <a href="/wiki/Spherical_geometry" title="Spherical geometry">spherical geometry</a>, and in this context solved some practical problems about <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">navigation by stars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel192954-190">[170]</a> He published a great number of observations, mainly on minor planets and comets; his last observation was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_eclipse_of_28_July_1851&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solar eclipse of 28 July 1851 (page does not exist)">solar eclipse of 28 July 1851</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929144-191">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_errors">Theory of errors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Theory of errors">edit</a>]</div> Gauss likely used the <a href="/wiki/Least_squares" title="Least squares">method of least squares</a> for calculating the orbit of Ceres to minimize the impact of <a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">measurement error</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stigler-100">[88]</a> The method was published first by <a href="/wiki/Adrien-Marie_Legendre" title="Adrien-Marie Legendre">Adrien-Marie Legendre</a> in 1805, but Gauss claimed in Theoria motus (1809) that he had been using it since 1794 or 1795.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaaf196484-192">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-193">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[174]</a> In the history of statistics, this disagreement is called the "priority dispute over the discovery of the method of least squares".<a href="#cite_note-Stigler-100">[88]</a> Gauss proved that the method has the lowest sampling variance within the class of linear unbiased estimators under the assumption of <a href="/wiki/Normal_distribution" title="Normal distribution">normally distributed</a> errors (<a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Markov_theorem" title="Gauss–Markov theorem">Gauss–Markov theorem</a>), in the two-part paper Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae (1823).<a href="#cite_note-195">[175]</a> In the first paper he proved <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_inequality" title="Gauss's inequality">Gauss's inequality</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Chebyshev%27s_inequality" title="Chebyshev's inequality">Chebyshev-type inequality</a>) for <a href="/wiki/Unimodality" title="Unimodality">unimodal distributions</a>, and stated without proof another inequality for <a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">moments</a> of the fourth order (a special case of Gauss-Winckler inequality).<a href="#cite_note-196">[176]</a> He derived lower and upper bounds for the <a href="/wiki/Variance" title="Variance">variance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sample_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample variance">sample variance</a>. In the second paper, Gauss described <a href="/wiki/Recursive_least_squares_filter" title="Recursive least squares filter">recursive least squares methods</a>. His work on the theory of errors was extended in several directions by the geodesist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Robert_Helmert" title="Friedrich Robert Helmert">Friedrich Robert Helmert</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gauss-Helmert_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss-Helmert model">Gauss-Helmert model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[177]</a> Gauss also contributed to problems in <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a> that are not directly concerned with the theory of errors. One example appears as a diary note where he tried to describe the asymptotic distribution of entries in the continued fraction expansion of a random number uniformly distributed in (0,1). He derived this distribution, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Gauss-Kuzmin_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss-Kuzmin distribution">Gauss-Kuzmin distribution</a>, as a by-product of the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Ergodicity" title="Ergodicity">ergodicity</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gauss-Kuzmin-Wirsing_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss-Kuzmin-Wirsing operator">Gauss map for continued fractions</a>. Gauss's solution is the first-ever result in the metrical theory of continued fractions.<a href="#cite_note-198">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arc_measurement_and_geodetic_survey">Arc measurement and geodetic survey</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Arc measurement and geodetic survey">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg/170px-Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg/255px-Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg/340px-Georg_IV_Erlass_Landvermessung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2917" data-file-height="4485" /></a><figcaption>Order of King <a href="/wiki/George_IV" title="George IV">George IV</a> from 9 May 1820 to the triangulation project (with the additional signature of Count <a href="/wiki/Ernst_zu_M%C3%BCnster" title="Ernst zu Münster">Ernst zu Münster</a> below)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop@20170430.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG/220px-Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG/330px-Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG/440px-Gau%C3%9F_Heliotrop%4020170430.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4140" data-file-height="2760" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Heliotrope_(instrument)" title="Heliotrope (instrument)">heliotrope</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg/220px-Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg/330px-Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg/440px-Vize-Heliotrop_Gau%C3%9F-Ausstellung_Bomann-Museum_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2365" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption>Gauss's vice heliotrope, a <a href="/wiki/Edward_Troughton" title="Edward Troughton">Troughton</a> sextant with additional mirror</figcaption></figure> Gauss was busy with geodetic problems since 1799 when he helped <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Lecoq" title="Karl Ludwig von Lecoq">Karl Ludwig von Lecoq</a> with calculations during his <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">survey</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192416–18-199">[179]</a> Beginning in 1804, he taught himself some geodetic practise with a sextant in Brunswick,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192422-200">[180]</a> and Göttingen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192428-201">[181]</a> Since 1816, Gauss's former student <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Christian_Schumacher" title="Heinrich Christian Schumacher">Heinrich Christian Schumacher</a>, then professor in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, but living in <a href="/wiki/Altona,_Hamburg" title="Altona, Hamburg">Altona</a> (<a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Holstein</a>) near <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> as head of an observatory, carried out a <a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a> peninsula from <a href="/wiki/Skagen" title="Skagen">Skagen</a> in the north to <a href="/wiki/Lauenburg" title="Lauenburg">Lauenburg</a> in the south.<a href="#cite_note-202">[u]</a> This project was the basis for map production but also aimed at determining the geodetic arc between the terminal sites. Data from geodetic arcs were used to determine the dimensions of the earth <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>, and long arc distances brought more precise results. Schumacher asked Gauss to continue this work further to the south in the Kingdom of Hanover; Gauss agreed after a short time of hesitation. Finally, in May 1820, King <a href="/wiki/George_IV" title="George IV">George IV</a> gave the order to Gauss.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192432-203">[182]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Arc_measurement" title="Arc measurement">arc measurement</a> needs a precise astronomical determination of at least two points in the <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangulation network">network</a>. Gauss and Schumacher used the favourite occasion that both observatories in Göttingen and Altona, in the garden of Schumacher's house, laid nearly in the same <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> was measured with both their instruments and a <a href="/wiki/Zenith_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Zenith sector">zenith sector</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Ramsden" title="Jesse Ramsden">Ramsden</a> that was transported to both observatories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192461-204">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[v]</a> Gauss and Schumacher had already determined some angles between <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg" title="Lüneburg">Lüneburg</a>, Hamburg, and Lauenburg for the geodetic connection in October 1818.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192460-206">[184]</a> During the summers of 1821 until 1825 Gauss directed the triangulation work personally, from <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> in the south to the river <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a> in the north. The <a href="/wiki/Triangle" title="Triangle">triangle</a> between <a href="/wiki/Hoher_Hagen_(Dransfeld)" title="Hoher Hagen (Dransfeld)">Hoher Hagen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Inselsberg" title="Großer Inselsberg">Großer Inselsberg</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thuringian_Forest" title="Thuringian Forest">Thuringian Forest</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brocken" title="Brocken">Brocken</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Harz" title="Harz">Harz</a> mountains was the largest one Gauss had ever measured with a maximum size of 107 km (66.5 miles). In the thinly populated <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCneburg_Heath" title="Lüneburg Heath">Lüneburg Heath</a> without significant natural summits or artificial buildings, he had difficulties finding suitable triangulation points; sometimes cutting lanes through the vegetation was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Olesko-173">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192475–80-207">[185]</a> For pointing signals, Gauss invented a new instrument with movable mirrors and a small telescope that reflects the sunbeams to the triangulation points, and named it <a href="/wiki/Heliotrope_(instrument)" title="Heliotrope (instrument)">heliotrope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaaf196481-208">[186]</a> Another suitable construction for the same purpose was a <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> with an additional mirror which he named vice heliotrope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192469-209">[187]</a> Gauss got assistance by soldiers of the Hanoverian army, among them his eldest son Joseph. Gauss took part in the <a href="/wiki/Baseline_(surveying)" title="Baseline (surveying)">baseline</a> measurement (<a href="/wiki/Braak_Base_Line" title="Braak Base Line">Braak Base Line</a>) of Schumacher in the village of <a href="/wiki/Braak,_Schleswig-Holstein" title="Braak, Schleswig-Holstein">Braak</a> near Hamburg in 1820, and used the result for the evaluation of the Hanoverian triangulation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004121-210">[188]</a> An additional result was a better value of <a href="/wiki/Flattening" title="Flattening">flattening</a> of the approximative <a href="/wiki/Earth_ellipsoid" title="Earth ellipsoid">Earth ellipsoid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192437–38,_49–50-211">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[w]</a> Gauss developed the <a href="/wiki/Transverse_Mercator_projection#Ellipsoidal_transverse_Mercator" title="Transverse Mercator projection">universal transverse Mercator projection</a> of the ellipsoidal shaped Earth (what he named conform projection)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004164-214">[191]</a> for representing geodetical data in plane charts. When the arc measurement was finished, Gauss began the enlargement of the triangulation to the west to get a survey of the whole <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Kingdom of Hanover</a> with a Royal decree from 25 March 1828.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004135-215">[192]</a> The practical work was directed by three army officers, among them Lieutenant Joseph Gauss. The complete data evaluation laid in the hands of Gauss, who applied his mathematical inventions such as the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_least_squares" class="mw-redirect" title="Method of least squares">method of least squares</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_elimination" title="Gaussian elimination">elimination method</a> to it. The project was finished in 1844, and Gauss sent a final report of the project to the government; his method of projection was not edited until 1866.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle1924129-216">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[194]</a> In 1828, when studying differences in <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, Gauss first defined a physical approximation for the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">figure of the Earth</a> as the surface everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity;<a href="#cite_note-Gauß1828-218">[195]</a> later his doctoral student <a href="/wiki/Johann_Benedict_Listing" title="Johann Benedict Listing">Johann Benedict Listing</a> called this the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differential_geometry">Differential geometry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Differential geometry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theorema_Egregium" title="Theorema Egregium">Theorema Egregium</a></div> The geodetic survey of Hanover fueled Gauss's interest in <a href="/wiki/Differential_geometry" title="Differential geometry">differential geometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a>, fields of mathematics dealing with <a href="/wiki/Curve" title="Curve">curves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface_(topology)" title="Surface (topology)">surfaces</a>. This led him in 1828 to the publication of a memoir that marks the birth of modern <a href="/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_surfaces" title="Differential geometry of surfaces">differential geometry of surfaces</a>, as it departed from the traditional ways of treating surfaces as <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">cartesian graphs</a> of functions of two variables, and that initiated the exploration of surfaces from the "inner" point of view of a two-dimensional being constrained to move on it. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Theorema_Egregium" title="Theorema Egregium">Theorema Egregium</a> (remarkable theorem), established a property of the notion of <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_curvature" title="Gaussian curvature">Gaussian curvature</a>. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distance" title="Distance">distances</a> on the surface, regardless of the <a href="/wiki/Embedding" title="Embedding">embedding</a> of the surface in three-dimensional or two-dimensional space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel1917110–119-220">[197]</a> The Theorema Egregium leads to the abstraction of surfaces as doubly-extended <a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">manifolds</a>; it clarifies the distinction between the intrinsic properties of the manifold (the <a href="/wiki/Metric_tensor" title="Metric tensor">metric</a>) and its physical realization in ambient space. A consequence is the impossibility of an isometric transformation between surfaces of different Gaussian curvature. This means practically that a <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoid</a> cannot be transformed to a plane without distortion, which causes a fundamental problem in designing <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">projections</a> for geographical maps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel1917110–119-220">[197]</a> A portion of this essay is dedicated to a profound study of <a href="/wiki/Geodesic" title="Geodesic">geodesics</a>. In particular, Gauss proves the local <a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Bonnet_theorem" title="Gauss–Bonnet theorem">Gauss–Bonnet theorem</a> on geodesic triangles, and generalizes <a href="/wiki/Legendre%27s_theorem_on_spherical_triangles" title="Legendre's theorem on spherical triangles">Legendre's theorem on spherical triangles</a> to geodesic triangles on arbitrary surfaces with continuous curvature; he found that the angles of a "sufficiently small" geodesic triangle deviate from that of a planar triangle of the same sides in a way that depends only on the values of the surface curvature at the vertices of the triangle, regardless of the behaviour of the surface in the triangle interior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel1917105–106-221">[198]</a> Gauss's memoir from 1828 lacks the conception of <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_curvature" title="Geodesic curvature">geodesic curvature</a>. However, in a previously unpublished manuscript, very likely written in 1822–1825, he introduced the term "side curvature" (German: "Seitenkrümmung") and proved its <a href="/wiki/Invariant_(mathematics)" title="Invariant (mathematics)">invariance</a> under isometric transformations, a result that was later obtained by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Minding" title="Ferdinand Minding">Ferdinand Minding</a> and published by him in 1830. This Gauss paper contains the core of his lemma on total curvature, but also its generalization, found and proved by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Ossian_Bonnet" title="Pierre Ossian Bonnet">Pierre Ossian Bonnet</a> in 1848 and known as <a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Bonnet_theorem" title="Gauss–Bonnet theorem">Gauss–Bonnet theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolza192170–74-222">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Euclidean_geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Non-Euclidean geometry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_1828.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg/170px-Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg/255px-Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg/340px-Bendixen_-_Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_1828.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption>Lithography by <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Bendixen" title="Siegfried Bendixen">Siegfried Bendixen</a> (1828)</figcaption></figure> In the lifetime of Gauss, a vivid discussion on the <a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">Parallel postulate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a> was going on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191719–20-223">[200]</a> Numerous efforts were made to prove it in the frame of the Euclidean axioms, whereas some mathematicians discussed the possibility of geometrical systems without it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBühler1981100–102-224">[201]</a> Gauss thought about the basics of geometry since the 1790s years, but in the 1810s he realized that a non-Euclidean geometry without the parallel postulate could solve the problem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197957–60-225">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191719–20-223">[200]</a> In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Franz_Taurinus" title="Franz Taurinus">Franz Taurinus</a> of 1824, he presented a short comprehensible outline of what he named a "<a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean geometry</a>",<a href="#cite_note-:0-226">[203]</a> but he strongly forbade Taurinus to make any use of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197957–60-225">[202]</a> Gauss is credited with having been the one to first discover and study non-Euclidean geometry, even coining the term as well.<a href="#cite_note-227">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-226">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[205]</a> The first publications on non-Euclidean geometry in the history of mathematics were authored by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Lobachevsky" title="Nikolai Lobachevsky">Nikolai Lobachevsky</a> in 1829 and <a href="/wiki/Janos_Bolyai" class="mw-redirect" title="Janos Bolyai">Janos Bolyai</a> in 1832.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBühler1981100–102-224">[201]</a> In the following years, Gauss wrote his ideas on the topic but did not publish them, thus avoiding influencing the contemporary scientific discussion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197957–60-225">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[206]</a> Gauss commended the ideas of Janos Bolyai in a letter to his father and university friend Farkas Bolyai<a href="#cite_note-230">[207]</a> claiming that these were congruent to his own thoughts of some decades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197957–60-225">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[208]</a> However, it is not quite clear to what extent he preceded Lobachevsky and Bolyai, as his letter remarks are only vague and obscure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBühler1981100–102-224">[201]</a> Sartorius mentioned Gauss's work on non-Euclidean geometry firstly in 1856, but only the edition of left papers in Volume VIII of the Collected Works (1900) showed Gauss's ideas on that matter, at a time when non-Euclidean geometry had yet grown out of controversial discussion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197957–60-225">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_topology">Early topology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Early topology">edit</a>]</div> Gauss was also an early pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Topology" title="Topology">topology</a> or Geometria Situs, as it was called in his lifetime. The first proof of the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_algebra" title="Fundamental theorem of algebra">fundamental theorem of algebra</a> in 1799 contained an essentially topological argument; fifty years later, he further developed the topological argument in his fourth proof of this theorem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOstrowski19201–18-232">[209]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann,_1855.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg/170px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg/255px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg/340px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_B%C3%BCste_von_Heinrich_Hesemann%2C_1855.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1479" data-file-height="2152" /></a><figcaption>Gauss bust by Heinrich Hesemann (1855)<a href="#cite_note-233">[x]</a></figcaption></figure> Another encounter with topological notions occurred to him in the course of his astronomical work in 1804, when he determined the limits of the region on the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a> in which comets and asteroids might appear, and which he termed "Zodiacus". He discovered that if the Earth's and comet's orbits are <a href="/wiki/Link_(knot_theory)" title="Link (knot theory)">linked</a>, then by topological reasons the Zodiacus is the entire sphere. In 1848, in the context of the discovery of the asteroid <a href="/wiki/7_Iris" title="7 Iris">7 Iris</a>, he published a further qualitative discussion of the Zodiacus.<a href="#cite_note-Epple_1998_45–52-234">[210]</a> In Gauss's letters of 1820–1830, he thought intensively on topics with close affinity to Geometria Situs, and became gradually conscious of semantic difficulty in this field. Fragments from this period reveal that he tried to classify "tract figures", which are closed plane curves with a finite number of transverse self-intersections, that may also be planar projections of <a href="/wiki/Knot_theory" title="Knot theory">knots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-235">[211]</a> To do so he devised a symbolical scheme, the <a href="/wiki/Gauss_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss code">Gauss code</a>, that in a sense captured the characteristic features of tract figures.<a href="#cite_note-236">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191750–51-237">[213]</a> In a fragment from 1833, Gauss defined the <a href="/wiki/Linking_number" title="Linking number">linking number</a> of two space curves by a certain double integral, and in doing so provided for the first time an analytical formulation of a topological phenomenon. On the same note, he lamented the little progress made in Geometria Situs, and remarked that one of its central problems will be "to count the intertwinings of two closed or infinite curves". His notebooks from that period reveal that he was also thinking about other topological objects such as <a href="/wiki/Braid_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Braid theory">braids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tangle_(mathematics)" title="Tangle (mathematics)">tangles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Epple_1998_45–52-234">[210]</a> Gauss's influence in later years to the emerging field of topology, which he held in high esteem, was through occasional remarks and oral communications to Mobius and Listing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191751–55-238">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_mathematical_accomplishments">Minor mathematical accomplishments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Minor mathematical accomplishments">edit</a>]</div> Gauss applied the concept of complex numbers to solve well-known problems in a new concise way. For example, in a short note from 1836 on geometric aspects of the ternary forms and their application to crystallography,<a href="#cite_note-239">[215]</a> he stated the <a href="/wiki/Axonometry" title="Axonometry">fundamental theorem of axonometry</a>, which tells how to represent a 3D cube on a 2D plane with complete accuracy, via complex numbers.<a href="#cite_note-240">[216]</a> He described rotations of this sphere as the action of certain <a href="/wiki/Mobius_transformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobius transformation">linear fractional transformations</a> on the extended complex plane,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933198-241">[217]</a> and gave a proof for the geometric theorem that the <a href="/wiki/Altitude_(triangle)" title="Altitude (triangle)">altitudes</a> of a triangle always meet in a single <a href="/wiki/Orthocenter" title="Orthocenter">orthocenter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[218]</a> Gauss was concerned with <a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Pentagramma_mirificum" title="Pentagramma mirificum">Pentagramma mirificum</a>" – a certain spherical <a href="/wiki/Pentagram" title="Pentagram">pentagram</a> – for several decades;<a href="#cite_note-243">[219]</a> he approached it from various points of view, and gradually gained a full understanding of its geometric, algebraic, and analytic aspects.<a href="#cite_note-244">[220]</a> In particular, in 1843 he stated and proved several theorems connecting elliptic functions, Napier spherical pentagons, and Poncelet pentagons in the plane.<a href="#cite_note-245">[221]</a> Furthermore, he contributed a solution to the problem of constructing the largest-area ellipse inside a given <a href="/wiki/Quadrilateral" title="Quadrilateral">quadrilateral</a>,<a href="#cite_note-246">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191771-72-247">[223]</a> and discovered a surprising result about the computation of area of <a href="/wiki/Pentagon" title="Pentagon">pentagons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191776-249">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetism_and_telegraphy">Magnetism and telegraphy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Magnetism and telegraphy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Geomagnetism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG/170px-G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG/255px-G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG/340px-G%C3%B6ttingen-Gau%C3%9F-Weber-Monument.01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Gauss-Weber monument in Göttingen by Ferdinand Hartzer (1899)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss,_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller,_1899.