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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Masters_Texts's_category-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Dating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_mobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_mobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Military mobilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_mobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sima_Qian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sima_Qian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sima Qian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sima_Qian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huang-Lao_and_Mawangdui" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huang-Lao_and_Mawangdui"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Huang-Lao and Mawangdui</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Huang-Lao_and_Mawangdui-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Huang-Lao and Mawangdui subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Huang-Lao_and_Mawangdui-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Huang-Lao_and_Laozi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huang-Lao_and_Laozi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Huang-Lao and Laozi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huang-Lao_and_Laozi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shen_Dao_and_Zhuangzi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shen_Dao_and_Zhuangzi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Shen Dao and Zhuangzi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shen_Dao_and_Zhuangzi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_with_the_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_with_the_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Changing with the times</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changing_with_the_times-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changing with the times subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changing_with_the_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A.C._Graham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A.C._Graham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>A.C. Graham</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A.C._Graham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xing-Ming_(introduction)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xing-Ming_(introduction)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Xing-Ming (introduction)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Xing-Ming_(introduction)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Xing-Ming (introduction) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Xing-Ming_(introduction)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Xing-Ming_(continued)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xing-Ming_(continued)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Xing-Ming (continued)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xing-Ming_(continued)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Han_Feizi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_Feizi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Han Feizi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_Feizi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-School_of_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#School_of_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>School of names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-School_of_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eradicating_punishments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eradicating_punishments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Eradicating punishments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eradicating_punishments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eradicating punishments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eradicating_punishments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Han_Feizi_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_Feizi_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Han Feizi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_Feizi_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_in_Legalist_Mythos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_in_Legalist_Mythos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources in Legalist Mythos</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_in_Legalist_Mythos-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources in Legalist Mythos subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_in_Legalist_Mythos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jia_Yi_(200–169_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jia_Yi_(200–169_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Jia Yi (200–169 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jia_Yi_(200–169_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liu_An_(179–122_bce)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liu_An_(179–122_bce)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Liu An (179–122 bce)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liu_An_(179–122_bce)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Fa_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Fa_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>The Fa School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Fa_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Legalism (Chinese philosophy)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9)" title="شرعوية (فلسفة صينية) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شرعوية (فلسفة صينية)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legizm" title="Legizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Legizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6_(%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8)" title="আইনবাদ (চীনা দর্শন) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইনবাদ (চীনা দর্শন)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-ka" title="Hoat-ka – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-ka" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Легизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Легизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezennouriezh_(prederouriezh_sinaat)" title="Lezennouriezh (prederouriezh sinaat) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lezennouriezh (prederouriezh sinaat)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escola_de_les_lleis" title="Escola de les lleis – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escola de les lleis" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legismus" title="Legismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Legismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismus" title="Legalismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Legalismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legism" title="Legism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Legism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κινεζικός νομικισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινεζικός νομικισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismo_(filosof%C3%ADa_china)" title="Legalismo (filosofía china) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Legalismo (filosofía china)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C4%9Dismo" title="Leĝismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leĝismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C)" title="قانون‌گرایی (فلسفه چینی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون‌گرایی (فلسفه چینی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gisme" title="Légisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Légisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EA%B0%80" title="법가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Լեգիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեգիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6_(%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0)" title="न्यायवाद (चीनी दर्शनशास्त्र) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्यायवाद (चीनी दर्शनशास्त्र)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalisme" title="Legalisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Legalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legismo" title="Legismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Legismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Легизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Легизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%C3%AEzm" title="Legalîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Legalîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Легизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Легизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismus_(philosophia_Sinica)" title="Legalismus (philosophia Sinica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Legalismus (philosophia Sinica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legizmus" title="Legizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Legizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="شرعويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شرعويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalisme_(falsafah_Cina)" title="Legalisme (falsafah Cina) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Legalisme (falsafah Cina)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A5%E1%80%95%E1%80%92%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%92(%E1%80%A1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC)" title="ဥပဒေဝါဒ(အတွေးအခေါ် ပညာ) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဥပဒေဝါဒ(အတွေးအခေါ် ပညာ)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalisme_(Chinese_filosofie)" title="Legalisme (Chinese filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Legalisme (Chinese filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法家" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalisme" title="Legalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Legalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legisme" title="Legisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Legisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalizm" title="Legalizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Legalizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legizm" title="Legizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Legizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismo_(filosofia_chinesa)" title="Legalismo (filosofia chinesa) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Legalismo (filosofia chinesa)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Легизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Легизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism" title="Legalism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Legalism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalizmus" title="Legalizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Legalizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalizem_(kitajska_filozofija)" title="Legalizem (kitajska filozofija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Legalizem (kitajska filozofija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalizam_(filozofija)" title="Legalizam (filozofija) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Legalizam (filozofija)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismi_(kiinalainen_filosofia)" title="Legalismi (kiinalainen filosofia) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Legalismi (kiinalainen filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_(kinesisk_filosofi)" title="Legalism (kinesisk filosofi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Legalism (kinesisk filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalismo" title="Legalismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Legalismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="சட்டவியல் (சீன மெய்யியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சட்டவியல் (சீன மெய்யியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalizm_(%C3%87in_felsefesi)" title="Legalizm (Çin felsefesi) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Legalizm (Çin felsefesi)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B7%D1%8F" title="Фа цзя – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фа цзя" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A1p_gia" title="Pháp gia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Pháp gia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="法家" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="法家" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%B6" title="法家 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法家" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Legalism</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg/200px-Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg/300px-Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg 1.5x, 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style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Fǎjiā</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">ㄈㄚˇ ㄐㄧㄚ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Fa<sup>3</sup>-chia<sup>1</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Fǎ-jia</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[fà.tɕjá]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Faatgā</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">faat3 gaa1</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" 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.sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese legalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:It-%E6%B3%95.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/It-%E6%B3%95.svg/75px-It-%E6%B3%95.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/It-%E6%B3%95.svg/113px-It-%E6%B3%95.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/It-%E6%B3%95.svg/150px-It-%E6%B3%95.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="180" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquess_Wen_of_Wei" title="Marquess Wen of Wei">Marquess Wen of Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_Xiao_of_Qin" title="Duke Xiao of Qin">Duke Xiao of Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Han figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen of Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chao_Cuo" title="Chao Cuo">Chao Cuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Hong" title="Gongsun Hong">Gongsun Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tang" title="Zhang Tang">Zhang Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Fu (Han dynasty)">Wang Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Later figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du_You" title="Du You">Du You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shanchang" title="Li Shanchang">Li Shanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Juzheng" title="Zhang Juzheng">Zhang Juzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Relevant texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Lord_Shang" title="The Book of Lord Shang">The Book of Lord Shang</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenzi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Shenzi (disambiguation)">Shenzi (both books)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzi" title="Wuzi">Wuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Liaozi" title="Wei Liaozi">Wei Liaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_L%C3%BC_Buwei" class="mw-redirect" title="Annals of Lü Buwei">Annals of Lü Buwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Relevant articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">Rectification of names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Salt_and_Iron" title="Discourses on Salt and Iron">Discourses on Salt and Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticize_Lin,_Criticize_Confucius" title="Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius">Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Legalism" title="Template:Chinese Legalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Legalism" title="Template talk:Chinese Legalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Legalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Legalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Fajia</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">法家</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fǎjiā</span></i>), or the School of <i>fa</i> (laws, methods), often translated as <b>Legalism</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin2011Creel197093,119–120Leung2019103Hansen199213,345-347_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin2011Creel197093,119–120Leung2019103Hansen199213,345-347-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a school of mainly <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> classical <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>. Often interpreted in the West along <a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">realist</a> lines, its members works contributed variously to the formation of the bureaucratic <a href="/wiki/Chinese_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese empire">Chinese empire</a>, and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes <a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a> as forefather of the Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers <a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a>, and more Daoistic figures <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595Harris201665–67_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595Harris201665–67-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the late <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a> drawing on both. Later centuries took <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> as a teacher of <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2018_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2018-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, but the Qin to <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> were more characterized by their traditions. </p><p>Though Chinese administration had no single origin, with a major influence by the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_chancellor_(China)" title="Grand chancellor (China)">grand chancellor</a> Shen Buhai likely played a key role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">merit system</a>, and could be seen as its founder. With formative influence for the Qin and Chinese law, Shang Yang reformed the peripheral <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin state</a> into a strongly centralized, powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. Largely responsible for their synthesis as a school, the <i><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a></i> also contains some of the earliest commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Art_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of War">Art of War</a></i> recommends Han Fei's concepts of power, technique, inaction, and impartiality, punishment and reward. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Masters_Texts's_category"><span id="Masters_Texts.27s_category"></span>Masters Texts's category</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Masters Texts's category"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of <a href="/wiki/Sima_Tan" title="Sima Tan">Sima Tan</a>'s (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought, Fajia refers to the idea that administrative protocols should disregard kinship and social status, treating everyone equally and thereby elevating the sovereign above all others. Imperial Archivists <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> (77–6BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a> (c.46bce–23ce) used it as a category in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> imperial library, becoming a major category of Masters Texts in <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> catalogues, namely the Han state's own <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a> (111ce). It included six other lost texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Creel197093,_95,_113Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith2003129,_141_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Creel197093,_95,_113Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith2003129,_141-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> criticized <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> as "obsessed with fa", and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> later considered Shang Yang successful in "turning the Qin people into law-abiding subjects" (Pines). But the term Fajia or "fa family" itself likely only meant "law abiding families" in <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>'s time. No one had used it as an ideological term for himself or his opponent. Its rare term might have meant something like "methods expert in economic affairs" in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a> before Tan's variant before popular. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Yuri Pines</a> <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> still considers the inclusion of a goal of "rich states and powerful armies" a more accurate descriptor for the current than just fa laws and methods. Although not recalling it's example, Pines introduction to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> notes <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> as highlighting the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a>'s Chapter 3 on Agriculture and War. Liu Xiang suggested that Shang Yang and Li Kui had been influenced by the agriculturally focused <a href="/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201194,104-107(6,16-19)Pines201727Graham198972Hansen1992345–346,_348–350,_360,_371,_379,_372,_400Creel1970Loewe201193-94_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201194,104-107(6,16-19)Pines201727Graham198972Hansen1992345–346,_348–350,_360,_371,_379,_372,_400Creel1970Loewe201193-94-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating">Dating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: [[:<a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Hong" title="Gongsun Hong">Gongsun Hong</a>]]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi,_Qing_dynasty,_Hunan_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg/220px-Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg/330px-Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg/440px-Hanfeizi_or_Han_Feizi%2C_Qing_dynasty%2C_Hunan_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A late 19th century edition of the <i>Hanfeizi</i> by Hongwen Book Company</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/220px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/330px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/440px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>Early a remote backwater west, the Qin's early conquests include the isolated <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_Basin" title="Sichuan Basin">Sichuan Basin</a>, and territories from <a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei state</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early a remote backwater to the west, <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a>'s reforms propelled the <a href="/wiki/Qin_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin state">Qin state</a> to power. But central China was likely not familiar with him or the Qin state's <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a>'s until just before imperial unification, and similar ideas on power only develop late in the work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201164Pines201726Jiang2021459_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201164Pines201726Jiang2021459-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> is familiar with <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a>, and the Qin, but still seems unaware of Shang Yang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With evidence of direct influence lacking, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> can speculatively be compared with the older neighboring <a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a>, or the even older Confucian <a href="/wiki/Zichan" title="Zichan">Zichan</a> as all seeking more <a href="/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a> government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy2023203Creel197412_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy2023203Creel197412-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As chancellors of neighboring states, Shang Yang’s and Shen Buhai’s doctrines would have intersected by the Qin dynasty, and the late Han Feizi is Shang Yang's first reference outside the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>, would suggest that the laws and methods of Shang Yang and <a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a>, with their associated works, may have circulated at that late time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201726Hansen1992345,346Pines20145_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201726Hansen1992345,346Pines20145-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The broader work set against a backdrop of the late <a href="/wiki/Hann_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Hann state">Hann state</a>'s struggles against the Qin, Chapter 43 likely led to an association of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai, presenting their ideas together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197094Pines2017248Jiang2021235_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197094Pines2017248Jiang2021235-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taking Shang Yang as representative, Han Fei considered fa (standards) necessary, as including law, decrees, reward and punishment, as well as fa administrative standards as controlled by the ruler, representative of his own state's Shen Buhai. The latter he terms (shu) administrative Method or Technique,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197081,93-95,103Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Graham1989268,282-283Hansen1992364,_347,_350Pines202458-59,61_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197081,93-95,103Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Graham1989268,282-283Hansen1992364,_347,_350Pines202458-59,61-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> defined as examining the abilities of ministers, appointing candidates in accordance with their capabilities, and holding to ministerial achievements ("forms") accountable to their proposals ("names").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199468,_70Goldin201198(10)_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199468,_70Goldin201198(10)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a>, Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei were often identified under it's administrative practice of <i>Xing-Ming</i> ("form and name"), explainable under Shu technique.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201311Makeham199468,_75,_166Graham1989283_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201311Makeham199468,_75,_166Graham1989283-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their combined figures might have had an influenced on the Qin dynasty. But a souring association of them with the Qin only developed over the course of the Han dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a> criticized Shang Yang In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen</a>, but along with propriety and righteousness, himself advocates fa laws (models), ranks and the execution of usurpers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979481_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979481-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> associated their several figures with the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1974_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1974-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arguing for <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Pines2024575_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Pines2024575-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a> glosses over them, himself advocating law, punishment and meritocratic appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193–94Pines201744–45_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193–94Pines201744–45-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the later Han, scholars less knowledgeable than <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> were not always aware that Shen Buhai and Shang Yang were different.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091,101_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091,101-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Potentially influential for the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Examination">Imperial Examination</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197095,_117Graham1989283_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197095,_117Graham1989283-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to Han Fei and the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>, Shen Buhai had disorganized law in the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Hann_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Hann state">Hann state</a>. No Han or earlier text individually connects him with penal law, but only with control of bureaucracy,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Winston200559_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Winston200559-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by contrast appears to have opposed penal punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel197092-93,101Jiang2021239_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel197092-93,101Jiang2021239-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His administrative ideas would be relevant for penal records and practice by the Han dynasty, but can still be seen in a fifth century work quoting <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> as a figure who advocated administrative technique, supervision, and accountability to abolish the punishment of ministers. Though often used together, the three were still individually influential in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel1970101,106Jiang2021242_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel1970101,106Jiang2021242-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_mobilization">Military mobilization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Military mobilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Salt_and_Iron" title="Discourses on Salt and Iron">Discourses on Salt and Iron</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/220px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/330px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG/440px-Ming_Dynasty_wood_carving_books_in_Tian_Yi_Chamber_colllection.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Book of Han or Hanshu, carved in the Ming dynasty, in Tian Yi Chamber Library collection</figcaption></figure> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> emphasizing fa standards as law, and a predominantly penal legal reception by Han Fei and the Han dynasty, the early work of <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Herrlee G. Creel</a> accepted Shang Yang as Legalist, arguing Shen Buhai to be more administrative. But Shang Yang's program was broader than law; Han Fei elementalizes him under it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197079,101_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197079,101-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Penal law aside, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_I._Schwartz" title="Benjamin I. Schwartz">Benjamin I. Schwartz</a> argued Shang Yang's primary program to be agriculture and war. Per <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Michael Loewe</a> early ministerial recruitment occurred amidst <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilization</a>. Developing towards such offices as diplomats, early mobilization and recruitment was generally more focused simply on <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> and taxes, with the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a>'s programs a more extreme primary example of the trend; with Han Fei quite later, essentially, the only remaining early work of it's kind.