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png/220px-A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png/330px-A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png/440px-A_magnetometer_used_by_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss%2C_from_Gerlach_und_F._Traum%C3%BCller%2C_1899.png 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="1015" /></a><figcaption>The Gauss–Weber magnetometer</figcaption></figure> Gauss had been interested in magnetism since 1803.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004153-250">[226]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> visited Göttingen in 1826, both scientists began intensive research on <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">geomagnetism</a>, partly independently, partly in productive cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-251">[227]</a> In 1828, Gauss was Humboldt's guest during the conference of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_German_Natural_Scientists_and_Physicians" title="Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians">Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians</a> in Berlin, where he got acquainted with the physicist <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Weber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004136-252">[228]</a> When Weber got the chair for physics in Göttingen as successor of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Tobias_Mayer" title="Johann Tobias Mayer">Johann Tobias Mayer</a> by Gauss's recommendation in 1831, both of them started a fruitful collaboration, leading to a new knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> with a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, charge, and time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004161-253">[229]</a> They founded the Magnetic Association (German: Magnetischer Verein), an international working group of several observatories, which supported measurements of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> in many regions of the world with equal methods at arranged dates in the years 1836 to 1841.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-254">[230]</a> In 1836, Humboldt suggested the establishment of a worldwide net of geomagnetic stations in the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British dominions</a> with a letter to the <a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a>, then president of the Royal Society; he proposed that magnetic measures should be taken under standardized conditions using his methods.<a href="#cite_note-255">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[232]</a> Together with other instigators, this led to a global program known as "<a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine#Magnetical_crusade" title="Edward Sabine">Magnetical crusade</a>" under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a>. The dates, times, and intervals of observations were determined in advance, the Göttingen mean time was used as standard.<a href="#cite_note-Rupke-257">[233]</a> 61 stations on all five continents participated in this global program. Gauss and Weber founded a series for publication of the results, six volumes were edited between 1837 and 1843. Weber's departure to <a href="/wiki/Leipzig_University" title="Leipzig University">Leipzig</a> in 1843 as late effect of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Seven" title="Göttingen Seven">Göttingen Seven affair</a> marked the end of Magnetic Association activity.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-254">[230]</a> Following Humboldt's example, Gauss ordered a magnetic <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatory</a> to be built in the garden of the observatory, but the scientists differed over instrumental equipment; Gauss preferred stationary instruments, which he thought to give more precise results, whereas Humboldt was accustomed to movable instruments. Gauss was interested in the temporal and spatial variation of magnetic declination, inclination, and intensity, but discriminated Humboldt's concept of magnetic intensity to the terms of "horizontal" and "vertical" intensity. Together with Weber, he developed methods of measuring the components of intensity of the magnetic field, and constructed a suitable <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometer</a> to measure absolute values of the strength of the Earth's magnetic field, not more relative ones that depended on the apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-254">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaaf1964115–127-258">[234]</a> The precision of the magnetometer was about ten times higher than of previous instruments. With this work, Gauss was the first to derive a non-mechanical quantity by basic mechanical quantities.<a href="#cite_note-Rupke-257">[233]</a> Gauss carried out a General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism (1839), in what he believed to describe the nature of magnetic force; according to Felix Klein, this work is a presentation of observations by use of <a href="/wiki/Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a> rather than a physical theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197921–23-259">[235]</a> The theory predicted the existence of exactly two <a href="/wiki/Poles_of_astronomical_bodies#Magnetic_poles" title="Poles of astronomical bodies">magnetic poles</a> on the Earth, thus <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hansteen" title="Christopher Hansteen">Hansteen</a>'s idea of four magnetic poles became obsolete,<a href="#cite_note-Roussanova-260">[236]</a> and the data allowed to determine their location with rather good precision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer192987-261">[237]</a> Gauss influenced the beginning of geophysics in Russia, when <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Theodor_Kupffer" title="Adolph Theodor Kupffer">Adolph Theodor Kupffer</a>, one of his former students, founded a magnetic observatory in <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, following the example of the observatory in Göttingen, and similarly, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Simonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Simonov">Ivan Simonov</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kazan" title="Kazan">Kazan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roussanova-260">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Electromagnetism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg/170px-Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg/255px-Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg/340px-Gauss-Weber-Telegraf_Paulinerkirche_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Town plan of Göttingen with course of the telegraphic connection</figcaption></figure> The discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> on <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> on <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> drew Gauss's attention to these matters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer19296-262">[238]</a> Gauss and Weber found rules for branched <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electric</a> circuits, which were later found independently and firstly published by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a> and benamed after him as <a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff's circuit laws</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929108-263">[239]</a> and made inquiries on electromagnetism. They constructed the first <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electromechanical telegraph</a> in 1833, and Weber himself connected the observatory with the institute for physics in the town centre of Göttingen,<a href="#cite_note-265">[y]</a> but they did not care for any further development of this invention for commercial purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Timm-264">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[241]</a> Gauss's main theoretical interests in electromagnetism were reflected in his attempts to formulate quantitive laws governing electromagnetic induction. In notebooks from these years, he recorded several innovative formulations; he discovered the idea of <a href="/wiki/Vector_potential" title="Vector potential">vector potential</a> function (independently rediscovered by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Franz Ernst Neumann</a> in 1845), and in January 1835 he wrote down an "induction law" equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday's law</a>, which stated that the <a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">electromotive force</a> at a given point in space is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Instantaneous_rate_of_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Instantaneous rate of change">instantaneous rate of change</a> (with respect to time) of this function.<a href="#cite_note-267">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[243]</a> Gauss tried to find a unifying law for long-distance effects of <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrodynamics">electrodynamics</a>, electromagnetism, and <a href="/wiki/Electric_Induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric Induction">induction</a>, comparable to Newton's law of gravitation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929148–152-269">[244]</a> but his attempt ended in a "tragic failure".<a href="#cite_note-Rupke-257">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_theory">Potential theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Potential theory">edit</a>]</div> Since Isaac Newton had shown theoretically that the Earth and rotating stars assume non-spherical shapes, the problem of attraction of ellipsoids gained importance in mathematical astronomy. In his first publication on potential theory, the "Theoria attractionis..." (1813), Gauss provided a <a href="/wiki/Closed-form_expression" title="Closed-form expression">closed-form expression</a> to the gravitational attraction of a homogeneous <a href="/wiki/Triaxial_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Triaxial ellipsoid">triaxial ellipsoid</a> at every point in space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332-270">[245]</a> In contrast to previous research of <a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin" title="Colin Maclaurin">Maclaurin</a>, Laplace and Lagrange, Gauss's new solution treated the attraction more directly in the form of an elliptic integral. In the process, he also proved and applied some special cases of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Divergence_theorem" title="Divergence theorem">Gauss's theorem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vector_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector analysis">vector analysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332–40-271">[246]</a> In the General theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive forces acting in reciprocal proportions of quadratic distances (1840) Gauss gave the baseline of a theory of the magnetic <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">potential</a>, based on Lagrange, Laplace, and Poisson;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197921–23-259">[235]</a> it seems rather unlikely that he knew the previous works of <a href="/wiki/George_Green_(mathematician)" title="George Green (mathematician)">George Green</a> on this subject.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer19296-262">[238]</a> However, Gauss could never give any reasons for magnetism, nor a theory of magnetism similar to Newton's work on gravitation, that enabled scientists to predict geomagnetic effects in the future.<a href="#cite_note-Rupke-257">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optics">Optics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Optics">edit</a>]</div> Gauss's calculations enabled instrument maker <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Repsold" title="Johann Georg Repsold">Johann Georg Repsold</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> to construct a new achromatic lens system in 1810. A main problem, among other difficulties, was the nonprecise knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> of the used glass types.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929153–154-272">[247]</a> In a short article from 1817 Gauss dealt with the problem of removal of <a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">chromatic aberration</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gauss_lens" title="Gauss lens">double lenses</a>, and computed adjustments of the shape and coefficients of refraction required to minimize it. His work was noted by the optician <a href="/wiki/Carl_August_von_Steinheil" title="Carl August von Steinheil">Carl August von Steinheil</a>, who in 1860 introduced the achromatic <a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Steinheil doublet</a>, partly based on Gauss's calculations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929159–165-273">[248]</a> Many results in <a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">geometrical optics</a> are only scattered in Gauss's correspondences and hand notes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004170-274">[249]</a> In the Dioptrical Investigations (1840), Gauss gave the first systematic analysis on the formation of images under a <a href="/wiki/Paraxial_approximation" title="Paraxial approximation">paraxial approximation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaussian_optics" title="Gaussian optics">Gaussian optics</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Hecht-275">[250]</a> He characterized optical systems under a paraxial approximation only by its <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_point_(optics)" title="Cardinal point (optics)">cardinal points</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bass-276">[251]</a> and he derived the Gaussian <a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">lens</a> formula, applicable without restrictions in respect to the thickness of the lenses.<a href="#cite_note-Ostdiek-277">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929189–208-278">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mechanics">edit</a>]</div> Gauss's first business in mechanics concerned the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">earth's rotation</a>. When his university friend <a href="/wiki/Johann_Benzenberg" title="Johann Benzenberg">Benzenberg</a> carried out experiments to determine the deviation of falling masses from the perpendicular in 1802, what today is known as an effect of the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a>, he asked Gauss for a theory-based calculation of the values for comparison with the experimental ones. Gauss elaborated a system of fundamental equations for the motion, and the results corresponded sufficiently with Benzenberg's data, who added Gauss's considerations as an appendix to his book on falling experiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert19333–11-279">[254]</a> After <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Foucault" title="Léon Foucault">Foucault</a> had demonstrated the earth's rotation by his <a href="/wiki/Foucault_pendulum" title="Foucault pendulum">pendulum</a> experiment in public in 1851, Gerling questioned Gauss for further explanations. This instigated Gauss to design a new apparatus for demonstration with a much shorter length of pendulum than Foucault's one. The oscillations were observed with a reading telescope, with a vertical scale and a mirror fastened at the pendulum. It is described in the Gauss–Gerling correspondence, and Weber made some experiments with this apparatus in 1853, but no data were published.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193312-16-280">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_principle_of_least_constraint" title="Gauss's principle of least constraint">Gauss's principle of least constraint</a> of 1829 was established as a general concept to overcome the division of mechanics into statics and dynamics, combining <a href="/wiki/D%27Alembert%27s_principle" title="D'Alembert's principle">D'Alembert's principle</a> with <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_virtual_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of virtual work">principle of virtual work</a>, and showing analogies to the method of <a href="/wiki/Least_squares" title="Least squares">least squares</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193316-26-282">[257]</a>   <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metrology">Metrology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Metrology">edit</a>]</div> In 1828, Gauss was appointed to head of a Board for weights and measures of the Kingdom of Hanover. He provided the creation of <a href="/wiki/Standard_(metrology)" title="Standard (metrology)">standards</a> of length and measures. Gauss himself took care of the time-consuming measures and gave detailed orders for the mechanical preparation.<a href="#cite_note-Olesko-173">[155]</a> In the correspondence with Schumacher, who was also working on this matter, he described new ideas for scales of high precision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193359–60-283">[258]</a> He submitted the final reports on the Hanoverian <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">foot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pound_(mass)" title="Pound (mass)">pound</a> to the government in 1841. This work got more than regional importance by the order of a law of 1836 that connected the Hanoverian measures with the English ones.<a href="#cite_note-Olesko-173">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anecdotes">Anecdotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Anecdotes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg/220px-Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg/330px-Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg/440px-Gauss_keresztlevele.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1305" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parish_register" title="Parish register">Parochial registration</a> of Gauss's christening on 4 May 1777 with later added birth date</figcaption></figure> Several stories of his early genius have been reported. Carl Friedrich Gauss's mother had never recorded the date of his birth, remembering only that he had been born on a Wednesday, eight days before the <a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Feast of the Ascension</a>, which occurs 39 days after Easter. Gauss later solved this puzzle about his birthdate in the context of <a href="/wiki/Computus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computus">finding the date of Easter</a>, deriving methods to compute the date in both past and future years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200469–70-284">[259]</a> In his memorial on Gauss, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sartorius_von_Waltershausen" title="Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen">Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen</a> tells a story about the three-year-old Gauss, who corrected a math error his father made. The most popular story, also told by Sartorius, tells of a school exercise: the teacher Büttner and his assistant <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bartels" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Bartels">Martin Bartels</a> ordered students to add an <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Arithmetic series">arithmetic series</a>. Out of about a hundred pupils, Gauss was the first to solve the problem correctly by a significant margin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185611–13-285">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193310-9">[8]</a> Although (or because) Sartorius gave no details, over time many versions of this story have been created, with more and more details regarding the nature of the series – the most frequent being the classical problem of adding together all the integers from 1 to 100 – and the circumstances in the classroom.<a href="#cite_note-hayesreckoning-286">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[z]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honours_and_awards">Honours and awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Honours and awards">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F,_Copley-Medaille,_1838.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg/170px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg/255px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg/340px-Carl_Friedrich_Gau%C3%9F%2C_Copley-Medaille%2C_1838.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="1966" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> for Gauss (1838)</figcaption></figure> The first membership of a scientific society was given to Gauss in 1802 by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004351-289">[263]</a> Further memberships (corresponding, foreign or full) were awarded from the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Academy of Sciences</a> in Göttingen (1802/ 1807),<a href="#cite_note-290">[264]</a> the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> (1804/ 1820),<a href="#cite_note-291">[265]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> of London (1804),<a href="#cite_note-292">[266]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Royal Prussian Academy</a> in Berlin (1810),<a href="#cite_note-293">[267]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_nazionale_delle_scienze" title="Accademia nazionale delle scienze">National Academy of Science</a> in Verona (1810),<a href="#cite_note-294">[268]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> (1820),<a href="#cite_note-295">[269]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Bavarian Academy of Sciences</a> of Munich (1820),<a href="#cite_note-296">[270]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Letters" title="Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters">Royal Danish Academy</a> in Copenhagen (1821),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004352-297">[271]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> in London (1821),<a href="#cite_note-298">[272]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a> (1821),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004352-297">[271]</a> the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in Boston (1822),<a href="#cite_note-AAAS-299">[273]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Bohemian_Society_of_Sciences" title="Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences">Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences</a> in Prague (1833),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004353-300">[274]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Science,_Letters_and_Fine_Arts_of_Belgium" title="Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium">Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium</a> (1841/1845),<a href="#cite_note-301">[275]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Sciences_in_Uppsala" title="Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala">Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala</a> (1843),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004353-300">[274]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Irish_Academy" title="Royal Irish Academy">Royal Irish Academy</a> in Dublin (1843),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004353-300">[274]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Royal Institute of the Netherlands</a> (1845/ 1851),<a href="#cite_note-302">[276]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Royal_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences">Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences</a> in Madrid (1850),<a href="#cite_note-303">[277]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society" title="Russian Geographical Society">Russian Geographical Society</a> (1851),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004355-304">[278]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Austrian Academy of Sciences">Imperial Academy of Sciences</a> in Vienna (1848),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004355-304">[278]</a> the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> (1853),<a href="#cite_note-305">[279]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Cambridge Philosophical Society">Cambridge Philosophical Society</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004355-304">[278]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Koninklijke_Hollandsche_Maatschappij_der_Wetenschappen" title="Koninklijke Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen">Royal Hollandish Society of Sciences</a> in Haarlem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004351–355-306">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004359-307">[281]</a> Both the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kazan" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kazan">University of Kazan</a> and the Philosophy Faculty of the <a href="/wiki/Charles_University" title="Charles University">University of Prague</a> appointed him honorary member in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004351–355-306">[280]</a> Gauss received the <a href="/wiki/Lalande_Prize" title="Lalande Prize">Lalande Prize</a> from the French Academy of Science in 1809 for the theory of planets and the means of determining their orbits from only three observations,<a href="#cite_note-308">[282]</a> the Danish Academy of Science prize in 1823 for his memoir on conformal projection,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004353-300">[274]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> from the Royal Society in 1838 for "his inventions and mathematical researches in magnetism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004359-307">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> Gauss was appointed Knight of the French <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> in 1837,<a href="#cite_note-310">[284]</a> and was taken as one of the first members of the Prussian <a href="/wiki/Order_Pour_le_Merite#Civil_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Order Pour le Merite">Order Pour le Merite</a> (Civil class) when it was established in 1842.<a href="#cite_note-311">[285]</a> He received the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Crown_of_Westphalia" title="Order of the Crown of Westphalia">Order of the Crown of Westphalia</a> (1810),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004359-307">[281]</a> the Danish <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Dannebrog" title="Order of the Dannebrog">Order of the Dannebrog</a> (1817),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004359-307">[281]</a> the Hanoverian <a href="/wiki/Royal_Guelphic_Order" title="Royal Guelphic Order">Royal Guelphic Order</a> (1815),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004359-307">[281]</a> the Swedish <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Polar_Star" title="Order of the Polar Star">Order of the Polar Star</a> (1844),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004354-312">[286]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Henry_the_Lion" title="Order of Henry the Lion">Order of Henry the Lion</a> (1849),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004354-312">[286]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Maximilian_Order_for_Science_and_Art" title="Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art">Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art</a> (1853).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004355-304">[278]</a> The Kings of Hanover appointed him the honorary titles "<a href="/wiki/Hofrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hofrath">Hofrath</a>" (1816)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288-61">[51]</a> and "Geheimer Hofrath"<a href="#cite_note-313">[aa]</a> (1845). In 1949, on the occasion of his golden doctor degree jubilee, he got the <a href="/wiki/Honorary_citizenship" title="Honorary citizenship">honorary citizenship</a> of both towns of Brunswick and Göttingen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004355-304">[278]</a> Soon after his death a medal was issued by order of King <a href="/wiki/George_V_of_Hanover" title="George V of Hanover">George V of Hanover</a> with the back inscription dedicated "to the Prince of Mathematicians".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198286-314">[287]</a> The "Gauss-Gesellschaft Göttingen" ("Göttingen Gauss Society") was founded in 1964 for research on life and work of Carl Friedrich Gauss and related persons and edits the Mitteilungen der Gauss-Gesellschaft (Communications of the Gauss Society).<a href="#cite_note-315">[288]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names_and_commemorations">Names and commemorations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Names and commemorations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss">List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_writings">Selected writings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Selected writings">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics_and_astronomy">Mathematics and astronomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Mathematics and astronomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig,_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG/170px-Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG/255px-Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG/340px-Gau%C3%9F-Denkmal_-_Braunschweig%2C_Germany_-_DSC04436.