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999587-591Schwartz1985328-335,342-343Pines2023_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999587-591Schwartz1985328-335,342-343Pines2023-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fa law can be considered a first principle of the <a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a>, but is aimed at general state power, and several chapter express anti-populist views.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986Pines2023_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986Pines2023-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual perspective expressed by the Book of Lord Shang would seem more that of seeking a rich, total state, with a dominating focus on agriculture and a powerful army, all geared for conquest. Acknowledging their bureaucratic contributions, Pine's work in the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> prefaces a Shang Yang-Han Fei more along these lines. Shang Yang's institutional reforms can be considered unprecedented, and his economic and political reforms were "unqestionably" more important than his own <i>personal</i> military achievements. But he was as much a military reformer in his own time, even if not as renowned a general, and the Han also recognized him as a military strategist. A work under his name, possibly the same sans a few chapters, is also categorized under the Han Imperial Library's Military Books, subjection Strategists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201727,44-45Goldin2011104(16)Pines2023Jiang2021244Loewe198634Loewe1999587-591_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201727,44-45Goldin2011104(16)Pines2023Jiang2021244Loewe198634Loewe1999587-591-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With Shang Yang said to have reformed Qin law, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> does not believe that fa laws will be successful without "investigating the people's disposition." Pines takes Shang Yang's primary doctrine to be that of connecting people's inborn nature or dispositions (xing 性) with names (ming 名). The work recommends enacting laws that allow people to "pursue the desire for a name", namely fame and high social status, or just wealth if acceptable. Ensuring that these "names" are connected with actual benefits, it was hoped that if people are able to pursue these, they will be less likely to commit crimes, and more likely to engage in hard work or fight in wars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201750–51_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201750–51-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A figure in the <a href="/wiki/Stratagems_of_the_Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratagems of the Warring States">Stratagems of the Warring States</a>, although not the primary focus of his administrative treatise, Shen Buhai was also a military reformer, at least for defense, and is said to have maintained the security of his state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197423_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197423-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> is probably accurate in considering Shen Dao to be focused on fa administrative standards,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as introduced by <a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a> he would most remembered in early scholarship for his secondary subject of shi or "situational authority", of which he is spoken in Chapter 40 of the <i>Han Feizi</i> and incorporated into <i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i>. He only uses the term twice in his fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1974343_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1974343-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268Goldin201196(8)_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268Goldin201196(8)-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson19969_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson19969-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sima_Qian">Sima Qian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sima Qian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg/220px-%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg/330px-%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg/440px-%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Sima Qian's <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a> or Shiji, 1982 printed edition by the <a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_Book_Company" title="Zhonghua Book Company">Zhonghua Book Company</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/Sima_Tan" title="Sima Tan">Sima Tan</a>, doctrines were only identified by texts named after Masters (Zi), with <a href="/wiki/Daojia" class="mw-redirect" title="Daojia">Daojia</a> narrowed down to basic examples of Laozi and Zhuangzi in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>. Not forming large scale, organized schools in the sense of the <a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucians" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucians">Confucians</a>, their traditions formed loose networks of master and disciple in the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. <a href="/wiki/A.C._Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Graham">A.C. Graham</a> takes the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> as preferring a private life, while the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi) contains an art of rule. <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> does not perceive them as belonging to one school in his time, and lists their texts separately. <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> and Laozi are adopted into the same history of thought in the Outer Zhuangzi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201159_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201159-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999591,589Hansen1992345-346,409,360Schwartz1985174,244_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999591,589Hansen1992345-346,409,360Schwartz1985174,244-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2024_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2024-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a> uses them together in poetry,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010418-419_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010418-419-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but with the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> a main example of Zhuangzi influence in the Han, a Laozi-Zhuangi Daoism may otherwise be more accurate for the third century A.D,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994166_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994166-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although those listed under the fa-school arguably were focused on fa standards and methods,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240Pines2023Goldin201196–98_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240Pines2023Goldin201196–98-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Han Feizi is also focused on Daoistic concepts <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a>. While some may have been earlier than the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi), it would almost go without saying that the Han Feizi would be influenced by it. But those who included commentaries on it in the work probably did not see two distinct schools. They probably saw works of rule;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197050Hansen1992346,360,371-372,400Schneider201875Hansen2020_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197050Hansen1992346,360,371-372,400Schneider201875Hansen2020-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Goldin201212Goldin201315,71_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Goldin201212Goldin201315,71-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traditionally included under <a href="/wiki/Daojia" class="mw-redirect" title="Daojia">Daojia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ban_Gu" title="Ban Gu">Ban Gu</a> describe <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> in these terms, and Sima Qian earlier claimed them for it apart from Shang Yang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2014267,249_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2014267,249-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Confucians divided their texts out, it was probably not considered contradictory for them to be connected under multiple relatively fluid categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021236_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021236-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Placing the <a href="/wiki/List_of_chapters_in_Shiji" title="List of chapters in Shiji">biographies of Shen Buhai and Han Fei</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Laozi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, along with founding Han figures, <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> earlier claimed <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> as students of his same <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> philosophy, or "<a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Laozi</a> <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19931Creel197049Kejian201622,184_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19931Creel197049Kejian201622,184-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is traditionally included under Daojia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994166_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994166-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shang Yang is simply given his own chapter,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003141-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Shen Dao is listed under the <a href="/wiki/Jixia_Academy" title="Jixia Academy">Jixia Academy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021267_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021267-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sima_Tan" title="Sima Tan">Sima Tan</a> appears to have described <a href="/wiki/Daojia" class="mw-redirect" title="Daojia">Daojia</a> with "Huang-Lao" content in mind, incorporating a court of administrators likely based on Shen Buhai and Han Fei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2014267Goldin2012165Makeham199473-74_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2014267Goldin2012165Makeham199473-74-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Schneider2013267Schwartz1985173–174,_186,_343,_3450Creel1970101_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Schneider2013267Schwartz1985173–174,_186,_343,_3450Creel1970101-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, Sima Qian's chapter concludes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Way</a> of Laozi esteemed emptiness, reacting to changes through non-action. Profound and subtle, his words are difficult to comprehend. Zhuangzi was unfettered by the Way and virtue, setting loose his discussions; yet his essentials go back to spontaneity. Master Shen (Buhai) treated the lowly as lowly, applying the principle of “names and substance.” Master Han (Fei) drew on ink line, penetrated the nature of matters, and was clear about right and wrong, but was extremely cruel and had little compassion. All these originated in the Way and its <a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">virtue</a> (power, de), but Laozi was the most profound of them. <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a> 63: 2156<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2024575_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2024575-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Dividing Shang Yang from the others categorically, Sima Qian probably intends that they not be combined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003141-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi), <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> and Sima Qian generally hold a negative view of fa laws, not much favoring "state activism in general". Sima Qian would seem to favor limitation of the bureaucracy,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEss1993162_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEss1993162-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2024575_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2024575-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but argues from a standpoint that needs have changed with the times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One chapter of the Han Feizi criticizes "the doctrine of calmness and stillness", another "abstruse and subtle language".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELundahl1992136_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELundahl1992136-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite appropriative usages, the Daoistic early Han <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> does not endorse Shen Buhai, glossing him as penal alongside Shang Yang and Han Fei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970Major2010209,_230,_432Pines2023_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970Major2010209,_230,_432Pines2023-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, before the later Han the figures were not yet divided into two different schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141Goldin201189(2)Hansen1992345–346,_401_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003141Goldin201189(2)Hansen1992345–346,_401-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With a royal practice of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> reduced activity prominent in the early Han,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197099_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197099-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a key to Sima Qian's narrative would seem to be an identification of Han Fei with what he termed "Huang-Lao".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012165_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012165-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sima Qian blames <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> as purportedly combining Shen Buhai and Han Fei's doctrine, identified as Technique, with Shang Yang's doctrine of law, depicting Li Si as inflicting heavy taxes and abusing Shen Buha's doctrine to encourage the indolence and subservience of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Emperor">Second Emperor</a>. Although earlier Sinologists might treat them as belonging to the same "Legalism" category, Sima Qian, for his part, does not treat Han Fei the same as Li Si; framing the two as opponents, Han Fei is treated as a 'tragic figure'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003Creel1974222Watson1993197–198Goldin2012164-165_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003Creel1974222Watson1993197–198Goldin2012164-165-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han texts <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan" title="Gongyang Zhuan">Gongyang Zhuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Salt_and_Iron" title="Discourses on Salt and Iron">Yan tie lun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> instead depict <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> as a Legalist, probably partly alluding to a cruel official under the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999232_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999232-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Huang-Lao_and_Mawangdui">Huang-Lao and Mawangdui</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Huang-Lao and Mawangdui"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even by the <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records</a> own timeline, a purported <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> might have emerged in the academies some decades after Shen Buhai's death, likely preceding a consolidated <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi) or Zhuangzi. Discussing an administrative <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Way</a> of government, he is as lacking in later <i>metaphysical</i> conceptions of the Daoist <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a>. But apart from Shang Yang, a dividing line between them has never otherwise been entirely clear, and the other have been described them in syncretic, Daoistic terms. Termed "responsiveness through accommodation" by a commentary to the <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a>, Shen Buhai has ideas very similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Non-action</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, which was classed as Daoist long before it was classed as 'Legalist'. With Daosim poorly definable for the period, some western Sinologist modernly use the term Naturalism for the two; but Han Fei's is very brief.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197051,_10,_61,_62,_81,_99Chan2018Kejian2016180Hansen1992360Goldin200565,95Harris2016_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197051,_10,_61,_62,_81,_99Chan2018Kejian2016180Hansen1992360Goldin200565,95Harris2016-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199469Makeham199039,90-91,87-144_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199469Makeham199039,90-91,87-144-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Promoting "the ruler’s quiescence", Han Fei's Chapter 5 concerns a Way of the Ruler more than a Daoist way of life, and their figures are generally distinguished as politically focused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201315,71Loewe19991008_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201315,71Loewe19991008-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although broader, this can describe "Huang-Lao" in general. Essentially 'interchangeable' with <a href="/wiki/Daojia" class="mw-redirect" title="Daojia">Daojia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a>; despite distinctions, Huang-Lao is traditionally included under it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2014241,84,151-152,232-235Goldin2005a104Liu1994xiii,166_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2014241,84,151-152,232-235Goldin2005a104Liu1994xiii,166-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Huang-Lao" might be retrospective, and the Han Feizi's <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> commentaries chapters may be late additions. But the latter would seem to accurately describe the syncretism that became dominant by the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>. As a view still espoused by Sinologist Hansen of the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> of Daoism, a "Legalism" and Huang-Lao "Yellow Emperor Daoism" dominant by the Qin to early Han, would theoretically be borne out by the Huang-lao typified <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_silk_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawangdui silk texts">Mawangdui silk texts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2020Hansen2024Goldin201315Loewe19991007Graham1989285Schwartz1985343Smith2003146_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2020Hansen2024Goldin201315Loewe19991007Graham1989285Schwartz1985343Smith2003146-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although It remains a question how much of it might have been extant in Shen Buhai's time,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarlow1985_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarlow1985-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Mawangdui and <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a> regard fa administrative standards as generated by the <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a>, theoretically placing it and some of the 'Fajia' within a "loosely Daoist" context;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mawagndui texts can be argued to have been written in the early Han, when their political positions might have been more appealing, but <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Michael Loewe</a> still placed its <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Sijing" title="Huangdi Sijing">Jingfa</a> text before Qin unification, and most scholars still took the others as having been at least Pre-han. The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> is a major figure in one of its texts. Amongst other strains of thought, the more metaphysical, but still politically oriented <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Sijing" title="Huangdi Sijing">Boshu text</a> more broadly includes contents bearing resemblance to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, developing arguments more comparable to <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> than an old interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">legal positivism</a> for Shang Yang and Han Fei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19938,_3–4,_19,_241Loewe19991007-1008Lundahl1992129_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19938,_3–4,_19,_241Loewe19991007-1008Lundahl1992129-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If Huang-Lao did describe a self-conscious current, it would have been more of a tendency than a unified doctrine, with early "Huang-Lao" <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> administrators named by Sima Qian, like <a href="/wiki/Cao_Shen" title="Cao Shen">Cao Shen</a>, taking a more "hands off" approach after the fall of the Qin dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003146_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003146-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Huang-Lao_and_Laozi">Huang-Lao and Laozi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Huang-Lao and Laozi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More political than a typical reading of the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi), rather than "using" the work for politics, 'Han Fei' may be reading from an older, more political version. With the Mawangdui found from a member of the political class, Hansen argued these version should not be simply assumed as 'originals', interpreting Huang-Lao as an early, politically partisan variety of what would later, if not entirely accurately be termed Daoism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992203,346,360,371,400-401Hansen2024_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992203,346,360,371,400-401Hansen2024-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the authors of the Han Feizi were not all sincere in their <a href="/wiki/Laoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Laoist">Laoist</a> beliefs, the work would still have served as a suitable critique of Confucianism and Mohism, i.e. for a more "<a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">realist</a>" anti-Confucian than Daoist interpretation of the Han Feizi,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992372Schneider20185,_17_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992372Schneider20185,_17-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or for impartial laws and technique as purportedly bolstering the authority of a <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> semi-inactive ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201371Pines20235,_17Winston2005330_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201371Pines20235,_17Winston2005330-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (Laozi) as simply cynically political would be flawed. Still, together with <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a>, it can be viewed as a manual for politics and military strategy. In contrast to it's modern representation, the Laozi of the early Mawangdui Silk Texts, and two of the three earlier <a href="/wiki/Guodian_Chu_Slips" title="Guodian Chu Slips">Guodian Chu Slips</a>, place political commentaries, or "ruling the state", first. The Han Feizi's political contemporaries likely read them in the same order. Arguably lacking in metaphysics, associated content instead possesses mythologies. Nonetheless, in contrast to all prior Ways, the Daodejing emphasizes quietude and lack as <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a>. A central concept of <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, together especially with their early Laozi, Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and so-called <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> Daoism emphasize the political usages and advantages of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> reduced activity as a method of control for survival, social stability, long life, and rule, refraining from action in-order to take advantage of favorable developments in affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlingerland20076,95,279Cook201210,14Hansen1992202,223,360,371,373Henricks20007Goldin201119Kim201211Hansen1992401Creel197051_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlingerland20076,95,279Cook201210,14Hansen1992202,223,360,371,373Henricks20007Goldin201119Kim201211Hansen1992401Creel197051-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Han Feizi's late <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> commentaries are comparable with the Daoism of the <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neiye" title="Neiye">Neiye</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992360_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992360-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but otherwise utilizes the Laozi more as a theme for methods of rule. Although the Han Feizi has Daoistic conceptions of objective viewpoints ("mystical states"), if his sources had them, he lacks a conclusive belief in universal moralities or natural laws,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Hansen1992373Goldin201212_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Hansen1992373Goldin201212-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sharing with Shang Yang and Shen Dao a view of man as self-interested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1985246_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1985246-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advocating against manipulation of the mechanisms of government, despite an advocacy of passive mindfulness, noninterference, and quiescence, the ability to prescribe and command is still built into the Han Feizi's Xing-ming administrative method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199481_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199481-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its current is opposed with later, or otherwise more spiritual forms of Daoism as a practical state philosophy, not accepting a 'permanent <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">way</a> of statecraft', and applying the practice of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> or non-action more to the ruler than anyone else.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012257Schneider201812_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012257Schneider201812-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shen_Dao_and_Zhuangzi">Shen Dao and Zhuangzi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Shen Dao and Zhuangzi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although there is no evidence that any follower of Zhuangzi called himself <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a>, it contains three stories about the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>, one identifying him as a Master.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994xiiii_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994xiiii-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But early "Daoists" were likely not aware of their whole field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2024Creel19701,11,50_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2024Creel19701,11,50-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_silk_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawangdui silk texts">Mawangdui silk texts</a> lacking Zhuangzi influences, the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2024_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2024-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor Tao Jiang more simply refers to Han Fei's Laozi influences as Laoist, only theorizing "Zhuangist"-type influences. He theorizes these as wariness by the Monarch of manipulation, retreating into <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> isolation rather than Confucian-style moral education and cultivation. Hermits in the Zhuangzi retreat into isolation to avoid the chaos of the age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021417,_454,_475_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021417,_454,_475-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_I._Schwartz" title="Benjamin I. Schwartz">Benjamin I. Schwartz</a> describes <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> in terms of equanimity and a spirit of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> held in common with <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> and his own fellow academicians, with early Daoistic ideas found among later eclectics like Han Fei and <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartz1985186–187,_242_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz1985186–187,_242-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A representative figure of Han Fei's Chapter 40 on <i>Shi</i> 'situational authority' or Power, and likely a well known philosopher in his time from the <a href="/wiki/Jixia_Academy" title="Jixia Academy">Jixia Academy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201164_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201164-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a> and Shen Dao are placed by the Outer <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> as preceding <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992205,_208,_345Hansen2020Kejian201695_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992205,_208,_345Hansen2020Kejian201695-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although likely not entirely accurate chronologically, Shen Dao does arguably bare resemblance to the earlier, Inner Zhuangzi. Early taking him as the <i>Beginning of Daoist Theory</i>, or Mature Daoism, Hansen still discusses him as part of the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> of Daoism's theoretical model, under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1974339Schwartz1985186-187,242Hansen2024_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1974339Schwartz1985186-187,242Hansen2024-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992204,205Hansen2020_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992204,205Hansen2020-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the Han Feizi too, Zhuangzi influences only exists as traces,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair200033_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair200033-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but one noteable example from chapter 40 incorporates a parable of a shield and spear salesman, which can also be found in a lost chapter from the Zhuangzi, quoted in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. Although the Zhuangzi probably had a different argument, the Han Feizi likely contains more Zhuangzi than can be known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu199455Jiang2021422_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu199455Jiang2021422-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> There was a man of Chu who sold shields and spears. He would hold them aloft saying, “My shields are so tough nothing can pierce them.” He would also hold up his spears and say, “My spears are so sharp, there is nothing they can't pierce.” Someone asked him, “What happens if I stab one of your shields with one of your spears ?" and he was unable to answer. Worthiness is something that cannot be forbidden by the power of position, but when the power of position is used as a Way of governing, there is nothing that it cannot forbid. So if one says that achieving good order requires both worthiness, which cannot be forbidden, and the power of position, which has nothing it cannot forbid, this is just like saying one has both all-penetrating spears and impenetrable shields. Hence, the fact that worthiness and the power of position are incompatible should be abundantly clear. (Sahleen trans., in Ivanhoe & Van Norden eds. 2001, 314)</p></blockquote> <p>Though espousing Laozi, Hansen theorized Han Fei's conception of the Dao to be based on that of <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a>'s