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3535" data-file-height="5252" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Gauss in <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Brunswick</a> (1880), made by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Heinrich_Howaldt" title="Hermann Heinrich Howaldt">Hermann Heinrich Howaldt</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Schaper" title="Fritz Schaper">Fritz Schaper</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1799: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.469%2C%22y%22%3A0.692%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.422%7D">Demonstratio nova theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse</a> [New proof of the theorem that every integral algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree]. Helmstedt: C. G. Fleckeisen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demonstratio+nova+theorematis+omnem+functionem+algebraicam+rationalem+integram+unius+variabilis+in+factores+reales+primi+vel+secundi+gradus+resolvi+posse&rft.place=Helmstedt&rft.pub=C.+G.+Fleckeisen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.469%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.692%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.422%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (Doctoral thesis on the fundamental theorem of algebra, University of Helmstedt) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/732">Original book</a></li> <li>1816: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B37%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.498%2C%22y%22%3A0.444%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.657%7D">"Demonstratio nova altera theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 107–134.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Demonstratio+nova+altera+theorematis+omnem+functionem+algebraicam+rationalem+integram+unius+variabilis+in+factores+reales+primi+vel+secundi+gradus+resolvi+posse&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=107-134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B37%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.498%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.444%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.657%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0003_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B268%2C269%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a></li> <li>1816: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B63%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.471%2C%22y%22%3A0.444%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.657%7D">"Theorematis de resolubilitate functionum algebraicarum integrarum in factores reales demonstratio tertia"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 135–142.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theorematis+de+resolubilitate+functionum+algebraicarum+integrarum+in+factores+reales+demonstratio+tertia&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=135-142&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B63%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.471%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.444%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.657%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0003_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B296%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a></li> <li>1850: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B77%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.452%2C%22y%22%3A1.019%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.456%7D">"Beiträge zur Theorie der algebraischen Gleichungen"</a>. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 4: 34–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abhandlungen+der+K%C3%B6niglichen+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+zu+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Theorie+der+algebraischen+Gleichungen&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=34-35&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B77%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.452%252C%2522y%2522%253A1.019%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.456%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN250442582_0004?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B287%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (Lecture from 1849) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LoW4AAAAIAAJ/mode/2up">Die vier Gauss'schen Beweise für die Zerlegung ganzer algebraischer Funktionen in reelle Faktoren ersten und zweiten Grades. (1799–1849)</a> [The four Gaussian proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra]. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Netto" title="Eugen Netto">Netto</a>. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1890.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+vier+Gauss%27schen+Beweise+f%C3%BCr+die+Zerlegung+ganzer+algebraischer+Funktionen+in+reelle+Faktoren+ersten+und+zweiten+Grades.+%281799%E2%80%931849%29&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Engelmann&rft.date=1890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_LoW4AAAAIAAJ%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (German)</li></ul></li> <li>1800: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B77%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.406%2C%22y%22%3A0.752%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.381%7D">"Berechnung des Osterfestes"</a> [Calculation of Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 2: 121–130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monatliche+Correspondenz+zur+Bef%C3%B6rderung+der+Erd-+und+Himmelskunde&rft.atitle=Berechnung+des+Osterfestes&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=121-130&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B77%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.406%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.752%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.381%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/receive/jportal_jpvolume_00201970">Original</a></li> <li>1801: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235993352?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a>. Leipzig: Gerh. Fleischer jun.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disquisitiones+Arithmeticae&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Gerh.+Fleischer+jun.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235993352%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauss1986" class="citation book cs1">Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4939-7560-0#about-this-book">Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory</a>. Translated by Clarke, Arthur A. (2nd, corrected ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4939-7560-0">10.1007/978-1-4939-7560-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-96254-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-96254-2"><bdi>978-0-387-96254-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disquisitiones+Arithmeticae+%26+other+papers+on+number+theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd%2C+corrected&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4939-7560-0&rft.isbn=978-0-387-96254-2&rft.aulast=Gauss&rft.aufirst=Carl+Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4939-7560-0%23about-this-book&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (translated from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.154.3749.642.b">second German edition, Göttingen 1860</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>1802: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B84%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.406%2C%22y%22%3A0.752%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.381%7D">"Berechnung des jüdischen Osterfestes"</a> [Calculation of Jewish Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 5: 435–437.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monatliche+Correspondenz+zur+Bef%C3%B6rderung+der+Erd-+und+Himmelskunde&rft.atitle=Berechnung+des+j%C3%BCdischen+Osterfestes&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=435-437&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B84%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.406%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.752%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.381%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00237503/Monatlich_Correspondenz_130168688_5_1802_0444%20.tif">Original</a></li> <li>1804: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B110%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Über die Grenzen der geocentrischen Oerter der Planeten"</a> [On the limits of the geocentric places of the planets]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 10: 171–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monatliche+Correspondenz+zur+Bef%C3%B6rderung+der+Erd-+und+Himmelskunde&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Grenzen+der+geocentrischen+Oerter+der+Planeten&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=171-193&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B110%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00240854/Monatliche_Correspondenz_130168688_10_0175.tif">Original</a> (on the Zodiacus)</li> <li>1808: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23599524X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.545%2C%22y%22%3A0.469%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.622%7D">"Theorematis arithmetici demonstratio nova"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis. Comm. Math. 16: 69–74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis.+Comm.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theorematis+arithmetici+demonstratio+nova&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=69-74&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23599524X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.545%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.469%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.622%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0016_1NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B498%2C499%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (Introduces <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_lemma_(number_theory)" title="Gauss's lemma (number theory)">Gauss's lemma</a>, uses it in the third proof of quadratic reciprocity)</li> <li>1808: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B41%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.509%2C%22y%22%3A0.541%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.561%7D">Methodus peculiaris elevationem poli determinandi</a> (in Latin). Göttingen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methodus+peculiaris+elevationem+poli+determinandi&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B41%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.509%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.541%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.561%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1809: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236008730?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B7%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.453%2C%22y%22%3A0.658%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.507%7D">Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium</a> (in Latin). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes & Johann Heinrich Besser.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoria+motus+corporum+coelestium+in+sectionibus+conicis+solem+ambientium&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Friedrich+Perthes+%26+Johann+Heinrich+Besser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236008730%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B7%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.453%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.658%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.507%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=12217180">Original book</a> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryofmotionof00gausrich/">Theory of the Motion of Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Henry_Davis" title="Charles Henry Davis">Davis, Charles Henry</a>. Little, Brown & Co. 1857.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+the+Motion+of+Heavenly+Bodies+Moving+about+the+Sun+in+Conic+Sections&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+%26+Co.&rft.date=1857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofmotionof00gausrich%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li>1811: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.547%2C%22y%22%3A0.399%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.731%7D">"Disquisitio de elementis ellipticis Palladis ex oppositionibus annorum 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, 1807, 1808, 1809"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Math. 1: 1–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Math.&rft.atitle=Disquisitio+de+elementis+ellipticis+Palladis+ex+oppositionibus+annorum+1803%2C+1804%2C+1805%2C+1806%2C+1807%2C+1808%2C+1809&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.547%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.399%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.731%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0001_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B170%2C171%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1810) (Orbit of <a href="/wiki/2_Pallas" title="2 Pallas">Pallas</a>)</li> <li>1811: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23599524X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B13%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.425%2C%22y%22%3A0.693%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.896%7D">"Summatio quarundam serierum singularium"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 1: 1–40.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Summatio+quarundam+serierum+singularium&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-40&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23599524X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B13%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.425%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.693%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.896%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0001_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B194%2C195%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1808) (Determination of the sign of the <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_Gauss_sum" title="Quadratic Gauss sum">quadratic Gauss sum</a>, uses this to give the fourth proof of quadratic reciprocity)</li> <li>1813: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B131%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.603%2C%22y%22%3A0.4%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Disquisitiones generales circa seriem infinitam <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {\alpha \beta }{\gamma .1}}+{\mbox{etc.}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>α</mi> <mi>β</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mn>.1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mtext>etc.</mtext> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {\alpha \beta }{\gamma .1}}+{\mbox{etc.}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/912caf9c40c9797cbafa720e9dd8f78dca92c459" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:14.367ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {\alpha \beta }{\gamma .1}}+{\mbox{etc.}}}">"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Disquisitiones+generales+circa+seriem+infinitam+MATH+RENDER+ERROR&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=1-42&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B131%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.603%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.4%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0002_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B227%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.559%2C%22y%22%3A0.496%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.456%7D">Original</a> (from 1812, contains the <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_continued_fraction" title="Gauss's continued fraction">Gauss's continued fraction</a>)</li> <li>1816: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B171%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.516%2C%22y%22%3A0.761%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Methodus nova integralium valores per approximationem inveniendi"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 39–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Methodus+nova+integralium+valores+per+approximationem+inveniendi&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=39-76&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B171%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.516%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.761%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0003_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B200%2C201%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1814)</li> <li>1818: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23599524X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B51%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.462%2C%22y%22%3A0.326%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.896%7D">"Theorematis fundamentalis in doctrina de residuis quadraticis demonstrationes et ampliationes novae"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 3–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theorematis+fundamentalis+in+doctrina+de+residuis+quadraticis+demonstrationes+et+ampliationes+novae&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=3-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23599524X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B51%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.462%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.326%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.896%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0004_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B262%2C263%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1817) (Fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity)</li> <li>1818: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B339%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.531%2C%22y%22%3A0.592%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.609%7D">"Determinatio attractionis, quam in punctum positionis datae exerceret planeta, si eius massa per totamorbitam, ratione temporis, quo singulae partes describuntur, uniformiter esset dispertita"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 21–48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Determinatio+attractionis%2C+quam+in+punctum+positionis+datae+exerceret+planeta%2C+si+eius+massa+per+totamorbitam%2C+ratione+temporis%2C+quo+singulae+partes+describuntur%2C+uniformiter+esset+dispertita&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=21-48&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B339%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.531%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.592%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.609%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0004_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B281%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.499%2C%22y%22%3A0.677%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.434%7D">Original</a> (Only reference to the – mostly unpublished – work on the algorithm of the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic-geometric_mean" class="mw-redirect" title="Arithmetic-geometric mean">arithmetic-geometric mean</a>.)</li> <li>1823: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.47%2C%22y%22%3A0.4%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Prior"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 33–62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theoria+combinationis+observationum+erroribus+minimis+obnoxiae.+Pars+Prior&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=33-62&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.47%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.4%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0005_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B276%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1821)</li> <li>1823: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B31%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.433%2C%22y%22%3A0.4%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Posterior"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 63–90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theoria+combinationis+observationum+erroribus+minimis+obnoxiae.+Pars+Posterior&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=63-90&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B31%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.433%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.4%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0005_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B306%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.413%2C%22y%22%3A0.66%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.413%7D">Original</a></li> <li>1825: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B193%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.303%2C%22y%22%3A0.717%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.507%7D">"Allgemeine Auflösung der Aufgabe die Theile einer gegebnen Fläche auf einer andern gegebnen Fläche so abzubilden dass die Abbildung dem Abgebildeten in den kleinsten Theilen ähnlich wird"</a>. Astronomische Abhandlungen. 3. Altona.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomische+Abhandlungen&rft.atitle=Allgemeine+Aufl%C3%B6sung+der+Aufgabe+die+Theile+einer+gegebnen+Fl%C3%A4che+auf+einer+andern+gegebnen+Fl%C3%A4che+so+abzubilden+dass+die+Abbildung+dem+Abgebildeten+in+den+kleinsten+Theilen+%C3%A4hnlich+wird&rft.volume=3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B193%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.303%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.717%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.507%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (Prize winning essay from 1822 on conformal mapping)</li> <li>1828: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23601515X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B7%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.229%2C%22y%22%3A0.617%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.609%7D">Bestimmung des Breitenunterschiedes zwischen den Sternwarten von Göttingen und Altona durch Beobachtungen am Ramsdenschen Zenithsector</a> [Determination of the Difference in Latitude between the Observatories of Göttingen and Altona by Observations with Ramsden's Zenith sector] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. 1828.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bestimmung+des+Breitenunterschiedes+zwischen+den+Sternwarten+von+G%C3%B6ttingen+und+Altona+durch+Beobachtungen+am+Ramsdenschen+Zenithsector&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+und+Ruprecht&rft.date=1828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23601515X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B7%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.229%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.617%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.609%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tIg_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA04">Original book</a></li> <li>1828: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauss1828" class="citation journal cs1">Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B59%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.433%2C%22y%22%3A0.4%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Supplementum theoriae combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 57–98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1828stco.book.....G">1828stco.book.....G</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Supplementum+theoriae+combinationis+observationum+erroribus+minimis+obnoxiae&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=57-98&rft.date=1828&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1828stco.book.....G&rft.aulast=Gauss&rft.aufirst=Carl+Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B59%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.433%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.4%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (from 1826) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaussStewart1995" class="citation book cs1">Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Stewart, G. W. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://epubs.siam.org/doi/book/10.1137/1.9781611971248">Theory of the Combination of Observations Least Subject to Errors. Part One, Part Two, Supplement (Classics in Applied Mathematics)</a>. Translated by G. W. Stewart. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1137%2F1.9781611971248">10.1137/1.9781611971248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-347-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-347-3"><bdi>978-0-89871-347-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+the+Combination+of+Observations+Least+Subject+to+Errors.+Part+One%2C+Part+Two%2C+Supplement+%28Classics+in+Applied+Mathematics%29&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Society+for+Industrial+and+Applied+Mathematics&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2F1.9781611971248&rft.isbn=978-0-89871-347-3&rft.aulast=Gauss&rft.aufirst=Carl+Friedrich&rft.au=Stewart%2C+G.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepubs.siam.org%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1137%2F1.9781611971248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (Three essays concerning the calculation of probabilities as the basis of the Gaussian law of error propagation)</li></ul></li> <li>1828: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B221%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.398%2C%22y%22%3A0.479%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.609%7D">"Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 99–146.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Disquisitiones+generales+circa+superficies+curvas&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=99-146&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B221%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.398%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.479%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.609%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0006_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B312%2C313%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1827) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/36856/36856-pdf.pdf">General Investigations of Curved Surfaces</a> (PDF). Translated by J. C. Morehead and A. M. Hiltebeitel. The Princeton University Library. 1902.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Investigations+of+Curved+Surfaces&rft.pub=The+Princeton+University+Library&rft.date=1902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F36856%2F36856-pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li>1828: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23599524X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B69%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.365%2C%22y%22%3A0.646%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.747%7D">"Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio prima"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 27–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theoria+residuorum+biquadraticorum%2C+Commentatio+prima&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=27-56&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23599524X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B69%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.365%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.646%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.747%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0006_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B241%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1825)</li> <li>1832: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN23599524X?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B97%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.402%2C%22y%22%3A0.326%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.896%7D">"Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio secunda"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 7: 89–148.