situational authority, with the Guanzi as similarly relevant. Shendao develops "the concept of the natural dao", or "actual course of events." "Abandoning knowledge" or conventional guidance, whatever the situation brings is the Dao (way), guiding human affairs, conventions, prescriptions and knowledge. Han Fei and Shen Dao's Dao might guide might good or evil kings, but emphasizing institutionalism (fa), the Han Feizi does not endorse the evil king, whose governance may be more complicated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992371–374,_358Pines2023_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992371–374,_358Pines2023-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If some authors of the Han Feizi were familiar with the proto-<a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, as its references would at least suggest, the Guanzi holds that fa models control affairs, models find their origins in the exercise of power, and the exercise of power finds its origins in <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Pines201726_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Pines201726-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changing_with_the_times">Changing with the times</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Changing with the times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_(%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg/220px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg/330px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg/440px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1595" /></a><figcaption>The people of Qi have a saying – "A man may have wisdom and discernment, but that is not like embracing the favourable opportunity. A man may have instruments of husbandry, but that is not like waiting for the farming seasons." <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The early work of <a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a> took the statesmen as fully understanding that needs change with the times and material circumstances; admitting that people may have been more virtuous anciently, Han Fei believes that new problems require new solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoulan194830,33_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoulan194830,33-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier thought to be rare, in fact, a changing with times paradigm, or one of <i>timeliness</i>, "dominated" the age. Pines takes Shang Yang and Han Fei's more specific view of history as an <i>evolutionary process</i> as contrasting. It <i>might</i> have influenced an <a href="/wiki/End_of_history" title="End of history">end of history</a> view expressed by the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin20122_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin20122-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but would be a radical departure from the earlier ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeung2019125-128_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeung2019125-128-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sinologist Hansen also once took the Dao of Shen Dao and Han Fei as aiming at what they took to be the '"actual" course of history'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992218,373,374_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992218,373,374-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stressing timeliness, Sima Tan says: "It (the dao or way) shifts with the times and changes in response to things", a view earlier found in Han Fei and <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a>. Hong Kong professor Xiaogan Liu takes the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> and Laozi (<a href="/wiki/Tao_te_Ching" class="mw-redirect" title="Tao te Ching">Tao te Ching</a>) as more focused on "according with nature" than timeliness; followers of "<a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a>" can be theorized as defining the former according to the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taking Shang Yang as inheriting from <a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a>, despite anti-Confucianism in the <a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a>, professor <a href="/wiki/Ch%27ien_Mu" title="Ch'ien Mu">Ch'ien Mu</a> still considered that that "People say merely that Legalist origins are in <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a> and De (power/virtue) [i.e., <a href="/wiki/Daoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist">Daoist</a> principles], apparently not aware that their origins in fact are in Confucianism. Their observance of law and sense of public justice are wholly in the spirit of Confucius' <a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">rectification of names</a> and return to propriety, but transformed in accordance with the conditions of the age." In the ancient society, punishment by law would typically only apply to the people, while the nobles are only punished by ritual. But needs change with the times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> took <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a>, Han Fei and <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> as "champions of the idea of progress through conscious human effort", with Li Si abolishing the feudal system, unifying the empire, law, language, thought and belief, presenting a memorial to the throne in which he condemns all those who "refused to study the present and believed only in the ancients on whose authority they dared to criticize". With a quotation from Xun Kuang:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShih201389_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShih201389-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You glorify Nature and meditate on her: Why not domesticate and regulate her? You follow Nature and sing her praise: Why not control her course and use it? ... Therefore, I say: To neglect man's effort and speculate about Nature, is to misunderstand the facts of the universe.</p></blockquote> <p>In contrast to Xun Kuang as the classically purported teacher of Han Fei and Li Si, Han Fei does not believe that a tendency to disorder demonstrates that people are evil or unruly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201165_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201165-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A.C._Graham">A.C. Graham</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: A.C. Graham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In what <a href="/wiki/A.C._Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Graham">A.C. Graham</a> took to be a "highly literary fiction", as Pines recalls, the Book of Lord Shang's chapter 1, “Revising the laws,” opens with a debate held by <a href="/wiki/Duke_Xiao_of_Qin" title="Duke Xiao of Qin">Duke Xiao of Qin</a>, seeking to "consider the changes in the affairs of the age, inquire into the basis for correcting standards, and seek the Way to employ the people." Gongsun attempts to persuade the Duke to change with the times, with the <i><a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a></i> citing him as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." </p><p>Graham compares Han Fei in particular with the <a href="/wiki/Malthusian" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthusian">Malthusians</a>, as "unique in seeking a historical cause of changing conditions", namely population growth, acknowledging that an underpopulated society only need moral ties. The <i>Guanzi</i> text sees punishment as unnecessary in ancient times with an abundance of resources, making it a question of poverty rather than human nature. Human nature is a Confucian issue. Graham otherwise considers the customs current of the time as having no significance to the statesmen, even if they may be willing to conform the government to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989270-272_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989270-272-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a counterpoint, the Han Feizi and Shen Dao do still employ argumentative reference to 'sage kings'; the Han Feizi claims the distinction between the ruler's interests and private interests as said to date back to Cangjie, while government by Fa (standards) is said to date back to time immemorial, considering the demarcation between public and private a "key element" in the "enlightened governance" of the purported former kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559Leung20191Jiang2021237,452_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559Leung20191Jiang2021237,452-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Xing-Ming_(introduction)"><span id="Xing-Ming_.28introduction.29"></span>Xing-Ming (introduction)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Xing-Ming (introduction)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_sijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangdi sijing">Huangdi sijing</a></div> <p>Likely originating in the debates of the Neo-<a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a> and <a href="/wiki/School_of_names" class="mw-redirect" title="School of names">school of names</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199451,67Graham1989283,377_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199451,67Graham1989283,377-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2020Fraser2024_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2020Fraser2024-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> (77–6BCE) lists Shen Buhai under <i>Fajia</i>, he still considered his doctrine to be that of <i>Xing-Ming</i>, or "form" and "name". Sima Qian claimed Shen Buhai and Han Fei as favoring it, but rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Described as holding <i>outcomes</i> accountable to <i>claims</i>, Sima Qian glosses Shen Buhai, Shang Yang and Han Fei under it;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> early connected with the school of names and Shen Buhai as <i>Method</i>, the term sometimes refers to a combination of Shang Yang and Han Fei by the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a>. Despite it's contributions, the meaning of the term would ultimately be confused and lost in conflation with punishment (Xing 刑) by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a>, sometimes as early as the third century's <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199469_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199469-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091Chan199196_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091Chan199196-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sima Qian asserts the <a href="/wiki/First_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="First Emperor">First Emperor</a> as proclaiming its practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197086_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197086-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Shen Buhai (and Han Fei still) extent in the early Han, evidentially, its <i>basic idea</i> intersect with Qin by the time late pre-imperial <a href="/wiki/Lushi_Chunqiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lushi Chunqiu">Lushi Chunqiu</a>, from around 240 b.c., containing a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui" title="Mawangdui">Mawangdui</a> <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_sijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangdi sijing">Huangdi sijing</a>. Typically termed "Daoist" for the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a>, the work demonstrates that a philosophy promoting the <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> reduced activity of the ruler goes back to the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. The later <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> historians simply classify the text as <a href="/wiki/Zajia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zajia">Zajia</a> ("Syncretist") rather than <a href="/wiki/Daojia" class="mw-redirect" title="Daojia">Daojia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fajia" class="mw-redirect" title="Fajia">Fajia</a>. With an example from the chapter "Ren shu":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199486Lundahl1992129-130_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199486Lundahl1992129-130-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> To follow is the method of the ruler; to act is the way of the minister. If (the ruler) acts, he will be troubled, if he follows, he will find peace. To follow the winter when it produces cold and the summer when it produces heat, why should the ruler do anything? Therefore to say: "The way of the ruler is to have no knowledge and no action, but still he is more worthy than those who know and act," that is to get the point.</p></blockquote> <p>An early bureaucratic pioneer, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> was not so much more advanced as he was more focused on bureaucracy. Han Fei's discussion of Method-Technique (fa-Shu) provides a basic explanation for Xing-Ming, saying: "Method is to confer office in accordance with a candidate's capabilities; to hold achievement accountable to claim; and to examine the ability of the assembled ministers. This is controlled by the ruler." With Shen Buhai more conservatively <i>surveying</i> the ministers, their direct connection as a <i>unified</i> administrative function cannot be seen before Han Fei. Naming individuals to their roles as ministers (e.g. "Steward of Cloaks"), in contrast to the earlier Confucians, Han Fei at the end of the period holds ministers accountable for their proposals, actions and performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Makeham1994_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Makeham1994-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late Warring States theories of <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> or the Mohists were still far more generalized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199481–82_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199481–82-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xing-Ming_(continued)"><span id="Xing-Ming_.28continued.29"></span>Xing-Ming (continued)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Xing-Ming (continued)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With visible usages of Xing-Ming, the Han Feizi's chapter 5 Zhudao (道主) or "Way of the Ruler" incorporates <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Laozi</a> and Shen Buhai in parallel style. Although Sima Qian does not claim it amongst his short list of chapters, he may have taken Han Fei as Huang-Lao based on its conception of the Dao, if the idea wasn't already established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201315,71_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201315,71-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a> is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows the essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. <i>Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality.</i> W. K. Liao. ch.5</p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui" title="Mawangdui">Mawangdui</a> <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_sijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangdi sijing">Jingfa</a> regards <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">Dao</a> as generating fa standards,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Tan" title="Sima Tan">Sima Tan</a> partly described the <a href="/wiki/Daoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoist">Daoist</a> school based on what is "clearly" the idea of the Xing-Ming court. Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and Sima Qian's preferably '<a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">inactive</a>' ruler contracts an assembly of ministers, with Xing-Ming correlating job proposals (Ming "names", or verbal <i>claims</i>) with the Xing "forms" or "<a href="/wiki/A.C._Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Graham">shapes</a>" that they take. With early examples in Shen Buhai (Shenzi), several of the Mawangdui's texts bare resemblance to Han Fei's Chapter 5 discussion of <i>Xing-Ming</i> and its "brilliant (or intelligent) ruler", as do other eclectic Huang-Lao typified works, like the <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>, and Sima Qian's <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199473-74_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199473-74-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/A.C._Graham" class="mw-redirect" title="A.C. Graham">A.C. Graham</a> took the Outer Zhuangzi as incorporating Xing-Ming, emphasizing benevolence over rewards and punishments,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989375_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989375-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although by its own statements the work favours self cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu19946_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu19946-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With their doctrines scarcely visible in the early Han outside the <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_silk_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawangdui silk texts">Mawangdui silk texts</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a>, the practice of Xing-Ming emerged again under the Daoistic <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen of Han</a> and his trusted ministers, but "cautious, unobtrusive and firm", more akin to Shen Buhai than Han Fei. Attributed back to Shen Buhai, it becomes the term for secretaries who had charge of records in penal decisions by the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, holding <i>outcomes</i> accountable to <i>claims</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199467-70Makeham199091–92Goldin20139-10,15_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199467-70Makeham199091–92Goldin20139-10,15-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197093-95,98-99,103,106Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Hansen1992347,_367_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197093-95,98-99,103,106Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Hansen1992347,_367-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Han_Feizi">Han Feizi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Han Feizi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the term Legalism has still seen some conventional usage in recent years, such as in <i>Adventures in Chinese Realism</i>, apart from its <a href="/wiki/Anachronism" title="Anachronism">anachronism</a> academia has avoided it for reasons which date back to <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Herrlee G. Creel</a>'s 1961 <i>Legalists or Administrators?</i> As Han Fei presents, while Shang Yang most commonly had fa (standards) as law, Shen Buhai uses fa (standards) in the administration, which Creel translated as <i>method</i>. Han Fei and the earlier <a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a> had conceptions of law, but make broader usages of fa standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201196–98(8,10)Pines2023Fraser2023_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201196–98(8,10)Pines2023Fraser2023-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen19923,347,349_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen19923,347,349-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han Fei and Shen Dao make some use of fa (standards) as akin to law, and some use of reward and punishment, often using fa standards similarly to Shen Buhai: as an administrative technique. Shen Buhai uses fa (standards) to compare official's duties and performances, and Han Fei often emphasizes fa in this sense. With a particular quotation from the Han Feizi as example:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201196–98(8,_10)_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201196–98(8,_10)-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> An enlightened ruler employs fa (standards) to pick his men; he does not select them himself. He employs fa to weigh their merit; he does not fathom it himself. Thus ability cannot be obscured nor failure prettified. If those who are [falsely] glorified cannot advance, and likewise those who are maligned cannot be set back, then there will be clear distinctions between lord and subject, and order will be easily [attained]. Thus the ruler can only use fa.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a> was said to be executed after the death of <a href="/wiki/Duke_Xiao_of_Qin" title="Duke Xiao of Qin">Duke Xiao of Qin</a>. Although not abandoning his reforms, the Qin would abandon his harsh punishments, and ultimately his dominating focus on agriculture. The <a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a>'s current otherwise attempts to innovate broader means of "empowering the state", including standards (fa) for promotion. The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> represents some of its current's reforms, otherwise containing pre-imperial ideas about what an order based on law and bureaucracy might look like once established. Inheriting its current at the end <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, the Han Feizi aspires to a state with law, wealth and a powerful military. That the Han Feizi is not legislative suggests that component was still more theoretical and advocative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe198634Leung2019116Pines2023Pines201723-34,71_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe198634Leung2019116Pines2023Pines201723-34,71-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With one core originating in Shen Buhai, Han Fei's chapter 5 on Xing-Ming administration <i>does</i> include specific practical recommendations, such that the <a href="/wiki/Waseda_University" title="Waseda University">Waseda University</a> edition divides it in half.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiao193932_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiao193932-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xing-Ming is amongst, if not the work's most philosophically sophisticated arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201380_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201380-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although not a <i>required</i> component, Xing-Ming can also be considered its most detailed application of reward and punishment in connection with Chapter 7's The Two Handles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992367_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992367-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work's choice to <i>include</i> law is not accidental, and is at least indirectly intended to benefit the people, insomuch as the state is benefited by way of order. It can (or has, by a law expert rather than <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">Sinologist</a>) be compared to a legislative <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> inasmuch as it develops beyond purposes serving those of simply the ruler, operating separately from him once established. Han Fei says: "The enlightened ruler governs his officials; he does not govern the people." The ruler cannot jointly govern the people in a large state. Nor can his direct subordinates themselves do it. The ruler wields methods to control officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWinston20051Hsiao1979409,_411Schneider20131_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinston20051Hsiao1979409,_411Schneider20131-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Book of Lord Shang itself addresses statutes mainly from an administrative standpoint, and addresses many administrative questions, including an agricultural mobilization, collective responsibility, and statist meritocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2011104-105(16-17)_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2011104-105(16-17)-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turning towards management, Chapter 25 of the <a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a>'s so-called "Attention to law" advocates "strict reliance on law" (fa) mainly as "norms of promotion and demotion" to judge officials and thwart ministerial cliques, but not yet apparently having absorbed more complex methods of selection and appointment, still fell back on agriculture and war as the standard for promotion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2017228_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2017228-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="School_of_names">School of names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: School of names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior Shen Buhai, Xingming likely originates earlier in the school of names. The <a href="/wiki/Zhan_Guo_Ce" title="Zhan Guo Ce">Zhan Guo Ce</a> quotes one of their paradoxes: "<a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a> said to the King of Qin, 'Exponents of Xingming all say that a white horse is not a horse.'" Su Qin nonetheless took <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a>'s white horse paradox to be a Xingming administrative strategy. Other people were simply not intended to understand it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199091–92_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199091–92-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite opposition to their paradoxes, the Han Feizi provides a white horse strategy: the chief minister of Yan pretended to see a white horse dash out the gate. All of his subordinates denied having seen anything, save one, who ran out and returned claiming to have seen it, identifying him as a flatterer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199933_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199933-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But words and names are essential to administration,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003142–143_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003142–143-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and discussion on the connection between realities and their names were common to all schools in the classical period (500bce-150bce), as including the Mohists and posthumous categories of Daoists, Legalists and <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a>. Its earlier thinking was actually most developed by the Confucians, while later thinking was characterized by paradoxes. <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> and Daoism question the premises of prior schools, in particular that of the Confucians and Mohists, representing an even higher degree of <a href="/wiki/Relativist" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativist">relativist</a> skepticism. Nonetheless, with a narrow bureaucratic focus, together with the earlier Shen Buhai and <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a>, Han Fei can still be compared with the early social, Confucian <a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">rectification of names</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham1994xiv–xv,_67Hansen1992202,_209,_223_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham1994xiv–xv,_67Hansen1992202,_209,_223-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although more or less representing an actual social category of debaters,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2020_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2020-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sima Qian divided the schools (or categories) along elemental lines, as including Ming ("names", the usage of words in philosophy and administration including contracts) for the Mingjia <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a>, and fa (standards including law and method) for those later termed Fajia ("Legalists").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003144_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003144-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engaging in discussions of "sameness and difference", such distinctions would naturally be useful in <a href="/wiki/Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigation">litigation</a> and administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2024_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2024-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the more advanced Names and Realities discussions date to the later Warring States period, after Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, and <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>, i.e. in Han Fei's era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYu-Lan195281_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYu-Lan195281-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The practices and doctrines of Shen Buhai, Han Fei and the school of names are all termed Mingshi (name and reality) and Xingming (form and name). The administrators of both groupings have both elements and share the same concerns, evaluating bureaucratic performance, and the structural relation between ministers and supervisors. The school of names <i>mingjia</i> can also inaccurately be translated as <i>Legalists</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003142,144Makeham199067)_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003142,144Makeham199067)-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using fa comparative models for <a href="/wiki/Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigation">litigation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser2024_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser2024-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> slanders those who place the practice of Xingming and <i>rewards and punishments</i> above the <a href="/wiki/Wu-wei" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu-wei">wu-wei</a> reduced activity of the ruler as sophists and "mere technicians";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197072_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197072-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Han dynasty term <i>Mingjia</i> is applied to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003144_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003144-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> used comparative model manuals to guide penal legal procedure,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986492Goldin20055,6_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986492Goldin20055,6-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the final chapter of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> certainly "focuses on how to maintain law in a large territorial realm." But as much as Shang Yang ruled by law, penal law by the Qin dynasty supplemented the <a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">ritual order</a>. A major reform of the primarily administrative Qin dynasty focuses more on restraining ministers, instituting office divisions that cannot punish at will.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMou2008208Pines2009108Smith2003143Pines2017231-232_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMou2008208Pines2009108Smith2003143Pines2017231-232-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Penal law develops more in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> that coins the terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe198674,_526,_534–535_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe198674,_526,_534–535-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eradicating_punishments">Eradicating punishments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eradicating punishments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Translator <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Yuri Pines</a> takes the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a>'s final chapter 26 as reflecting administrative realities of the 'late preimperial and Imperial Qin', essentially congruous with knowledge of the Qin. Although seeking governance more broadly, protecting the people from abuse by ministers becomes more important than punishing the people. Taken as universally beneficial, in an attempt to deliver the "blessed eradication of punishments through punishments", clear laws are promulgated and taught that the people can use against ministers abusing the statutes, punishing them according to the penalties of the statute abused. Han Fei advocates the same, but is more focused on accomplishing it through the administrative power of the ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen1992347,357-359,369Pines2017231-232_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen1992347,357-359,369Pines2017231-232-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> If at least part of the Han Feizi dates date to its period, the <a href="/wiki/Shangjunshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangjunshu">Shangjunshu</a> could have circulated on the eve of unification. The work's adoption by the Han Feizi can give the appearance of a living current for the old harsh punishments of Shang Yang that can mistakenly be imposed backward. Pine's work in the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> passingly accepts a long status quo within scholarship: whatever events really transpired, the Qin had otherwise abandoned the harsh punishments of Shang Shang before unification. The Book of Lord Shang itself is not a homogeneous ideology, but shifts substantially over its development. As the work's first reference, the Han Feizi recalls its earlier Chapter 4, saying:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201726_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201726-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Gongsun Yang said: "When [the state] implements punishments, inflicts heavy [punishments] on light [offenses]: then light [offenses] will not come, and heavy [crimes] will not arrive. This is called: 'eradicating punishments with punishments'.</p></blockquote> <p>As Pines recalls, even if the Shangjunshu only passingly suggests that a need for punishment would pass away, and a more moral driven order evolve, the Qin nonetheless did abandon his heavy punishments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a component of general colonization, the most common heavy punishment was expulsion to the new colonies, with exile considered its own heavy punishment in ancient China. The Han engage in the same practice, transferring criminals to the frontiers for military service, with Emperor Wu and later emperors recruiting men sentenced to death for expeditionary armies. The Qin have mutilating punishments like nose cutting, but with tattooing as most common, with shame its own heavy punishment in ancient China. They are not harsher for their time, and form a continuity with the early Han dynasty,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526,534,535Lewis201042,72,248_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526,534,535Lewis201042,72,248-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> abolishing mutilations in 167 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986539–540_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986539–540-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199919_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199919-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Punishments in the Qin and early Han were commonly pardoned or redeemed in exchange for fines, labor or one to several aristocratic ranks, even up to the death penalty. Not the most common punishments, the Qin's mutilating punishment likely exist in part to create labor in agriculture, husbandry, workshops, and wall building.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526,534,535Pines202327_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526,534,535Pines202327-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Replacing mutilation, labor from one to five years becomes the common heavy punishment in early Imperial China, generally in building roads and canals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986533–543_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986533–543-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aiming to reduce punishment to a minimum, the idea of redemption can otherwise be found in the <a href="/wiki/Analects_of_Confucius" class="mw-redirect" title="Analects of Confucius">Analects of Confucius</a>, attempting to ensure a correct application of the <a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">rectification of names</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Han_Feizi_2">Han Feizi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Han Feizi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Han Fei, the power structure is unable to bare an autonomous ministerial practice of reward and punishment. Han Fei mainly targets ministerial infringements. His main argument for punishment by law, Chapter 7's The Two Handles, is that delegating reward and punishment to ministers has led to an erosion of power and collapse of states in his era, and should be monopolized, using severe punishment in an attempt to abolish ministerial infringements, and therefore punishment. Utilizing fa standards, Han Fei's ruler abandons personal preferences in reward and punishment out of self-preservation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeung2019118-119,129Goldin20125Hansen1992347,369_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeung2019118-119,129Goldin20125Hansen1992347,369-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Han Fei believes that a benevolent government that does not punish will harm the law, and create confusion, he also believes that a violent and tyrannical ruler will create an irrational government, with conflict and rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao1979404-405,417Pines2023_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1979404-405,417Pines2023-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen Dao, technically the first member of Han Fei's triad between the figures, at least by order of chapters, never suggests kinds of punishments, as that is not the point. The main point is that it would involve the ruler too much to decide them personally, exposing him to resentment. The ruler should decide punishments using fa standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris201633_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201633-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Han Fei does does not suggest kinds of punishments either, and would not seem to care about punishment as retribution itself. He only cares whether they work, and therefore end punishments. Although "benevolence and righteousness" may simply be "glittering words", other means can potentially be included. While recalling Shang Yang, Han Fei places a more equal emphasis on reward to encourage people and produce good results; punishment for him was still secondary to simply controlling ministers through techniques. Although in bad times these could be expected to include espionage, they consisted primarily simply in written agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao1979404-406Schwartz1985337Hansen1992347,369Lewis199932,33Goldin201198(10)Goldin20125-6Pines2023_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao1979404-406Schwartz1985337Hansen1992347,369Lewis199932,33Goldin201198(10)Goldin20125-6Pines2023-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justice">Justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emphasizing a dichotomy between the people and state, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lord_Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Lord Shang">Book of Lord Shang</a> in particular has been regarded as anti-people, with alienating statements that a weak people makes a strong military. But, such statements are concentrated in a few chapters, and the work does still vacillate against ministerial abuses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Michael Loewe</a> still regarded the laws as primarily concerned with peace and order. They were harsh in Shang Yang's time mainly out of hope that people will no longer dare to break them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986526-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023_98-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sima Qian argues the Qin dynasty, relying on rigorous laws, as nonetheless still <i>insufficiently</i> rigorous for a completely consistent practice, suggesting them as not having always delivered justice as others understood it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2010240_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2010240-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, from a modern perspective, it is "impossible" to deny at least the "'basic' justice of Qin laws". Rejecting the whims of individual ministers in favor of clear protocols, and insisting on forensic examinations, for an ancient society they are ultimately more definable by fairness than cruelty. </p><p>With contradicting evidences, as a last resort, officials could rely on beatings, but had to be reported and compared with evidence, and cannot actually punish without confession. With administration and judiciary not separated in ancient societies, the Qin develop the idea of the judge magistrate as a detective, emerging in the culture of early Han dynasty theater with judges as detectives aspiring to truth as justice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin20056_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin20056-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis201072,_246–248_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis201072,_246–248-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Inasmuch as Han Fei has modernly been related with the idea of justice, he opposes the early Confucian idea that ministers should be immune to penal law. With an at least incidental concern for the people, the Han Feizi is "adamant that blatant manipulation and subversion of law to the detriment of the state and ruler should never be tolerated":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang202135,_420_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang202135,_420-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Those men who violated the laws, committed treason, and carried out major acts of evil always worked through some eminent and highly placed minister. And yet the laws and regulations are customarily designed to prevent evil among the humble and lowly people, and it is upon them alone that penalties and punishments fall. Hence the common people lose hope and are left with no place to air their grievances. Meanwhile the high ministers band together and work as one man to cloud the vision of the ruler.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_in_Legalist_Mythos">Sources in Legalist Mythos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources in Legalist Mythos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jia_Yi_(200–169_BCE)"><span id="Jia_Yi_.28200.E2.80.93169_BCE.29"></span>Jia Yi (200–169 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Jia Yi (200–169 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Han dynasty mainly villainizes the <a href="/wiki/First_Emperor_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="First Emperor of China">First Emperor of China</a> as arrogant and inflexible, blaming the second emperor for the fall of Qin. In the early Han, <a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a> (200–169 BCE) associates the first Emperor with cruel punishments. Amongst figures that would otherwise be to taken to be his own <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> typified allies, Sima Qian glosses Jia Yi a scholar of both Shang Yang and Shen Buhai. While he likely had read both, he was a more likely proponent of Shen Buhai, supporting regulation of the bureaucracy and feudal lords. </p><p>Being both a Daoistic and Confucian doctrine, he favored the practice of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a>, or non-action by the ruler, against the practice of law. Despite advocating wuwei inaction by the ruler, and writing the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Crimes_of_Qin" title="Ten Crimes of Qin">Ten Crimes of Qin</a> in opposition to harsh punishments, figures like Jia Yi were opposed for attempting to regulate the bureaucracy, leading to his banishment under ministerial pressure. The Emperor sent him to teach his sons. <a href="/wiki/Mark_Edward_Lewis" title="Mark Edward Lewis">Mark Edward Lewis</a> modernly characterized it as a politically motivated mythos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979483Creel197061,81,115_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979483Creel197061,81,115-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liu_An_(179–122_bce)"><span id="Liu_An_.28179.E2.80.93122_bce.29"></span>Liu An (179–122 bce)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Liu An (179–122 bce)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sinologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologists">Sinologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Herrlee G. Creel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Yuri Pines</a> cite the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a> (179–122 bce), as the earliest combinational gloss of Shen Buhai with Shang Yang, comparing them as one person with harsh punishments to their own doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Major2010209,_423Pines2023_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Major2010209,_423Pines2023-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positively receiving reunification of the empire, the text opposes centralized government and the class of scholar-officials. With ideas of wuwei nonaction, the Huainanzi recommends that the ruler put aside trivial matters, and follow the ways of <a href="/wiki/Fuxi" title="Fuxi">Fuxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCwa" title="Nüwa">Nüwa</a>, abiding in Empty Nothingness and Pure Unity. Placing ritual specialists lower than heavenly prognosticators, and aiming to demonstrate how every text that came before it is now part of its own integral unity, the Huainanzi posed a threat to the Han court. Although Chapter 1 is based most strongly on <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Laozi</a>, the work otherwise most strongly resonates with the Zhuangzi, with influences from the Hanfeizi, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshi_chunqiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshi chunqiu">Lüshi chunqiu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajor201025-26,34,487_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajor201025-26,34,487-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> When the First Emperor of Qin conquered the world, he feared that he would not be able to defend it. Thus, he attacked the Rong border tribes, repaired the Great Wall, constructed passes and bridges, erected barricades and barriers, equipped himself with post stations and charioteers, and dispatched troops to guard the borders of his empire. When, however, the house of <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Bang">Liu Bang</a> took possession of the world, it was as easy as turning a weight in the palm of your hand. </p><p>In ancient times, <a href="/wiki/King_Wu_of_Zhou" title="King Wu of Zhou">King Wu of Zhou</a>... distributed the grain in the Juqiao granary, disbursed the wealth in the Deer Pavilion, destroyed the war drums and drumsticks, unbent his bows and cut their strings. He moved out of his palace and lived exposed to the wilds to demonstrate that life would be peaceful and simple. He lay down his waist sword and took up the breast tablet to demonstrate that he was free of enmity. As consequence, the entire world sang his praises and rejoiced in his rule while the Lords of the Land came bearing gifts of silk and seeking audiences with him. [His dynasty endured] for thirty-four generations without interruption. </p><p> Therefore the <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> says: “Those good at shutting use no bolts, yet what they shut cannot be opened; those good at tying use no cords, yet what they tie cannot be unfastened.” 