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theoria+residuorum+biquadraticorum%2C+Commentatio+secunda&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=89-148&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN23599524X%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B97%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.402%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.326%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.896%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0007_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B273%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1831) (Introduces the <a href="/wiki/Gaussian_integers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaussian integers">Gaussian integers</a>, states (without proof) the law of <a href="/wiki/Biquadratic_reciprocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biquadratic reciprocity">biquadratic reciprocity</a>, proves the supplementary law for 1 + i)</li> <li>1845: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B263%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.464%2C%22y%22%3A0.808%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Erste Abhandlung"</a>. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Zweiter Band, von den Jahren 1842–1844: 3–46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abhandlungen+der+K%C3%B6niglichen+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCber+Gegenst%C3%A4nde+der+H%C3%B6heren+Geod%C3%A4sie.+Erste+Abhandlung&rft.volume=Zweiter+Band%2C+von+den+Jahren+1842%E2%80%931844&rft.pages=3-46&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B263%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.464%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.808%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN250442582_0002">Original</a> (from 1843)</li> <li>1847: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236005081?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B305%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.384%2C%22y%22%3A0.733%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Zweite Abhandlung"</a>. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Dritter Band, von den Jahren 1845–1847: 3–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abhandlungen+der+K%C3%B6niglichen+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Untersuchungen+%C3%BCber+Gegenst%C3%A4nde+der+H%C3%B6heren+Geod%C3%A4sie.+Zweite+Abhandlung&rft.volume=Dritter+Band%2C+von+den+Jahren+1845%E2%80%931847&rft.pages=3-44&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236005081%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B305%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.384%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.733%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN250442582_0003">Original</a> (from 1846)</li> <li>1848: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauss1848" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gauss (1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236007467?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B198%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Schreiben des Herrn Geheimen Hofrathes Gauss an den Herausgeber"</a> [Letter of Mr. Secret Councillor of the Court Gauss to the editor]. <a href="/wiki/Astronomische_Nachrichten" title="Astronomische Nachrichten">Astronomische Nachrichten</a> (in German). 27: 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1848AN.....27....1G">1848AN.....27....1G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.18480270102">10.1002/asna.18480270102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomische+Nachrichten&rft.atitle=Schreiben+des+Herrn+Geheimen+Hofrathes+Gauss+an+den+Herausgeber&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=1848&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasna.18480270102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1848AN.....27....1G&rft.au=Gauss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236007467%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B198%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?journal=AN...&year=1848&volume=..27&letter=.&db_key=GEN&page_ind=4&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES">Original</a></li> <li>1903: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236018647?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B516%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.452%2C%22y%22%3A0.567%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.946%7D">Wissenschaftliches Tagebuch</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1903" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Klein, Felix, ed. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235181684_0057?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B8%2C9%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Gauß' wissenschaftliches Tagebuch 1796–1814"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mathematische_Annalen" title="Mathematische Annalen">Mathematische Annalen</a> (in Latin and German). 57: 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01449013">10.1007/BF01449013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119641638">119641638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematische+Annalen&rft.atitle=Gau%C3%9F%27+wissenschaftliches+Tagebuch+1796%E2%80%931814&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01449013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119641638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235181684_0057%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B8%252C9%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988">) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/DE-611-HS-3382323">Original book</a> (from 1847, on the Zodiacus) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_Gray1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Gray" title="Jeremy Gray">Jeremy Gray</a> (1984). "A commentary on Gauss's mathematical diary, 1796–1814". Expositiones Mathematicae. 2: 97–130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expositiones+Mathematicae&rft.atitle=A+commentary+on+Gauss%27s+mathematical+diary%2C+1796%E2%80%931814&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=97-130&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Jeremy+Gray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Physics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1804: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B503%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.468%2C%22y%22%3A0.479%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.609%7D">Fundamentalgleichungen für die Bewegung schwerer Körper auf der Erde</a> ( in original book: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenzenberg" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Benzenberg" title="Johann Benzenberg">Benzenberg, Johann Friedrich</a>. Versuche über das Gesetz des Falls, über den Widerstand der Luft und über die Umdrehung der Erde [Experiments on the Law of falling Bodies, on the Resistance of Air, and of the Rotation of the Earth]. Dortmund: Gebrüder Mallinckrodt. pp. 363–371.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Versuche+%C3%BCber+das+Gesetz+des+Falls%2C+%C3%BCber+den+Widerstand+der+Luft+und+%C3%BCber+die+Umdrehung+der+Erde&rft.place=Dortmund&rft.pages=363-371&rft.pub=Gebr%C3%BCder+Mallinckrodt&rft.aulast=Benzenberg&rft.aufirst=Johann+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10060427?page=392,393">Original</a>)</li> <li>1813: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B4%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.405%2C%22y%22%3A0.528%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.877%7D">"Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodo nova tractata"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores.+Comm.+Class.+Math.&rft.atitle=Theoria+attractionis+corporum+sphaeroidicorum+ellipticorum+homogeneorum+methodo+nova+tractata&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=1-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236006339%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B4%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.405%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.528%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.877%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0002_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B318%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.539%2C%22y%22%3A0.64%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.456%7D">Original</a> (contains <a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauss's theorem">Gauss's theorem</a> of vector analysis)</li> <li>1817: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hxigq8&seq=349">"Ueber die achromatischen Doppelobjective besonders in Rücksicht der vollkommnern Aufhebung der Farbenzerstreuung"</a> [On achromatic double lenses with special regard to a more complete dispersion of colours]. Zeitschrift für Astronomie und verwandte Wissenschaften (in German). IV: 345–351.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Astronomie+und+verwandte+Wissenschaften&rft.atitle=Ueber+die+achromatischen+Doppelobjective+besonders+in+R%C3%BCcksicht+der+vollkommnern+Aufhebung+der+Farbenzerstreuung&rft.volume=IV&rft.pages=345-351&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.hxigq8%26seq%3D349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1829: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448816">"Über ein neues allgemeines Grundgesetz der Mechanik"</a> [On a new General Fundamental Law of Mechanics]. Journal für die reine und angewandte Methematik. 1829 (4): 232–235. 1829. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcrll.1829.4.232">10.1515/crll.1829.4.232</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199545985">199545985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+f%C3%BCr+die+reine+und+angewandte+Methematik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+ein+neues+allgemeines+Grundgesetz+der+Mechanik&rft.volume=1829&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=232-235&rft.date=1829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcrll.1829.4.232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199545985%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1448816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1830: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B32%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.497%2C%22y%22%3A0.694%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.424%7D">"Principia generalia theoriae figurae fluidorum in statu aequilibrii"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 7: 39–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores&rft.atitle=Principia+generalia+theoriae+figurae+fluidorum+in+statu+aequilibrii&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=39-88&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236006339%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B32%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.497%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.694%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.424%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0007_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B223%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1829)</li> <li>1841: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B82%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.398%2C%22y%22%3A0.669%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam revocata"</a>. Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 8: 3–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Commentationes+Societatis+Regiae+Scientiarum+Gottingensis+Recentiores&rft.atitle=Intensitas+vis+magneticae+terrestris+ad+mensuram+absolutam+revocata&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=3-44&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236006339%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B82%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.398%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.669%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN35283028X_0008_2NS?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B198%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.569%2C%22y%22%3A0.65%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.449%7D">Original</a> (from 1832)<a href="#cite_note-316">[ab]</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://21sci-tech.com/translations/gaussMagnetic.pdf">The Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to Absolute Measurement.</a> Translated by Susan P. Johnson.</li></ul></li> <li>1836: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B320%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.412%2C%22y%22%3A0.459%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer</a> (Original book: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.C._Schumacher" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">H.C. Schumacher (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10538569?page=21">Jahrbuch für 1836</a> (in German). Vol. 1836. Tübingen: J.G.Cotta'sche Buchhandlung. pp. 1–47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jahrbuch+f%C3%BCr+1836&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=1-47&rft.pub=J.G.Cotta%27sche+Buchhandlung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitale-sammlungen.de%2Fde%2Fview%2Fbsb10538569%3Fpage%3D21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988">)</li> <li>1840: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B200%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.332%2C%22y%22%3A0.772%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte</a> (Original book: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/gauss_lehrsaetze_1840">Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte</a> [General Theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive Forces acting in reciprocal Proportions of quadratic Distances] (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. 1840.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allgemeine+Lehrs%C3%A4tze+in+Beziehung+auf+die+im+verkehrten+Verh%C3%A4ltnis+des+Quadrats+der+Entfernung+wirkenden+Anziehungs-+und+Absto%C3%9Fungskr%C3%A4fte&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Weidmannsche+Buchhandlung&rft.date=1840&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutschestextarchiv.de%2Fbook%2Fshow%2Fgauss_lehrsaetze_1840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1843: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236006339?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B248%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.417%2C%22y%22%3A0.824%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.731%7D">"Dioptrische Untersuchungen"</a> [Dioptrical Investigations]. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen (in German). Erster Band: 1–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abhandlungen+der+K%C3%B6niglichen+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Dioptrische+Untersuchungen&rft.volume=Erster+Band&rft.pages=1-34&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236006339%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B248%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.417%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.824%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.731%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN250442582_0001?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B548%2C549%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Original</a> (from 1840)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Together_with_Wilhelm_Weber">Together with Wilhelm Weber</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Together with Wilhelm Weber">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1837–1839: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101058086446&view=1up&seq=9">Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1836–1838</a> (in German). Göttingen: Dieterichsche Buchhandlung.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resultate+aus+den+Beobachtungen+des+magnetischen+Vereins+im+Jahre+1836%E2%80%931838&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Dieterichsche+Buchhandlung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101058086446%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1840–1843: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101058086396&view=1up&seq=199">Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1839–1841</a> (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resultate+aus+den+Beobachtungen+des+magnetischen+Vereins+im+Jahre+1839%E2%80%931841&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Weidmannsche+Verlagsbuchhandlung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101058086396%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li>1840: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101058086388&view=1up&seq=5">Atlas des Erdmagnetismus nach den Elementen der Theorie entworfen. Supplement zu den Resultaten aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins</a> (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+des+Erdmagnetismus+nach+den+Elementen+der+Theorie+entworfen.+Supplement+zu+den+Resultaten+aus+den+Beobachtungen+des+magnetischen+Vereins&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Weidmannsche+Verlagsbuchhandlung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnjp.32101058086388%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collected_works">Collected works</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Collected works">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKöniglich_Preußische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften1863–1933" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1863–1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235957348?tify=%7B%22view%22:%22toc%22%7D">Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke</a> (in Latin and German). Vol. 1–12. Göttingen: (diverse publishers).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=%28diverse+publishers%29&rft.date=1863%2F1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235957348%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522view%2522%3A%2522toc%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (includes unpublished literary estate)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence">Correspondence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Correspondence">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKöniglich_Preußische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften1880" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi00berlgoog/page/n5/mode/2up">Briefwechsel zwischen Gauss und Bessel</a> (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Gauss+und+Bessel&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Engelmann&rft.date=1880&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefwechselzwi00berlgoog%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from December 1804 to August 1844)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoenbergPerlick1955" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schoenberg, Erich; Perlick, Alfons (1955). Unbekannte Briefe von C. F. Gauß und Fr. W. Bessel. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Math.-nat. Klasse, Neue Folge, No. 71 (in German). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 5–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unbekannte+Briefe+von+C.+F.+Gau%C3%9F+und+Fr.+W.+Bessel&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Abhandlungen+der+Bayerischen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften%2C+Math.-nat.+Klasse%2C+Neue+Folge%2C+No.+71&rft.pages=5-21&rft.pub=Verlag+der+Bayerischen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Schoenberg&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft.au=Perlick%2C+Alfons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters to <a href="/wiki/Palm_Heinrich_Ludwig_von_Boguslawski" title="Palm Heinrich Ludwig von Boguslawski">Boguslawski</a> from February 1835 to January 1848)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwemin2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schwemin, Friedhelm, ed. (2014). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und <a href="/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bode" title="Johann Elert Bode">Johann Elert Bode</a>. Acta Historica Astronomica (in German). Vol. 53. Leipzig: Akademische Verlaganstalt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-944913-43-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-944913-43-8"><bdi>978-3-944913-43-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+Johann+Elert+Bode&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Acta+Historica+Astronomica&rft.pub=Akademische+Verlaganstalt&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-944913-43-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from February 1802 to October 1826)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranz_Schmidt1899" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Franz Schmidt, Paul Stäckel, ed. (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefwechselzwi00gausgoog/page/n4/mode/2up">Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Wolfgang Bolyai</a> (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+und+Wolfgang+Bolyai&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.date=1899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefwechselzwi00gausgoog%2Fpage%2Fn4%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from September 1797 to February 1853; added letters of other correspondents)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxel_Wittmann2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Axel Wittmann, ed. (2018). Obgleich und indeßen. Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und <a href="/wiki/Johann_Franz_Encke" title="Johann Franz Encke">Johann Franz Encke</a> (in German). Remagen: Verlag Kessel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3945941379" title="Special:BookSources/978-3945941379"><bdi>978-3945941379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Obgleich+und+inde%C3%9Fen.+Der+Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+und+Johann+Franz+Encke&rft.place=Remagen&rft.pub=Verlag+Kessel&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3945941379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClemens_Schaefer1927" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Clemens Schaefer, ed. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN335994989?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B5%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Christian Ludwig Gerling</a> (in German). Berlin: Otto Elsner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+und+Christian+Ludwig+Gerling&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Otto+Elsner&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN335994989%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B5%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Christian_Bruhns1877" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Bruhns" title="Karl Christian Bruhns">Karl Christian Bruhns</a>, ed. (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefezwischena00gausgoog/page/n5/mode/2up">Briefe zwischen A. v. Humboldt und Gauss</a> (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefe+zwischen+A.+v.+Humboldt+und+Gauss&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Engelmann&rft.date=1877&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefezwischena00gausgoog%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from July 1807 to December 1854; added letters of other correspondents)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReichRoussanova2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Karin_Reich" title="Karin Reich">Reich, Karin</a>; Roussanova, Elena (2018). <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kreil" title="Karl Kreil">Karl Kreil</a> und der Erdmagnetismus. Seine Korrespondenz mit Carl Friedrich Gauß im historischen Kontext. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Mathematik und Medizin, No. 68 (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karl+Kreil+und+der+Erdmagnetismus.+Seine+Korrespondenz+mit+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+im+historischen+Kontext&rft.place=Vienna&rft.series=Ver%C3%B6ffentlichungen+der+Kommission+f%C3%BCr+Geschichte+der+Naturwissenschaften%2C+Mathematik+und+Medizin%2C+No.+68&rft.pub=Verlag+der+%C3%96sterreichischen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Karin&rft.au=Roussanova%2C+Elena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from 1835 to 1843)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerardy1959" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gerardy, Theo, ed. (1959). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Lecoq" title="Karl Ludwig von Lecoq">Carl Ludwig von Lecoq</a>. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, No. 4 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 37–63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+Carl+Ludwig+von+Lecoq&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=Abhandlungen+der+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Mathematisch-Physikalische+Klasse%2C+No.+4&rft.pages=37-63&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from February 1799 to September 1800)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1971" class="citation journal cs1">Forbes, Eric G. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033797100203767">"The Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)"</a>. Annals of Science. 27 (3): 213–237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033797100203767">10.1080/00033797100203767</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Correspondence+between+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+and+the+Rev.+Nevil+Maskelyne+%281802%E2%80%9305%29&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=213-237&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033797100203767&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Eric+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00033797100203767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Cunningham" title="Clifford Cunningham">Cunningham, Clifford</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033790310001660164">"Discovery of the Missing Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)"</a>. Annals of Science. 61 (4): 469–481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033790310001660164">10.1080/00033790310001660164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+the+Missing+Correspondence+between+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+and+the+Rev.+Nevil+Maskelyne+%281802%E2%80%9305%29&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=469-481&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033790310001660164&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00033790310001660164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Schilling1900" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Carl Schilling, ed. (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/p1wilhelmolberss02olbeuoft/page/n5/mode/2up">Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Erste Abtheilung</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Olbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Olbers">Wilhelm Olbers</a>. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Olbers+und+Gauss%3A+Erste+Abtheilung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Wilhelm+Olbers.+Sein+Leben+und+seine+Werke.+Zweiter+Band&rft.pub=Julius+Springer&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fp1wilhelmolberss02olbeuoft%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from January 1802 to October 1819)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Schilling1909" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Carl Schilling, ed. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/p2wilhelmolberss02olbeuoft/page/n7/mode/2up">Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Zweite Abtheilung</a>. Wilhelm Olbers. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Olbers+und+Gauss%3A+Zweite+Abtheilung&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Wilhelm+Olbers.+Sein+Leben+und+seine+Werke.+Zweiter+Band&rft.pub=Julius+Springer&rft.date=1909&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fp2wilhelmolberss02olbeuoft%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from January 1820 to May 1839; added letters of other correspondents)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristian_August_Friedrich_Peters1860–1865" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Christian_August_Friedrich_Peters" title="Christian August Friedrich Peters">Christian August Friedrich Peters</a>, ed. (1860–1865). Briefwechsel zwischen C. F. Gauss und <a href="/wiki/H._C._Schumacher" class="mw-redirect" title="H. C. Schumacher">H. C. Schumacher</a> (in German). Altona: Gustav Esch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+C.+F.+Gauss+und+H.+C.+Schumacher&rft.place=Altona&rft.pub=Gustav+Esch&rft.date=1860%2F1865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aIRtAAAAMAAJ">Volumes 1+2</a> (letters from April 1808 to March 1836)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NDcDAAAAQAAJ">Volumes 3+4</a> (letters from March 1836 to April 1845)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jEDAAAAQAAJ">Volumes 5+6</a> (letters from April 1845 to November 1850)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoser1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poser, Hans, ed. (1987). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_August_Wilhelm_Zimmermann" class="mw-redirect" title="Eberhard August Wilhelm Zimmermann">Eberhard August Zimmermann</a>. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, Folge 3, No. 39 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3525821169" title="Special:BookSources/978-3525821169"><bdi>978-3525821169</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefwechsel+zwischen+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+Eberhard+August+Zimmermann&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=Abhandlungen+der+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Mathematisch-Physikalische+Klasse%2C+Folge+3%2C+No.+39&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3525821169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> (letters from 1795 to 1815)</li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities</a> provides a complete collection of the known letters from and to Carl Friedrich Gauss that is accessible online.<a href="#cite_note-Correspondence-38">[34]</a> The literary estate is kept and provided by the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_State_and_University_Library" title="Göttingen State and University Library">Göttingen State and University Library</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[289]</a> Written materials from Carl Friedrich Gauss and family members can also be found in the municipal archive of Brunswick.<a href="#cite_note-318">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> The Collegium Carolinum was a preceding institution of the <a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Braunschweig" title="Technical University of Braunschweig">Technical University of Braunschweig</a>, but at Gauss's time not equal to a university.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200417-7">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Once Gauss drew a lecture scene with professor Kästner producing errors in a simple calculation.<a href="#cite_note-Ullrich-11">[10]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> This error occurs for example in Marsden (1977).<a href="#cite_note-Marsden-19">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Gauss announced 195 lectures, 70 percent of them on astronomical, 15 percent on mathematical, 9 percent on geodetical, and 6 percent on physical subjects.<a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> The index of correspondence shows that Benjamin Gould was presumably the last correspondent who, on 13 February 1855, sent a letter to Gauss in his lifetime. It was an actual letter of farewell, but it is uncertain whether it reached the addressee just in time.<a href="#cite_note-Correspondence-38">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> After his death, a discourse on the perturbations of Pallas in French was found among his papers, probably as a contribution to a prize competition of the French Academy of Science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929211-41">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> The Theoria motus... was completed in the German language in 1806, but on request of the editor <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Perthes" title="Friedrich Christoph Perthes">Friedrich Christoph Perthes</a> Gauss translated it into Latin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200490-43">[37]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Both Gauss and Harding dropped only veiled hints on this personal problem in their correspondence. A letter to Schumacher indicates that Gauss tried to get rid of his colleague and searched for a new position for him outside of Göttingen, but without result. Apart from that, Charlotte Waldeck, Gauss's mother-in-law, pleaded with Olbers to try to provide Gauss with another position far from Göttingen.<a href="#cite_note-Küssner-49">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Gauss's first assistant was <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wolfgang_Benjamin_Goldschmidt" title="Carl Wolfgang Benjamin Goldschmidt">Benjamin Goldschmidt</a>, and his second <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Klinkerfues" title="Wilhelm Klinkerfues">Wilhelm Klinkerfues</a>, who later became one of his successors.<a href="#cite_note-Wittmann-36">[33]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bessel-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Bessel_57-0">^</a> Bessel never got a university education.<a href="#cite_note-55">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200476-56">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> On this journey he met the geodesist <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Rudolph_Hassler" title="Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler">Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler</a>, who was a scientific correspondent of Carl Friedrich Gauss.<a href="#cite_note-75">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004286-76">[66]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Following Bolyai's handwritten Hungarian text at the bottom, Gauss intentionally characterized Kästner with the added the wrong addition. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> The first book he loaned from the university library in 1795 was the novel <a href="/wiki/Clarissa_(novel)" title="Clarissa (novel)">Clarissa</a> from <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[101]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> The political background was the confusing situation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> with 39 nearly independent states, the sovereigns of three of them being Kings of other countries (Netherlands, Danmark, United Kingdom), whereas the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> extended widely over the frontiers of the Confederation. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Gauss told the story later in detail in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Franz_Encke" title="Johann Franz Encke">Encke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19224-138">[124]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Later, these transformations were given by Legendre in 1824 (3th order), Jacobi in 1829 (5th order), <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Adolf_Sohncke" title="Ludwig Adolf Sohncke">Sohncke</a> in 1837 (7th and other orders). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> In a letter to Bessel from 1828, Gauss commented: "Mr. Abel has [...] anticipated me, and relieves me of the effort [of publishing] in respect to one third of these matters ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193341-154">[138]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> This remark appears at article 335 of chapter 7 of Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801). </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> The unambiguous identification of a cosmic object as planet among the fixed stars requires at least two observations with interval. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Brendel (1929) thought this cipher to be insoluble, but actually decoding was very easy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendel1929206-181">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[164]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Lauenburg was the southernmost town of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Holstein" title="Duchy of Holstein">Duchy of Holstein</a>, that was held in personal union by the King of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> This Ramsden sector was loaned by the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Ordnance" title="Board of Ordnance">Board of Ordnance</a>, and had earlier been used by <a href="/wiki/William_Mudge" title="William Mudge">William Mudge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Principal_Triangulation_of_Great_Britain" title="Principal Triangulation of Great Britain">Principal Triangulation of Great Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192461-204">[183]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> The value from <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Johan_Walbeck" title="Henrik Johan Walbeck">Walbeck</a> (1820) of 1/302,78 was improved to 1/298.39; the calculation was done by Eduard Schmidt, private lecturer at Göttingen University.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalle192449-50-212">[190]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Hesemann also took a death mask from Gauss.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004324-46">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> A thunderstorm damaged the cable in 1845.<a href="#cite_note-Timm-264">[240]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> Some authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_J._Rotman" title="Joseph J. Rotman">Joseph J. Rotman</a>, question whether it ever happened.<a href="#cite_note-287">[262]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> literally translation: Secrete Councillor of the Court </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Gauss presented the text to the Göttingen Academy in December 1832, a preprint in Latin with a small number of copies appeared in 1833. It was soon translated and published in German and French. The complete text in Latin was published in 1841.<a href="#cite_note-Reich-254">[230]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxel_D._Wittmann2009" class="citation journal cs1">Axel D. Wittmann, Inna V. Oreshina (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gauss-gesellschaft-goettingen.de/mitteil.html#2009">"On Jensen's Paintings of C. F. Gauss"</a>. Mitteilungen der Gauss-Gesellschaft (46): 57–61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Gauss-Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=On+Jensen%27s+Paintings+of+C.+F.+Gauss&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=57-61&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Axel+D.+Wittmann&rft.aufirst=Inna+V.+Oreshina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gauss-gesellschaft-goettingen.de%2Fmitteil.html%232009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6vWCgAAQBAJ">Duden – Das Aussprachewörterbuch</a> [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. 2015 [1962]. pp. 246, 381, 391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-411-04067-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-411-04067-4"><bdi>978-3-411-04067-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Duden+%E2%80%93+Das+Aussprachew%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=246%2C+381%2C+391&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Dudenverlag&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-411-04067-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT6vWCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrechStockHirschfeldAnders2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E-1tr_oVkW4C&q=deutsches+ausspracheworterbuch">Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch</a> [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: W alter de Gruyter. pp. 402, 520, 529. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018202-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018202-6"><bdi>978-3-11-018202-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deutsches+Aussprachew%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=402%2C+520%2C+529&rft.pub=W+alter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018202-6&rft.aulast=Krech&rft.aufirst=Eva-Maria&rft.au=Stock%2C+Eberhard&rft.au=Hirschfeld%2C+Ursula&rft.au=Anders%2C+Lutz-Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE-1tr_oVkW4C%26q%3Ddeutsches%2Bausspracheworterbuch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorch1929" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Borch, Rudolf (1929). Ahnentafel des Mathematikers Carl Friedrich Gauß [Ancestors' Tabel of the mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss]. Ahnentafeln Berühmter Deutscher (in German). Vol. 1. Zentralstelle für Deutsche Personen- und Familiengeschichte. pp. 63–65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ahnentafel+des+Mathematikers+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F&rft.series=Ahnentafeln+Ber%C3%BChmter+Deutscher&rft.pages=63-65&rft.pub=Zentralstelle+f%C3%BCr+Deutsche+Personen-+und+Familiengeschichte&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Borch&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048–9-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington20048–9_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200417-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200417_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193310-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193310_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193310_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200414-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200414_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ullrich-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ullrich_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ullrich_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ullrich_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ullrich_11-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUllrich2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ullrich, Peter (2005). "Herkunft, Schul- und Studienzeit von Carl Friedrich Gauß". In Mittler, Elmar (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/2005/gausscd/html/Katalog.pdf">"Wie der Blitz einschlägt, hat sich das Räthsel gelöst" – Carl Friedrich Gauß in Göttingen</a> (PDF). Göttinger Bibliotheksschriften 30 (in German). Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 17–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Herkunft%2C+Schul-+und+Studienzeit+von+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=17-29&rft.pub=Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Ullrich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-scientificmonthly-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scientificmonthly_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scientificmonthly_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnington1927" class="citation journal cs1">Dunnington, Waldo (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080226020629/http://www.mathsong.com/cfgauss/Dunnington/1927/">"The Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Gauss"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Monthly" title="The Scientific Monthly">The Scientific Monthly</a>. 24 (5): 402–414. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927SciMo..24..402D">1927SciMo..24..402D</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/7912">7912</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathsong.com/cfgauss/Dunnington/1927/">the original</a> on 26 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Sesquicentennial+of+the+Birth+of+Gauss&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=402-414&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F7912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927SciMo..24..402D&rft.aulast=Dunnington&rft.aufirst=Waldo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathsong.com%2Fcfgauss%2FDunnington%2F1927%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> Also available at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gausschildren.org/genwiki/index.php?title=The_Sesquicentennial_of_the_Birth_of_Gauss">"The Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Gauss"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sesquicentennial+of+the+Birth+of+Gauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgausschildren.org%2Fgenwiki%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DThe_Sesquicentennial_of_the_Birth_of_Gauss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> Retrieved 23 February 2014. Comprehensive biographical article. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200424-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200424_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200424_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200426_15-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWattenberg1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Diedrich_Wattenberg" title="Diedrich Wattenberg">Wattenberg, Diedrich</a> (1994). Wilhelm Olbers im Briefwechsel mit Astronomen seiner Zeit (in German). Stuttgart: GNT – Verlag für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-928186-19-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-928186-19-1"><bdi>3-928186-19-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilhelm+Olbers+im+Briefwechsel+mit+Astronomen+seiner+Zeit&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=GNT+%E2%80%93+Verlag+f%C3%BCr+Geschichte+der+Naturwissenschaften+und+der+Technik&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=3-928186-19-1&rft.aulast=Wattenberg&rft.aufirst=Diedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200428-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200428_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200437-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200437_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-Marsden-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marsden_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marsden_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsden1977" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_G._Marsden" title="Brian G. Marsden">Marsden, Brian G.</a> (1 August 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JRASC..71..309M">"Carl Friedrich Gauss, Astronomer"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society_of_Canada" title="Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada">Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada</a>. 71: 309–323. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JRASC..71..309M">1977JRASC..71..309M</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-872X">0035-872X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society+of+Canada&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%2C+Astronomer&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=309-323&rft.date=1977-08-01&rft.issn=0035-872X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977JRASC..71..309M&rft.aulast=Marsden&rft.aufirst=Brian+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1977JRASC..71..309M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reich2000-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reich2000_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reich2000_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reich2000_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reich2000_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reich2000_21-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Reich, Karin (2000). "Gauß' Schüler". Mitteilungen der Gauß-Gesellschaft Göttingen (in German) (37): 33–62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Gau%C3%9F-Gesellschaft+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Gau%C3%9F%27+Sch%C3%BCler&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=33-62&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Karin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beuermann-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beuermann_22-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeuermann2005" class="citation book cs1">Beuermann, Klaus (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/32489/610361.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Carl Friedrich Gauß und die Göttinger Sternwarte"</a> (PDF). In Beuermann, Klaus (ed.). Grundsätze über die Anlage neuer Sternwarten unter Beziehung auf die Sternwarte der Universität Göttingen von Georg Heinrich Borheck. Göttingen: Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 37–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-938616-02-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-938616-02-4"><bdi>3-938616-02-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+die+G%C3%B6ttinger+Sternwarte&rft.btitle=Grunds%C3%A4tze+%C3%BCber+die+Anlage+neuer+Sternwarten+unter+Beziehung+auf+die+Sternwarte+der+Universit%C3%A4t+G%C3%B6ttingen+von+Georg+Heinrich+Borheck&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pages=37-45&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4tsverlag+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-938616-02-4&rft.aulast=Beuermann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F32489%2F610361.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichling1966" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Michling, Horst (1966). "Zum Projekt einer Gauß-Sternwarte in Braunschweig". 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Niedrsächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 131–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+sein+Wirken+als+Astronom&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=131-149&rft.pub=Niedrs%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Wittmann&rft.aufirst=Axel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Correspondence-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Correspondence_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Correspondence_38-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gauss.adw-goe.de/?locale-attribute=en">"The complete correspondence of Carl Friedrich Gauss"</a>. 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Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 745–746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thibaut%2C+Bernhard+Friedrich&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Allgemeine+Deutsche+Biographie&rft.pages=745-746&rft.pub=Duncker+%26+Humblot&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Cantor&rft.aufirst=Moritz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fde.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FADB%3AThibaut%2C_Bernhard_Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFolkerts1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Menso_Folkerts" title="Menso Folkerts">Folkerts, Menso</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/gnd100373267.html#ndbcontent">Mayer, Johann Tobias</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neue_Deutsche_Biographie" title="Neue Deutsche Biographie">Neue Deutsche Biographie</a> (in German). Vol. 16. Duncker & Humblot. p. 530.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mayer%2C+Johann+Tobias&rft.series=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie&rft.pages=530&rft.pub=Duncker+%26+Humblot&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Folkerts&rft.aufirst=Menso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fgnd100373267.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Küssner-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Küssner_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Küssner_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Küssner_49-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKüssner1978" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Küssner, Martha (1978). "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessels Beziehungen zu Göttingen und Erinnerungen an ihn". 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"C. F. Gauß und seine Söhne". Mitteilungen der Gauß-Gesellschaft Göttingen (in German) (3): 25–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Gau%C3%9F-Gesellschaft+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=C.+F.+Gau%C3%9F+und+seine+S%C3%B6hne&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=25-35&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Gerardy&rft.aufirst=Theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamel1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Hamel" title="Jürgen Hamel">Hamel, Jürgen</a> (1984). Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel. 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The Mathematical Association: 346–351. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3618130">10.2307/3618130</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3618130">3618130</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126102577">126102577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mathematical+Gazette&rft.atitle=Sophie+Germain%2C+or%2C+Was+Gauss+a+feminist%3F&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=470&rft.pages=346-351&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126102577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3618130%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3618130&rft.aulast=Mackinnon&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiermann1964" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Biermann, Kurt-R. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN243919689_0214_0215?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B25%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.434%2C%22y%22%3A0.442%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.661%7D">"Gotthold Eisenstein"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_f%C3%BCr_die_reine_und_angewandte_Mathematik" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik">Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik</a> (in German). 214: 19–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcrll.1964.214-215.19">10.1515/crll.1964.214-215.19</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+f%C3%BCr+die+reine+und+angewandte+Mathematik&rft.atitle=Gotthold+Eisenstein&rft.volume=214&rft.pages=19-30&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcrll.1964.214-215.19&rft.aulast=Biermann&rft.aufirst=Kurt-R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN243919689_0214_0215%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B25%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.434%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.442%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.661%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004195–200-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004195–200_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, pp. 195–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004288_61-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856104-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856104_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004237-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004237_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1860" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, Rudolf (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YqTH2HDXgqkC&q=%C3%9Cber+die+typischen+Verschiedenheiten+der+Windungen+der+Hemisph%C3%A4ren+und+%C3%BCber+die+Lehre+vom+Hirngewicht,+mit+besondrer+R%C3%BCcksicht+auf+die+Hirnbildung+intelligenter+M%C3%A4nner.+Vorstudie">Über die typischen Verschiedenheiten der Windungen der Hemisphären und über die Lehre vom Hirngewicht, mit besondrer Rücksicht auf die Hirnbildung intelligenter Männer. Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Morphologie und Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns als Seelenorgan, Vol. 1</a>. Göttingen: Dieterich.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%9Cber+die+typischen+Verschiedenheiten+der+Windungen+der+Hemisph%C3%A4ren+und+%C3%BCber+die+Lehre+vom+Hirngewicht%2C+mit+besondrer+R%C3%BCcksicht+auf+die+Hirnbildung+intelligenter+M%C3%A4nner.+Vorstudien+zu+einer+wissenschaftlichen+Morphologie+und+Physiologie+des+menschlichen+Gehirns+als+Seelenorgan%2C+Vol.+1&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Dieterich&rft.date=1860&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYqTH2HDXgqkC%26q%3D%25C3%259Cber%2Bdie%2Btypischen%2BVerschiedenheiten%2Bder%2BWindungen%2Bder%2BHemisph%25C3%25A4ren%2Bund%2B%25C3%25BCber%2Bdie%2BLehre%2Bvom%2BHirngewicht%2C%2Bmit%2Bbesondrer%2BR%25C3%25BCcksicht%2Bauf%2Bdie%2BHirnbildung%2Bintelligenter%2BM%25C3%25A4nner.%2BVorstudie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1862" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, Rudolf (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=czvfLAp94VsC&q=%C3%9Cber+den+Hirnbau+der+Mikrocephalen+mit+vergleichender+R%C3%BCcksicht+auf+den+Bau+des+Gehirns+der+normalen+Menschen+und+der+Quadrumanen.+Vorstudien+zu+einer+wissenschaftlichen+Morphologie+und+Physiologie+des+menschlichen+Gehirns+als+S">Über den Hirnbau der Mikrocephalen mit vergleichender Rücksicht auf den Bau des Gehirns der normalen Menschen und der Quadrumanen. Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Morphologie und Physiologie des menschlichen Gehirns als Seelenorgan, Vol. 2</a>. Göttingen: Dieterich.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%9Cber+den+Hirnbau+der+Mikrocephalen+mit+vergleichender+R%C3%BCcksicht+auf+den+Bau+des+Gehirns+der+normalen+Menschen+und+der+Quadrumanen.+Vorstudien+zu+einer+wissenschaftlichen+Morphologie+und+Physiologie+des+menschlichen+Gehirns+als+Seelenorgan%2C+Vol.+2&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Dieterich&rft.date=1862&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DczvfLAp94VsC%26q%3D%25C3%259Cber%2Bden%2BHirnbau%2Bder%2BMikrocephalen%2Bmit%2Bvergleichender%2BR%25C3%25BCcksicht%2Bauf%2Bden%2BBau%2Bdes%2BGehirns%2Bder%2Bnormalen%2BMenschen%2Bund%2Bder%2BQuadrumanen.%2BVorstudien%2Bzu%2Beiner%2Bwissenschaftlichen%2BMorphologie%2Bund%2BPhysiologie%2Bdes%2Bmenschlichen%2BGehirns%2Bals%2BS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner1864" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Wagner_(geographer)" title="Hermann Wagner (geographer)">Wagner, Hermann</a> (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ToAAAAAQAAJ&q=Maassbestimmungen+der+Oberfl%C3%A4che+des+grossen+Gehirns">Maassbestimmungen der Oberfläche des grossen Gehirns</a> [Measurements of the surface of the large brain] (in German). Cassel & Göttingen: Georg H. Wigand.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maassbestimmungen+der+Oberfl%C3%A4che+des+grossen+Gehirns&rft.place=Cassel+%26+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Georg+H.+Wigand&rft.date=1864&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ToAAAAAQAAJ%26q%3DMaassbestimmungen%2Bder%2BOberfl%25C3%25A4che%2Bdes%2Bgrossen%2BGehirns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweizerWittmannFrahm2014" class="citation journal cs1">Schweizer, Renate; Wittmann, Axel; <a href="/wiki/Jens_Frahm" title="Jens Frahm">Frahm, Jens</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawt296">"A rare anatomical variation newly identifies the brains of C.F. Gauss and C.H. Fuchs in a collection at the University of Göttingen"</a>. 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Niedrsächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 73–86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logarithmentafeln+%E2%80%93+Gau%C3%9F%27+%22t%C3%A4gliches+Arbeitsger%C3%A4th%22&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=73-86&rft.pub=Niedrs%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Karin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlthoenMcLaughlin1987" class="citation cs2">Althoen, Steven C.; McLaughlin, Renate (1987), "Gauss–Jordan reduction: a brief history", <a href="/wiki/American_Mathematical_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="American Mathematical Monthly">The American Mathematical Monthly</a>, 94 (2), Mathematical Association of America: 130–142, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2322413">10.2307/2322413</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9890">0002-9890</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2322413">2322413</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=Gauss%E2%80%93Jordan+reduction%3A+a+brief+history&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=130-142&rft.date=1987&rft.issn=0002-9890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2322413%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2322413&rft.aulast=Althoen&rft.aufirst=Steven+C.&rft.au=McLaughlin%2C+Renate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen19303-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaennchen19303_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaennchen1930">Maennchen 1930</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachmann19225-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachmann19225_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBachmann1922">Bachmann 1922</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197929-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein197929_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlein1979">Klein 1979</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004420–430-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004420–430_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, pp. 420–430. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185679-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185679_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-First-Class-99"><a href="#cite_ref-First-Class_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerbyshire2003" class="citation book cs1">Derbyshire, John (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primeobsessionbe00derb_0">Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics</a>. 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(1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faos%2F1176345451">"Gauss and the Invention of Least Squares"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Statistics" title="Annals of Statistics">Annals of Statistics</a>. 9 (3): 465–474. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faos%2F1176345451">10.1214/aos/1176345451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Statistics&rft.atitle=Gauss+and+the+Invention+of+Least+Squares&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=465-474&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2Faos%2F1176345451&rft.aulast=Stigler&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1214%252Faos%252F1176345451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856102-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen1856102_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185695-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185695_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185695_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen18568-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen18568_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198241-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWußing198241_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWußing1982">Wußing 1982</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004253-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004253_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gauss.adw-goe.de/handle/gauss/2086">"Letter from Carl Friedrich Gauss to Johanna Gauss, 23. October 1809"</a>. Der komplette Briefwechsel von Carl Friedrich Gauss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 23 October 1809. Retrieved 26 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Der+komplette+Briefwechsel+von+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&rft.atitle=Letter+from+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss+to+Johanna+Gauss%2C+23.+October+1809&rft.date=1809-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgauss.adw-goe.de%2Fhandle%2Fgauss%2F2086&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200494–95-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200494–95_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004206,_374-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004206,_374_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 206, 374. </li> <li id="cite_note-gausschildren-109"><a href="#cite_ref-gausschildren_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homepages.rootsweb.com/~schmblss/home/Letters/Gauss/1898-12-21.htm">"Letter: Charles Henry Gauss to Florian Cajori – 21 December 1898"</a>. Retrieved 25 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter%3A+Charles+Henry+Gauss+to+Florian+Cajori+%E2%80%93+21+December+1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.rootsweb.com%2F~schmblss%2Fhome%2FLetters%2FGauss%2F1898-12-21.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185671-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185671_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehfeldt2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Lehfeldt" title="Werner Lehfeldt">Lehfeldt, Werner</a> (2005). "Carl Friedrich Gauß' Beschäftigung mit der russischen Sprache". In Mittler, Elmar (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/2005/gausscd/html/Katalog.pdf">"Wie der Blitz einschlägt, hat sich das Räthsel gelöst" – Carl Friedrich Gauß in Göttingen</a> (PDF). Göttinger Bibliotheksschriften 30 (in German). Niedrsächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 302–310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F%27+Besch%C3%A4ftigung+mit+der+russischen+Sprache&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=302-310&rft.pub=Niedrs%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Lehfeldt&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004241-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004241_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Reich, Karin (2005). "Gauß' geistige Väter: nicht nur "summus Newton", sondern auch "summus Euler"". In Mittler, Elmar (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/2005/gausscd/html/Katalog.pdf">"Wie der Blitz einschlägt, hat sich das Räthsel gelöst" – Carl Friedrich Gauß in Göttingen</a> (PDF). Göttinger Bibliotheksschriften 30 (in German). Niedrsächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 105–115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gau%C3%9F%27+geistige+V%C3%A4ter%3A+nicht+nur+%22summus+Newton%22%2C+sondern+auch+%22summus+Euler%22&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=105-115&rft.pub=Niedrs%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=Karin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198280-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWußing198280_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWußing1982">Wußing 1982</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198281-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWußing198281_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWußing1982">Wußing 1982</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185694_117-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198279-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWußing198279_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWußing1982">Wußing 1982</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185697-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185697_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gauss.adw-goe.de/handle/gauss/731">"Letter from Carl Friedrich Gauss to Wilhelm Olbers, 3 September 1805"</a>. Der komplette Briefwechsel von Carl Friedrich Gauss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 23 October 1809. 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Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 53–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gau%C3%9F+%E2%80%93+der+geniale+Mathematiker&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=53-62&rft.pub=Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Denker&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Samuel+James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuhler-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stuhler_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuhler_134-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuhler_134-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuhler_134-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuhler2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Stuhler" title="Ulrich Stuhler">Stuhler, Ulrich</a> (2005). 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Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 62–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arithmetisch-geometrisches+Mittel+und+elliptische+Integrale%3A+Gau%C3%9F+und+die+komplexe+Analysis&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=62-72&rft.pub=Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Stuhler&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200444-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200444_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-Frei-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Frei_136-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrei2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Frei" title="Günther Frei">Frei, Günther</a> (2007). 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Cox">Cox, David A.</a> (January 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248675540">"The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean of Gauss"</a>. <a href="/wiki/L%27Enseignement_math%C3%A9matique" title="L'Enseignement mathématique">L'Enseignement mathématique</a>. 30 (2): 275–330.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Enseignement+math%C3%A9matique&rft.atitle=The+Arithmetic-Geometric+Mean+of+Gauss&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=275-330&rft.date=1984-01&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F248675540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Letter Gauss to Bessel from 18 December 1811, partly printed in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236010751?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B96%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.553%2C%22y%22%3A0.327%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.893%7D">Collected Works, Volume 8, pp. 90–92</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ranjan_Roy" title="Ranjan Roy">Roy, Ranjan</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.cambridge.org/97811087/09453/frontmatter/9781108709453_frontmatter.pdf">Series and Products in the Development of Mathematics</a> (PDF). Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108709378" title="Special:BookSources/9781108709378"><bdi>9781108709378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Series+and+Products+in+the+Development+of+Mathematics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=20-22&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781108709378&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Ranjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.cambridge.org%2F97811087%2F09453%2Ffrontmatter%2F9781108709453_frontmatter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933185–186-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933185–186_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, pp. 185–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193341-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger193341_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933101–106-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933101–106_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, pp. 101–106. </li> <li id="cite_note-Houzel-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Houzel_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouzel2007" class="citation book cs1">Houzel, Christian (2007). "Elliptic Functions and Arithmetic". In <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Goldstein" title="Catherine Goldstein">Goldstrein, Catherine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Schappacher" title="Norbert Schappacher">Schappacher, Norbert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Schwermer" title="Joachim Schwermer">Schwermer, Joachim</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-540-34720-0">The Shaping of Arithmetic after C. F. Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae</a>. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-34720-0">10.1007/978-3-540-34720-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20441-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20441-1"><bdi>978-3-540-20441-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elliptic+Functions+and+Arithmetic&rft.btitle=The+Shaping+of+Arithmetic+after+C.+F.+Gauss%27s+Disquisitiones+Arithmeticae&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg%2C+New+York&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-34720-0&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20441-1&rft.aulast=Houzel&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-34720-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Printed in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236010751?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B110%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Collected Works, Volume 8, p. 104</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933122–123-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933122–123_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–142-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–142_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, pp. 136–142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933142-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933142_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–154-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchlesinger1933136–154_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchlesinger1933">Schlesinger 1933</a>, pp. 136–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStäckel191790–91-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStäckel191790–91_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStäckel1917">Stäckel 1917</a>, pp. 90–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBühler1981103-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBühler1981103_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBühler1981">Bühler 1981</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGautschi1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gautschi" title="Walter Gautschi">Gautschi, Walter</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-0348-5452-8_6">"A Survey of Gauss-Christoffel Quadrature Formulae"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Paul_Butzer" title="Paul Butzer">Butzer, Paul B.</a>; Fehér, Franziska (eds.). E.B. Christoffel. The Influence of his Work on Mathematics and the Physical Science (1 ed.). Birkhäuser, Basel: Springer. pp. 72–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-0348-5452-8_6">10.1007/978-3-0348-5452-8_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0348-5452-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-0348-5452-8"><bdi>978-3-0348-5452-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Gauss-Christoffel+Quadrature+Formulae&rft.btitle=E.B.+Christoffel.+The+Influence+of+his+Work+on+Mathematics+and+the+Physical+Science&rft.place=Birkh%C3%A4user%2C+Basel&rft.pages=72-147&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-0348-5452-8_6&rft.isbn=978-3-0348-5452-8&rft.aulast=Gautschi&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-0348-5452-8_6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN335994989?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B316%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">Letter Gauss to Gerling from 26 December 1823</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYousef_Saad2019" class="citation arxiv cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yousef_Saad" title="Yousef Saad">Yousef Saad</a> (2 August 2019). "Iterative Methods for Linear Systems of Equations: A Brief Historical Journey". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.01083v1">1908.01083v1</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/math.HO">math.HO</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Iterative+Methods+for+Linear+Systems+of+Equations%3A+A+Brief+Historical+Journey&rft.date=2019-08-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1908.01083v1&rft.au=Yousef+Saad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooleyTukey1965" class="citation journal cs1">Cooley, James W.; Tukey, John W. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2003354">"An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_Computation" title="Mathematics of Computation">Mathematics of Computation</a>. 19 (90): 297–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2003354">10.2307/2003354</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2003354">2003354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematics+of+Computation&rft.atitle=An+algorithm+for+the+machine+calculation+of+complex+Fourier+series&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=90&rft.pages=297-301&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2003354&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2003354%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cooley&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft.au=Tukey%2C+John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2003354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauss1876" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gauss, C.F. (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235999628?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B273%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.524%2C%22y%22%3A0.333%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.856%7D">Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata</a> (in Latin). Göttingen: K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. pp. 265–327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoria+Interpolationis+Methodo+Nova+Tractata&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pages=265-327&rft.pub=K.+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+zu+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Gauss&rft.aufirst=C.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN235999628%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B273%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.524%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.333%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.856%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidemanJohnsonBurrus1984" class="citation journal cs1">Heideman, Michael T.; Johnson, Don H.; <a href="/wiki/C._Sidney_Burrus" title="C. Sidney Burrus">Burrus, C. Sidney</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cis.rit.edu/class/simg716/Gauss_History_FFT.pdf">"Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform"</a> (PDF). IEEE ASSP Magazine. 1 (4): 14–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMASSP.1984.1162257">10.1109/MASSP.1984.1162257</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10032502">10032502</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130319053449/http://www.cis.rit.edu/class/simg716/Gauss_History_FFT.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+ASSP+Magazine&rft.atitle=Gauss+and+the+history+of+the+fast+Fourier+transform&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=14-21&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMASSP.1984.1162257&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10032502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Heideman&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Don+H.&rft.au=Burrus%2C+C.+Sidney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cis.rit.edu%2Fclass%2Fsimg716%2FGauss_History_FFT.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaennchen193049–63-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaennchen193049–63_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaennchen1930">Maennchen 1930</a>, pp. 49–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-Olesko-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olesko_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olesko_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olesko_173-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olesko_173-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlesko2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Olesko" title="Kathryn Olesko">Olesko, Kathryn</a> (2005). 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Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 188–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+der+Erdmagnetismus&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=188-201&rft.pub=Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Rupke&rft.aufirst=Nicolaas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaaf1964115–127-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaaf1964115–127_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaaf1964">Schaaf 1964</a>, pp. 115–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein197921–23-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein197921–23_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein197921–23_259-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlein1979">Klein 1979</a>, pp. 21–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roussanova-260">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roussanova_260-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roussanova_260-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoussanova2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Roussanova, Elena (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hin-online.de/index.php/hin/article/view/155/282">"Russland ist seit jeher das gelobte Land für Magnetismus gewesen: Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Friedrich Gauß und die Erforschjung des Erdmagnetismus in Russland"</a>. Humboldt Im Netz (in German). 12 (22): 56–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humboldt+Im+Netz&rft.atitle=Russland+ist+seit+jeher+das+gelobte+Land+f%C3%BCr+Magnetismus+gewesen%3A+Alexander+von+Humboldt%2C+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+und+die+Erforschjung+des+Erdmagnetismus+in+Russland&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=56-83&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Roussanova&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hin-online.de%2Findex.php%2Fhin%2Farticle%2Fview%2F155%2F282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer192987-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer192987_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer19296-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer19296_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer19296_262-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929108-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929108_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-Timm-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Timm_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timm_264-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimm2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Timm, Arnulf (2005). "Der elektrische Telegraph von Gauß und Weber". In Mittler, Elmar (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/2005/gausscd/html/Katalog.pdf">"Wie der Blitz einschlägt, hat sich das Räthsel gelöst" – Carl Friedrich Gauß in Göttingen</a> (PDF). Göttinger Bibliotheksschriften 30 (in German). Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. pp. 169–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-930457-72-5"><bdi>3-930457-72-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Der+elektrische+Telegraph+von+Gau%C3%9F+und+Weber&rft.btitle=%22Wie+der+Blitz+einschl%C3%A4gt%2C+hat+sich+das+R%C3%A4thsel+gel%C3%B6st%22+%E2%80%93+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+in+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.series=G%C3%B6ttinger+Bibliotheksschriften+30&rft.pages=169-183&rft.pub=Nieders%C3%A4chsische+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-930457-72-5&rft.aulast=Timm&rft.aufirst=Arnulf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdoc.sub.gwdg.de%2Febook%2Fe%2F2005%2Fgausscd%2Fhtml%2FKatalog.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-RodríguezBarrio_GarcíaÁlvarez_Lires2010" class="citation book cs1">Martín-Rodríguez, Fernando; Barrio García, Gonzalo; Álvarez Lires, María (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5735309">"Technological archaeology: Technical description of the Gauss-Weber telegraph"</a>. 2010 Second Region 8 IEEE Conference on the History of Communications. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FHISTELCON.2010.5735309">10.1109/HISTELCON.2010.5735309</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11093%2F1859">11093/1859</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-7450-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-7450-9"><bdi>978-1-4244-7450-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2359293">2359293</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technological+archaeology%3A+Technical+description+of+the+Gauss-Weber+telegraph&rft.btitle=2010+Second+Region+8+IEEE+Conference+on+the+History+of+Communications&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11093%2F1859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2359293%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FHISTELCON.2010.5735309&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-7450-9&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn-Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft.au=Barrio+Garc%C3%ADa%2C+Gonzalo&rft.au=%C3%81lvarez+Lires%2C+Mar%C3%ADa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F5735309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Printed in the Collected Works, Volume 5, pp. 609–610. </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoche1990" class="citation book cs1">Roche, John J. (1990). "A critical study of the vector potential". In Roche, John (ed.). Physicists Look Back: Studies in the History of Physics. Bristol, New York: Adam Hilger. pp. 147–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85274-001-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85274-001-8"><bdi>0-85274-001-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+critical+study+of+the+vector+potential&rft.btitle=Physicists+Look+Back%3A+Studies+in+the+History+of+Physics&rft.place=Bristol%2C+New+York&rft.pages=147-149&rft.pub=Adam+Hilger&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-85274-001-8&rft.aulast=Roche&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929148–152-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929148–152_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, pp. 148–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332–40-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert193332–40_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, pp. 32–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929153–154-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929153–154_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, pp. 153–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929159–165-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929159–165_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, pp. 159–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004170-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004170_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hecht-275"><a href="#cite_ref-Hecht_275-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHecht1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hecht" title="Eugene Hecht">Hecht, Eugene</a> (1987). Optics. Addison Wesley. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11609-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-11609-0"><bdi>978-0-201-11609-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optics&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-201-11609-0&rft.aulast=Hecht&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bass-276"><a href="#cite_ref-Bass_276-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassDeCusatisEnochLakshminarayanan2009" class="citation book cs1">Bass, Michael; DeCusatis, Casimer; Enoch, Jay; Lakshminarayanan, Vasudevan (2009). Handbook of Optics. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 17.7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-149889-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-149889-0"><bdi>978-0-07-149889-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Optics&rft.pages=17.7&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-07-149889-0&rft.aulast=Bass&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=DeCusatis%2C+Casimer&rft.au=Enoch%2C+Jay&rft.au=Lakshminarayanan%2C+Vasudevan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostdiek-277"><a href="#cite_ref-Ostdiek_277-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstdiekBord2007" class="citation book cs1">Ostdiek, Vern J.; Bord, Donald J. (2007). Inquiry into Physics. Cengage Learning. p. 381. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-11943-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-11943-2"><bdi>978-0-495-11943-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inquiry+into+Physics&rft.pages=381&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-11943-2&rft.aulast=Ostdiek&rft.aufirst=Vern+J.&rft.au=Bord%2C+Donald+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929189–208-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaefer1929189–208_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchaefer1929">Schaefer 1929</a>, p. 189–208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert19333–11-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert19333–11_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, pp. 3–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193312-16-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert193312-16_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, p. 12-16. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiebert1998" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Siebert, Manfred (1998). "Das Foucault-Pendel von C. F. Gauß". Mitteilungen der Gauß-Gesellschaft Göttingen (in German). 35 (35): 49–52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998GGMit..35...49S">1998GGMit..35...49S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Gau%C3%9F-Gesellschaft+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Das+Foucault-Pendel+von+C.+F.+Gau%C3%9F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=49-52&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998GGMit..35...49S&rft.aulast=Siebert&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193316-26-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert193316-26_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, p. 16-26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeppert193359–60-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeppert193359–60_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeppert1933">Geppert 1933</a>, pp. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington200469–70-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington200469–70_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, pp. 69–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185611–13-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESartorius_von_Waltershausen185611–13_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856">Sartorius von Waltershausen 1856</a>, pp. 11–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-hayesreckoning-286"><a href="#cite_ref-hayesreckoning_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Hayes_(scientist)" title="Brian Hayes (scientist)">Hayes, Brian</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanscientist.org/article/gausss-day-of-reckoning">"Gauss's Day of Reckoning"</a>. American Scientist. 94 (3): 200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.59.200">10.1511/2006.59.200</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112140951/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.3483,y.0,no.,content.true,page.1,css.print/issue.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 30 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=Gauss%27s+Day+of+Reckoning&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=200&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2006.59.200&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Farticle%2Fgausss-day-of-reckoning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotman2006" class="citation book cs1">Rotman, Joseph J. (2006). A First Course in Abstract Algebra: with applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-186267-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-186267-7"><bdi>0-13-186267-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61309485">61309485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+First+Course+in+Abstract+Algebra%3A+with+applications&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=7-8&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61309485&rft.isbn=0-13-186267-7&rft.aulast=Rotman&rft.aufirst=Joseph+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004351-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004351_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 351. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adw-goe.de/mitglieder/?tx_find_find%5B__referrer%5D%5B%40extension%5D=Find&tx_find_find%5B__referrer%5D%5B%40controller%5D=Search&tx_find_find%5B__referrer%5D%5B%40action%5D=index&tx_find_find%5B__referrer%5D%5Barguments%5D=YToxOntzOjEwOiJjb250cm9sbGVyIjtzOjY6IlNlYXJjaCI7fQ%3D%3Db53126a3c4f75d5722ed8fcf2a020b56f6bfcf62&tx_find_find%5B__referrer%5D%5B%40request%5D=%7B%22%40extension%22%3A%22Find%22%2C%22%40controller%22%3A%22Search%22%2C%22%40action%22%3A%22index%22%7Da191c3ea4436cf01fca51b5985f59eeefe0305c1&tx_find_find%5B__trustedProperties%5D=%7B%22q%22%3A%7B%22default%22%3A1%7D%7Db6f34fb16399247fb46d6dfdf0edb66a94783c82&tx_find_find%5Bq%5D%5Bdefault%5D=Gauss#members-paginator-top">"Carl Friedrich Gauss"</a>. Niedersächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 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Académie des Sciences – Institut de France. Retrieved 7 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Les+membres+du+pass%C3%A9&rft.pub=Acad%C3%A9mie+des+Sciences+%E2%80%93+Institut+de+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academie-sciences.fr%2Fen%2FListe-des-membres-depuis-la-creation-de-l-Academie-des-sciences%2Fles-membres-du-passe-dont-le-nom-commence-par-g.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8223&pos=1">"Fellows"</a>. The Royal Society. Retrieved 7 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fellows&rft.pub=The+Royal+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalogues.royalsociety.org%2FCalmView%2FRecord.aspx%3Fsrc%3DCalmView.Persons%26id%3DNA8223%26pos%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbaw.de/die-akademie/akademie-historische-aspekte/mitglieder-historisch/historisches-mitglied-karl-friedrich-gauss-843">"Karl Friedrich Gauss"</a>. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 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Retrieved 7 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elenco+Cronologico+soci+stranieri&rft.pub=Accademia+nazionale+delle+scienze&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accademiaxl.it%2Faccademia%2Felenco-cronologico-soci-stranieri%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rse.org.uk/fellowship/past-fellows/">"Past Fellows"</a>. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. p. 345. 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Retrieved 7 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gauss%2C+Charles+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.pub=Archives+Nationales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.leonore.archives-nationales.culture.gouv.fr%2Fui%2Fnotice%2F157088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orden-pourlemerite.de/mitglieder/carl-friedrich-gau%C3%9F?m=2&u=4">"Carl Friedrich Gauss"</a>. Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste. Retrieved 7 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&rft.pub=Orden+pour+le+M%C3%A9rite+f%C3%BCr+Wissenschaften+und+K%C3%BCnste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orden-pourlemerite.de%2Fmitglieder%2Fcarl-friedrich-gau%25C3%259F%3Fm%3D2%26u%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004354-312">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004354_312-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnington2004354_312-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunnington2004">Dunnington 2004</a>, p. 354. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWußing198286-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWußing198286_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWußing1982">Wußing 1982</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gauss-gesellschaft-goettingen.de/gauss-e.htm">"Gauss-Gesellschaft e.V. (Gauss Society) Göttingen"</a>. Retrieved 4 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gauss-Gesellschaft+e.V.+%28Gauss+Society%29+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gauss-gesellschaft-goettingen.de%2Fgauss-e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohlfing2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rohlfing, Helmut (2003). "Das Erbe des Genies. Der Nachlass Carl Friedrich Gauß an der Niedersächsischen Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen". Mitteilungen der Gauß-Gesellschaft Göttingen (in German). 35 (40): 7–23. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998GGMit..35...49S">1998GGMit..35...49S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Gau%C3%9F-Gesellschaft+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.atitle=Das+Erbe+des+Genies.+Der+Nachlass+Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F+an+der+Nieders%C3%A4chsischen+Staats-+und+Universit%C3%A4tsbibliothek+G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=40&rft.pages=7-23&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998GGMit..35...49S&rft.aulast=Rohlfing&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stadtarchiv-braunschweig.findbuch.net/php/main.php#4720495820303231">"Familienarchiv Gauß"</a>. Signature: G IX 021. Stadtarchiv Braunschweig. Retrieved 25 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stadtarchiv+Braunschweig&rft.atitle=Familienarchiv+Gau%C3%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stadtarchiv-braunschweig.findbuch.net%2Fphp%2Fmain.php%234720495820303231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachmann1922" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gustav_Heinrich_Bachmann" title="Paul Gustav Heinrich Bachmann">Bachmann, Paul</a> (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B7%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.127%2C%22y%22%3A0.73%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.39%7D">"Über Gauss' zahlentheoretische Arbeiten"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Gauss%27+zahlentheoretische+Arbeiten&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Bachmann&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B7%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.127%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.73%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.39%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolza1921" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Bolza" title="Oskar Bolza">Bolza, Oskar</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B457%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22toc%22%7D">"Gauss und die Variationsrechnung"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 5).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gauss+und+die+Variationsrechnung&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Bolza&rft.aufirst=Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B457%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522toc%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrendel1929" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Brendel" title="Martin Brendel">Brendel, Martin</a> (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236059505?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B396%2C397%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Über die astronomischen Arbeiten von Gauss"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. XI, 2 (Abhandlung 3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+astronomischen+Arbeiten+von+Gauss&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Brendel&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236059505%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B396%252C397%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBühler1981" class="citation book cs1">Bühler, Walter Kaufmann (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ktruAAAAMAAJ">Gauss: A Biographical Study</a>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-10662-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-10662-5"><bdi>978-0-387-10662-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gauss%3A+A+Biographical+Study&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-387-10662-5&rft.aulast=B%C3%BChler&rft.aufirst=Walter+Kaufmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DktruAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnington2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._Waldo_Dunnington" title="G. Waldo Dunnington">Dunnington, G. Waldo</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4mwSrfxBSzkC">Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science</a>. The Mathematical Association of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-547-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-547-8"><bdi>978-0-88385-547-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53933110">53933110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%3A+Titan+of+Science&rft.pub=The+Mathematical+Association+of+America&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53933110&rft.isbn=978-0-88385-547-8&rft.aulast=Dunnington&rft.aufirst=G.+Waldo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4mwSrfxBSzkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> First edition: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science. A Study of his Life and Work. New York: Exposition Press. 1955.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%3A+Titan+of+Science.+A+Study+of+his+Life+and+Work&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Exposition+Press&rft.date=1955&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Gray" title="Jeremy Gray">Gray, Jeremy</a> (1955). "Introduction to Dunnington's "Gauss"". Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science. A Study of his Life and Work. New York: Exposition Press. pp. xix–xxvi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Dunnington%27s+%22Gauss%22&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%3A+Titan+of+Science.+A+Study+of+his+Life+and+Work&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xix-xxvi&rft.pub=Exposition+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> With a critical view on Dunnington's style and appraisals</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalle1924" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Galle, Andreas (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236059505?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B7%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Über die geodätischen Arbeiten von Gauss"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. XI, 2 (Abhandlung 1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+geod%C3%A4tischen+Arbeiten+von+Gauss&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Galle&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236059505%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B7%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeppert1933" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Geppert, Harald (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B635%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.506%2C%22y%22%3A0.4%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.73%7D">"Über Gauss' Arbeiten zur Mechanik und Potentialtheorie"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 7).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Gauss%27+Arbeiten+zur+Mechanik+und+Potentialtheorie&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Geppert&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B635%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.506%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.4%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.73%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1894" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Felix (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesonmathem00klei/page/n108/mode/2up">"The Development of Mathematics at the German Universities"</a>. Lectures on Mathematics. New York, London: Macmillan and Co. pp. 99–101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Mathematics+at+the+German+Universities&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Mathematics&rft.place=New+York%2C+London&rft.pages=99-101&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flecturesonmathem00klei%2Fpage%2Fn108%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Klein, Felix</a> (1979) [1926]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN375425993">Vorlesungen über die Entwicklung der Mathematik im 19. Jahrhundert. Teil 1</a> [Lectures on the Development of Mathematics in the 19th Century]. Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften 24 (in German). Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-09234-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-09234-X"><bdi>3-540-09234-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vorlesungen+%C3%BCber+die+Entwicklung+der+Mathematik+im+19.+Jahrhundert.+Teil+1&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg%2C+New+York&rft.series=Grundlehren+der+mathematischen+Wissenschaften+24&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=3-540-09234-X&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN375425993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaennchen1930" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maennchen, Philipp (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B555%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.127%2C%22y%22%3A0.73%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.38%7D">"Gauss als Zahlenrechner"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 6).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gauss+als+Zahlenrechner&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Maennchen&rft.aufirst=Philipp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B555%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.127%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.73%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.38%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Hara1983" class="citation journal cs1">O'Hara, James Gabriel (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsnr.1983.0002">"Gauss and the Royal Society: The Reception of his Ideas on Magnetism in Britain"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Notes_and_Records_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Notes and Records of the Royal Society">Notes and Records of the Royal Society</a>. 38 (1): 17–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1983.0002">10.1098/rsnr.1983.0002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Gauss+and+the+Royal+Society%3A+The+Reception+of+his+Ideas+on+Magnetism+in+Britain&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-78&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.1983.0002&rft.aulast=O%27Hara&rft.aufirst=James+Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.1983.0002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrowski1920" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ostrowski" title="Alexander Ostrowski">Ostrowski, Alexander</a> (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B309%5D%2C%22pan%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A0.203%2C%22y%22%3A0.554%7D%2C%22view%22%3A%22toc%22%2C%22zoom%22%3A0.462%7D">"Über den ersten und vierten Gaussschen Beweis des Fundamentalsatzes der Algebra"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+den+ersten+und+vierten+Gaussschen+Beweis+des+Fundamentalsatzes+der+Algebra&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Ostrowski&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B309%255D%252C%2522pan%2522%253A%257B%2522x%2522%253A0.203%252C%2522y%2522%253A0.554%257D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522toc%2522%252C%2522zoom%2522%253A0.462%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sartorius_von_Waltershausen" title="Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen">Sartorius von Waltershausen, Wolfgang</a> (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_h_Q5AAAAcAAJ/page/n4/mode/1up">Gauss zum Gedächtniss</a> (in German). S. Hirzel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gauss+zum+Ged%C3%A4chtniss&rft.pub=S.+Hirzel&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Sartorius+von+Waltershausen&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_h_Q5AAAAcAAJ%2Fpage%2Fn4%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia600405.us.archive.org/20/items/gaussmemorial00walt/gaussmemorial00walt.pdf">Carl Friedrich Gauss. A Memorial</a> (PDF). Translated by Helen Worthington Gauss. Colorado Springs. 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+A+Memorial&rft.place=Colorado+Springs&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fia600405.us.archive.org%2F20%2Fitems%2Fgaussmemorial00walt%2Fgaussmemorial00walt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaaf1964" class="citation book cs1">Schaaf, William L. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/carlfriedrichgau0000unse">Carl Friedrich Gauss: Prince of Mathematicians</a>. New York: Franklin Watts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%3A+Prince+of+Mathematicians&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Franklin+Watts&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Schaaf&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcarlfriedrichgau0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer1929" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schaefer, Clemens (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236059505?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B176%2C177%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Über Gauss' physikalische Arbeiten"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. XI, 2 (Abhandlung 2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Gauss%27+physikalische+Arbeiten&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Clemens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236059505%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B176%252C177%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger1933" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Schlesinger" title="Ludwig Schlesinger">Schlesinger, Ludwig</a> (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B85%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D">"Über Gauss' Arbeiten zur Funktionentheorie"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Gauss%27+Arbeiten+zur+Funktionentheorie&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Schlesinger&rft.aufirst=Ludwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B85%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522info%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStäckel1917" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Paul_St%C3%A4ckel" title="Paul Stäckel">Stäckel, Paul</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN236019856?tify=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B331%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22toc%22%7D">"Gauss als Geometer"</a>. In Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in German). Vol. X, 2 (Abhandlung 4).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gauss+als+Geometer&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss.+Werke&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=St%C3%A4ckel&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fid%2FPPN236019856%3Ftify%3D%257B%2522pages%2522%253A%255B331%255D%252C%2522view%2522%253A%2522toc%2522%257D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuloff1964" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Stuloff, Nikolai (1964). <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Historische Kommmission der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/gnd104234644.html#ndbcontent">Gauß, Carl Friedrich</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neue_Deutsche_Biographie" title="Neue Deutsche Biographie">Neue Deutsche Biographie</a> (in German). Vol. 6. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 101–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-428-00187-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-428-00187-7"><bdi>3-428-00187-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gau%C3%9F%2C+Carl+Friedrich&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Neue+Deutsche+Biographie&rft.pages=101-107&rft.pub=Duncker+%26+Humblot&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=3-428-00187-7&rft.aulast=Stuloff&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-biographie.de%2Fgnd104234644.html%23ndbcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWußing1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wu%C3%9Fing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wußing">Wußing, Hans</a> (1982). Carl Friedrich Gauß (in German) (4 ed.). Leipzig: BSB B. G. Teubner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=BSB+B.+G.+Teubner&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Wu%C3%9Fing&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerzbachBoyer2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Uta_Merzbach" title="Uta Merzbach">Merzbach, Uta C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer" title="Carl Benjamin Boyer">Boyer, Carl B.</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ">A History of Mathematics</a> (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470630563" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470630563"><bdi>978-0470630563</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0470630563&rft.aulast=Merzbach&rft.aufirst=Uta+C.&rft.au=Boyer%2C+Carl+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbR9HAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tord_Hall" title="Tord Hall">Hall, Tord</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/carlfriedrichgau00tord">Carl Friedrich Gauss: A Biography</a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08040-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08040-8"><bdi>978-0-262-08040-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185662235">185662235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185662235&rft.isbn=978-0-262-08040-8&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Tord&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcarlfriedrichgau00tord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahin2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Nahin" title="Paul J. Nahin">Nahin, Paul J.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OPyPwaElDvUC&pg=PA82">An Imaginary Tale: The Story of √-1</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9_78-1-4008-3389-4" title="Special:BookSources/9 78-1-4008-3389-4"><bdi>9 78-1-4008-3389-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imaginary+Tale%3A+The+Story+of+%E2%88%9A-1&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-3389-4&rft.aulast=Nahin&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOPyPwaElDvUC%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons1996" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, J. (1996). The Giant Book of Scientists: The 100 Greatest Minds of All Time. Sydney: The Book Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Giant+Book+of+Scientists%3A+The+100+Greatest+Minds+of+All+Time&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pub=The+Book+Company&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTent2006" class="citation book cs1">Tent, Margaret (2006). The Prince of Mathematics: Carl Friedrich Gauss. A. K. Peters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56881-455-1"><bdi>978-1-56881-455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prince+of+Mathematics%3A+Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&rft.pub=A.+K.+Peters&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-56881-455-1&rft.aulast=Tent&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fictional">Fictional</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Fictional">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehlmann2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kehlmann" title="Daniel Kehlmann">Kehlmann, Daniel</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Measuring_the_World" title="Measuring the World">Die Vermessung der Welt</a> (in German). Rowohlt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-498-03528-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-498-03528-0"><bdi>978-3-498-03528-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/144590801">144590801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Vermessung+der+Welt&rft.pub=Rowohlt&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F144590801&rft.isbn=978-3-498-03528-0&rft.aulast=Kehlmann&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehlmann2006" class="citation book cs1">Kehlmann, Daniel (2006). <a href="/wiki/Measuring_the_World" title="Measuring the World">Measuring the World</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Carol_Brown_Janeway" title="Carol Brown Janeway">Janeway, Carol Brown</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+World&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Kehlmann&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 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</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Carl Friedrich Gauss <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Carl Friedrich Gauss <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20Friedrich%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20C%2E%20F%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22C%2E%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20Friedrich%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20C%2E%20F%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20C%2E%20Friedrich%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Carl%20Friedrich%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Carl%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22C%2E%20F%2E%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20Friedrich%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%20F%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Carl%20Gauss%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gauss%2C%20Carl%22%29%20OR%20%28%221777-1855%22%20AND%20Gauss%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?db_key=AST&db_key=PRE&qform=AST&arxiv_sel=astro-ph&arxiv_sel=cond-mat&arxiv_sel=cs&arxiv_sel=gr-qc&arxiv_sel=hep-ex&arxiv_sel=hep-lat&arxiv_sel=hep-ph&arxiv_sel=hep-th&arxiv_sel=math&arxiv_sel=math-ph&arxiv_sel=nlin&arxiv_sel=nucl-ex&arxiv_sel=nucl-th&arxiv_sel=physics&arxiv_sel=quant-ph&arxiv_sel=q-bio&sim_query=YES&ned_query=YES&adsobj_query=YES&aut_logic=OR&obj_logic=OR&author=Gauss%0D%0AGau%C3%9F&object=&start_mon=&start_year=&end_mon=12&end_year=1965&ttl_logic=OR&title=&txt_logic=OR&text=&nr_to_return=200&start_nr=1&jou_pick=ALL&ref_stems=&data_and=ALL&group_and=ALL&start_entry_day=&start_entry_mon=&start_entry_year=&end_entry_day=&end_entry_mon=&end_entry_year=&min_score=&sort=SCORE&data_type=SHORT&aut_syn=YES&ttl_syn=YES&txt_syn=YES&aut_wt=1.0&obj_wt=1.0&ttl_wt=0.3&txt_wt=3.0&aut_wgt=YES&obj_wgt=YES&ttl_wgt=YES&txt_wgt=YES&ttl_sco=YES&txt_sco=YES&version=1">Publications of C. F. Gauss</a> in <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics_Data_System" title="Astrophysics Data System">Astrophysics Data System</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0016//0000080.000.html">"Obituary"</a>. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 16 (80). 1856. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Obituary&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=80&rft.date=1856&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2F%2Ffull%2Fseri%2FMNRAS%2F0016%2F%2F0000080.000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ss0lf">"Carl Friedrich Gauss"</a>. BBC 4. A Brief History of Mathematics. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+4&rft.atitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00ss0lf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://american_almanac.tripod.com/gauss.htm">"Mind Over Mathematics: How Gauss Determined The Date of His Birth"</a>. american_almanac.tripod.com. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=american_almanac.tripod.com&rft.atitle=Mind+Over+Mathematics%3A+How+Gauss+Determined+The+Date+of+His+Birth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famerican_almanac.tripod.com%2Fgauss.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathoverflow.net/questions/370190/how-did-gauss-characterize-the-metrical-relations-in-the-uniform-4-4-4-tiling">"On Gauss' tesselation of the unit disk"</a>. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Gauss%27+tesselation+of+the+unit+disk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathoverflow.net%2Fquestions%2F370190%2Fhow-did-gauss-characterize-the-metrical-relations-in-the-uniform-4-4-4-tiling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/62596.html">"Carl Friedrich Gauß"</a>. Göttingen University. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carl+Friedrich+Gau%C3%9F&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-goettingen.de%2Fen%2F62596.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100528042818/http://www.coloradocollege.edu/library/SpecialCollections/CenturyChest/transcription24.html">"Descendants of Gauss"</a>. www.coloradocollege.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coloradocollege.edu/library/SpecialCollections/CenturyChest/transcription24.html">the original</a> on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.coloradocollege.edu&rft.atitle=Descendants+of+Gauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coloradocollege.edu%2Flibrary%2FSpecialCollections%2FCenturyChest%2Ftranscription24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gausschildren.org/cfgauss/cfgauss.htm">"Gauss"</a>. www.gausschildren.org. Retrieved 8 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gausschildren.org&rft.atitle=Gauss&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gausschildren.org%2Fcfgauss%2Fcfgauss.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarl+Friedrich+Gauss" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://denkmalatlas.niedersachsen.de/viewer/themen/Gauss-Steine/">Carl Friedrich Gauss – Spuren seines Lebens</a> (Places used as points for triangulation)</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Template talk:Carl Friedrich Gauss"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carl Friedrich Gauss"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_composition_law" title="Gauss composition law">Gauss composition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_map" title="Gauss map">Gauss map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_notation" title="Gauss notation">Gauss notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_method" title="Gauss's method">Gauss's method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_brackets" title="Gaussian brackets">Gaussian brackets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_curvature" title="Gaussian curvature">Gaussian curvature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_period" title="Gaussian period">Gaussian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_surface" title="Gaussian surface">Gaussian surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_units" title="Gaussian units">Gaussian units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_gravity" title="Gauss's law for gravity">Gauss's law for gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law" title="Gauss's law">Gauss's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_magnetism" title="Gauss's law for magnetism">Gauss's law for magnetism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1801%E2%80%931850" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1801–1850"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1801%E2%80%931850" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1801–1850"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1801%E2%80%931850" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1801–1850"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1801–1850)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1801–1850)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astley_Cooper" title="Astley Cooper">Astley Cooper</a> (1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chenevix_(chemist)" title="Richard Chenevix (chemist)">Richard Chenevix</a> (1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smithson_Tennant" title="Smithson Tennant">Smithson Tennant</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1805)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Andrew_Knight" title="Thomas Andrew Knight">Thomas Andrew Knight</a> (1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everard_Home" title="Everard Home">Everard Home</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_(chemist)" title="William Henry (chemist)">William Henry</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Troughton" title="Edward Troughton">Edward Troughton</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Thomas_Brande" title="William Thomas Brande">William Thomas Brande</a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ivory_(mathematician)" title="James Ivory (mathematician)">James Ivory</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brewster" title="David Brewster">David Brewster</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kater" title="Henry Kater">Henry Kater</a> (1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Seppings" title="Robert Seppings">Robert Seppings</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a> (1822)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pond" title="John Pond">John Pond</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brinkley_(astronomer)" title="John Brinkley (astronomer)">John Brinkley</a> (1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Arago" title="François Arago">François Arago</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Barlow_(mathematician)" title="Peter Barlow (mathematician)">Peter Barlow</a> (1825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_South" title="James South">James South</a> (1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Foster_(scientist)" title="Henry Foster (scientist)">Henry Foster</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Siméon Denis Poisson</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Antonio_Amedeo_Plana" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana">Giovanni Antonio Amedeo Plana</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Snow_Harris" title="William Snow Harris">William Snow Harris</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Francis_Kiernan" title="Francis Kiernan">Francis Kiernan</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_C%C3%A9sar_Becquerel" title="Antoine César Becquerel">Antoine César Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Frederic_Daniell" title="John Frederic Daniell">John Frederic Daniell</a> (1837)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Sturm" title="Jacques Charles François Sturm">Jacques Charles François Sturm</a> (1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_MacCullagh" title="James MacCullagh">James MacCullagh</a> (1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas" title="Jean-Baptiste Dumas">Jean-Baptiste Dumas</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Matteucci" title="Carlo Matteucci">Carlo Matteucci</a> (1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> (1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Urbain Le Verrier</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Couch_Adams" title="John Couch Adams">John Couch Adams</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Murchison" title="Roderick Murchison">Roderick Murchison</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Andreas_Hansen" title="Peter Andreas Hansen">Peter Andreas Hansen</a> (1850)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scientists whose names are used as units</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI derived units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Celsius" title="Anders Celsius">Anders Celsius</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Harold_Gray" title="Louis Harold Gray">Louis Harold Gray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Maximilian_Sievert" title="Rolf Maximilian Sievert">Rolf Maximilian Sievert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-SI metric (<a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">cgs</a>) units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Jonas_%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" title="Anders Jonas Ångström">Anders Jonas Ångström</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Debye" title="Debye">debye</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eotvos_(unit)" title="Eotvos (unit)">eotvos</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kayser" title="Heinrich Kayser">Heinrich Kayser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lambert_(unit)" title="Lambert (unit)">lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langley" title="Samuel Langley">Samuel Langley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Langley_(unit)" title="Langley (unit)">langley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_L%C3%A9onard_Marie_Poiseuille" title="Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille">Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes (unit)">stokes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rayl" title="Rayl">rayl</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_customary_units" title="United States customary units">US customary</a> units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit" title="Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit">Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foot-lambert" title="Foot-lambert">foot-lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquorn Rankine">William John Macquorn Rankine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">degree Rankine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bel_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel (unit)">bel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday (unit)">faraday</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Mache" title="Heinrich Mache">Heinrich Mache</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mache_(unit)" title="Mache (unit)">Mache</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">degree Réaumur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_(unit)" title="Thomson (unit)">thomson</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torr" title="Torr">torr</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as units</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">People whose names are used in chemical element names</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6722#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6722#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6722#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121257962">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/29534259">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/33472/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJj8X4HK3xr7Ttcy8rr6rq">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/104234644">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79038533">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11904373v">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11904373v">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00440637">Japan</a></li><li>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV034086">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36346691">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19990002581&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1059229">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/512934">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070492824">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90061367">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000096135&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000286491&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000135943">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=139208">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201618172">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/42gjjlkn3jvj7jk">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810543110005606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/6527">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007261530005171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058512858106706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14779316">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00502483?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=18231">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=56945560400">Scopus</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:gauss.carl-friedrich">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/71920">MathSciNet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/437356">RKD Artists</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1249373">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd104234644.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/104234644">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027475115">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&oldid=1258503790">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Gauss&oldid=1258503790</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Category:Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1777_births" title="Category:1777 births">1777 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1855_deaths" title="Category:1855 deaths">1855 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th-century_German_astronomers" title="Category:18th-century German astronomers">18th-century German astronomers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th-century_German_mathematicians" title="Category:18th-century German mathematicians">18th-century German mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th-century_German_physicists" title="Category:18th-century German physicists">18th-century German physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_astronomers" title="Category:19th-century German astronomers">19th-century German astronomers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_mathematicians" title="Category:19th-century German mathematicians">19th-century German mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_physicists" title="Category:19th-century German physicists">19th-century German physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen_alumni" title="Category:University of Göttingen alumni">University of Göttingen alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:University_of_Helmstedt_alumni" title="Category:University of Helmstedt alumni">University of Helmstedt alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Category:Academic staff of the University of Göttingen">Academic staff of the University of Göttingen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Category:Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres (dwarf planet)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences">Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Category:Fellows of the Royal Society">Fellows of the Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Corresponding_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences">Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Honorary_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences">Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_G%C3%B6ttingen_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" title="Category:Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities">Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Bavarian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences">Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mental_calculators" title="Category:Mental calculators">Mental calculators</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_number_theorists" title="Category:German number theorists">German number theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linear_algebraists" title="Category:Linear algebraists">Linear algebraists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Differential_geometers" title="Category:Differential geometers">Differential geometers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hyperbolic_geometers" title="Category:Hyperbolic geometers">Hyperbolic geometers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Optical_physicists" title="Category:Optical physicists">Optical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_German_inventors" title="Category:19th-century German inventors">19th-century German inventors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Copley_Medal" title="Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal">Recipients of the Copley Medal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Lalande_Prize" title="Category:Recipients of the Lalande Prize">Recipients of the Lalande Prize</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Pour_le_M%C3%A9rite_(civil_class)" title="Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)">Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_the_Duchy_of_Brunswick" title="Category:People from the Duchy of Brunswick">People from the Duchy of Brunswick</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientists_from_Braunschweig" title="Category:Scientists from Braunschweig">Scientists from Braunschweig</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:German_Lutherans" title="Category:German Lutherans">German Lutherans</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a 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1,\n [\"CITEREFCajori1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantor1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Schilling1900\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_Schilling1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarnot1810\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian_August_Friedrich_Peters1860–1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClemens_Schaefer1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooleyTukey1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoxeter1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunningham2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenkerPatterson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerbyshire2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnington1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnington2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEastwoodPenrose2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpple1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpple1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolkerts1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1971\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFranz_Schmidt1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrei2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalle1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauss1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauss1848\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauss1876\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauss1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaussStewart1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGautschi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauß1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeppert1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerardy1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerardy1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerardy1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH.C._Schumacher\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHales2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamel1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHecht1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeidemanJohnsonBurrus1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouzel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumboldt1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkovszkyLakeSoloviev2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeremy_Gray1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_Christian_Bruhns1877\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKehlmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKehlmann2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1903\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleiner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleiner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKochPieper1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrantz2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrechStockHirschfeldAnders2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöniglich_Preußische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften1863–1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöniglich_Preußische_Akademie_der_Wissenschaften1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüssner1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehfeldt2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemmermeyer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLim2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLisitsaPotapovSaleh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFListing1872\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackinnon1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaennchen1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaidron1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarsden1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartín-RodríguezBarrio_GarcíaÁlvarez_Lires2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerzbachBoyer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichling1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNahin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Hara1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlesko2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstdiekBord2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrowski1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlackett1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlackett1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoser1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFReich2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReich2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReichRoussanova2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoche1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRohlfing2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoussanova2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRupke2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSartorius_von_Waltershausen1856\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaaf1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaefer1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaffrinSnow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchechtman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlesinger1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoenbergPerlick1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchreiber1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchubring1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchubring2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchweizerWittmannFrahm2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwemin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeeber1831\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheynin1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiebert1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStigler1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuhler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuloff1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStäckel1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeetsWhitehead1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTent2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimm2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllrich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagner1860\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagner1862\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagner1864\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWattenberg1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberger1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinger1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWittmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWußing1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYousef_Saad2019\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Awrap\"] = 2,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Carl Friedrich Gauss\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite arXiv\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 106,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 82,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 30,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Copley Medallists 1801–1850\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Gauss, Carl Friedrich\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 28,\n 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