12.47</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Fa_School">The Fa School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Fa School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inasmuch as the term Legalism has been used modernly, Dingxin Zhao characterizes the <a href="/wiki/Western_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Han">Western Han</a> as developing a Confucian-Legalist state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDingxin2015273_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDingxin2015273-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a>, as traditional author of the Huang-Lao typified <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>, would be suppressed together with the Huang-Lao faction by other potential Han Feizi students, the Shang Yangian <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu of Han</a> (reign 141-87bce), <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Hong" title="Gongsun Hong">Gongsun Hong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tang" title="Zhang Tang">Zhang Tang</a>. Under Confucian factional pressure, Emperor Wu dismisses the <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Yellow Emperor Daoists</a>, xingming theoreticians, and those of other philosophies, and discriminates against scholars of Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei. When Wu was older, those officials who praised Shang Yang and <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> and denounced Confucius were upheld. Together with that of the Confucians, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system would be instituted through the likely influence of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, who advocated appointment by methodologies of performance checking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVankeerberghen200124,96Creel1960239,241Creel1970110-111,115-120Lewis1999491Makeham1994180_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVankeerberghen200124,96Creel1960239,241Creel1970110-111,115-120Lewis1999491Makeham1994180-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Undoubtedly associating Shang Yang primarily with penal law, no received Han text ever attempted to individually argue or obfuscate Shen Buhai a penal figure. Contrasting with Confucius and the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a> (179–104 BC) simply associates Shen Buhai and Shang Yang with the Qin again as reportedly implementing the ideas of Han Fei. Asserting that the Qin, with high taxes and oppressive officials, had declined amidst a failure to punish criminals, he proceeds to associate laws, punishments and meritocratic appointment with the Zhou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193-94Pines201744-45Major2015186,194,632_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193-94Pines201744-45Major2015186,194,632-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With Sima Qian's categories already popular by their time, Imperial Archivists <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a> (77–6BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a> (c.46bce–23ce) placed Han Fei's figures. They associate the schools with ancient departments, with the fa-school "probably originating in the department of prisons", whose descendants in Dong's essay, then, failed to punish criminals. Fajia becomes a category of texts in the Han state's own <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a> (111ce), with Dong's argument included in his Chapter 56 Biography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen199213,345-347,375-376Creel197095,101,107,113Goldin2011108,112(15,24)Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith200396–98(8,10)_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen199213,345-347,375-376Creel197095,101,107,113Goldin2011108,112(15,24)Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith200396–98(8,10)-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fajia are strict and have little kindness, but their divisions between lord and subject, superior and inferior, cannot be improved upon… Fajia do not distinguish between kin and stranger, or differentiate between noble and base; all are judged as one by their fa. Thus they sunder the kindnesses of treating one’s kin as kin and honoring the honorable. It is a policy that could be practiced for a time, but not applied for long. But for honoring rulers and derogating subjects, and clarifying social divisions and offices so that no one is able to overstep them—none of the Hundred Schools could improve upon this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201191_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201191-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a> 120:3291</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin2011Creel197093,119–120Leung2019103Hansen199213,345-347-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin2011Creel197093,119–120Leung2019103Hansen199213,345-347_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 93,119–120; <a href="#CITEREFLeung2019">Leung 2019</a>, p. 103; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, p. 13,345-347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595Harris201665–67-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595Harris201665–67_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2005">Goldin 2005</a>, p. 95; <a href="#CITEREFHarris2016">Harris 2016</a>, pp. 65–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2018-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2018_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2018">Goldin 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Creel197093,_95,_113Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith2003129,_141-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Creel197093,_95,_113Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith2003129,_141_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 2,89; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, pp. 93, 95, 113; <a href="#CITEREFYoulan1948">Youlan 1948</a>, pp. 32–34; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSmith2003">Smith 2003</a>, pp. 129, 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201194,104-107(6,16-19)Pines201727Graham198972Hansen1992345–346,_348–350,_360,_371,_379,_372,_400Creel1970Loewe201193-94-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201194,104-107(6,16-19)Pines201727Graham198972Hansen1992345–346,_348–350,_360,_371,_379,_372,_400Creel1970Loewe201193-94_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 94,104-107(6,16-19); <a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 72; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, pp. 345–346, 348–350, 360, 371, 379, 372, 400; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>; <a href="#CITEREFLoewe2011">Loewe 2011</a>, p. 93-94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201164Pines201726Jiang2021459-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201164Pines201726Jiang2021459_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFraser2011">Fraser 2011</a>, p. 64; <a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 26; <a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 459.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy2023203Creel197412-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy2023203Creel197412_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaughnessy2023">Shaughnessy 2023</a>, p. 203; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1974">Creel 1974</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201726Hansen1992345,346Pines20145-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201726Hansen1992345,346Pines20145_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 26; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, p. 345,346; <a href="#CITEREFPines2014">Pines 2014</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197094Pines2017248Jiang2021235-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197094Pines2017248Jiang2021235_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 94; <a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 248; <a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197081,93-95,103Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Graham1989268,282-283Hansen1992364,_347,_350Pines202458-59,61-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197081,93-95,103Goldin201195-96,104,105(7-8,16-17)Graham1989268,282-283Hansen1992364,_347,_350Pines202458-59,61_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 81,93-95,103; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 95-96,104,105(7-8,16-17); <a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 268,282-283; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, pp. 364, 347, 350; <a href="#CITEREFPines2024">Pines 2024</a>, p. 58-59,61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199468,_70Goldin201198(10)-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199468,_70Goldin201198(10)_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakeham1994">Makeham 1994</a>, pp. 68, 70; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 98(10).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201311Makeham199468,_75,_166Graham1989283-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2023Goldin201311Makeham199468,_75,_166Graham1989283_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2013">Goldin 2013</a>, p. 11; <a href="#CITEREFMakeham1994">Makeham 1994</a>, pp. 68, 75, 166; <a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1999">Loewe 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979481-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis201042,72Pines2009110Pines2014116-117Hsiao1979481_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2010">Lewis 2010</a>, p. 42,72; <a href="#CITEREFPines2009">Pines 2009</a>, p. 110; <a href="#CITEREFPines2014">Pines 2014</a>, p. 116-117; <a href="#CITEREFHsiao1979">Hsiao 1979</a>, p. 481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1974-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1974_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1974">Creel 1974</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Pines2024575-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin20112,89Pines2024575_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 2,89; <a href="#CITEREFPines2024">Pines 2024</a>, p. 575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193–94Pines201744–45-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193–94Pines201744–45_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFLoewe2011">Loewe 2011</a>, pp. 93–94; <a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091,101-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakeham199092Creel197091,101_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakeham1990">Makeham 1990</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 91,101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197095,_117Graham1989283-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197095,_117Graham1989283_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, pp. 95, 117; <a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Winston200559-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Winston200559_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFWinston2005">Winston 2005</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel197092-93,101Jiang2021239-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel197092-93,101Jiang2021239_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2005">Goldin 2005</a>, pp. 95, 200; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 92-93,101; <a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel1970101,106Jiang2021242-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200595,_200Creel1970101,106Jiang2021242_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2005">Goldin 2005</a>, pp. 95, 200; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101,106; <a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197079,101-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197079,101_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 79,101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999587-591Schwartz1985328-335,342-343Pines2023-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999587-591Schwartz1985328-335,342-343Pines2023_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1999">Loewe 1999</a>, p. 587-591; <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1985">Schwartz 1985</a>, p. 328-335,342-343; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1986Pines2023-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1986Pines2023_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1986">Loewe 1986</a>; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201727,44-45Goldin2011104(16)Pines2023Jiang2021244Loewe198634Loewe1999587-591-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201727,44-45Goldin2011104(16)Pines2023Jiang2021244Loewe198634Loewe1999587-591_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 27,44-45; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 104(16); <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 244; <a href="#CITEREFLoewe1986">Loewe 1986</a>, p. 34; <a href="#CITEREFLoewe1999">Loewe 1999</a>, p. 587-591.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines201750–51-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines201750–51_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197423-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197423_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1974">Creel 1974</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 235-240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1974343-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1974343_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRubin1974">Rubin 1974</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268Goldin201196(8)-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989268Goldin201196(8)_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham 1989</a>, p. 268; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 96(8).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson19969-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson19969_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatson1996">Watson 1996</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201159-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201159_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFraser2011">Fraser 2011</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe1999591,589Hansen1992345-346,409,360Schwartz1985174,244-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe1999591,589Hansen1992345-346,409,360Schwartz1985174,244_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1999">Loewe 1999</a>, p. 591,589; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, p. 345-346,409,360; <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1985">Schwartz 1985</a>, p. 174,244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1989170_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraham1989">Graham (1989)</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2024-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2024_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen2024_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen2024">Hansen 2024</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010418-419-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010418-419_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnechtges2010">Knechtges (2010)</a>, p. 418-419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994166-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994166_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994166_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu1994">Liu 1994</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240Pines2023Goldin201196–98-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021235-240Pines2023Goldin201196–98_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 235-240; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 96–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197050Hansen1992346,360,371-372,400Schneider201875Hansen2020-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197050Hansen1992346,360,371-372,400Schneider201875Hansen2020_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 50; <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, p. 346,360,371-372,400; <a href="#CITEREFSchneider2018">Schneider 2018</a>, p. 75; <a href="#CITEREFHansen2020">Hansen 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Goldin201212Goldin201315,71-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin200559-60,64Goldin201212Goldin201315,71_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2005">Goldin 2005</a>, p. 59-60,64; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2012">Goldin 2012</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2013">Goldin 2013</a>, p. 15,71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2014267,249-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2014267,249_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2014">Liu 2014</a>, p. 267,249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021236-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021236_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19931Creel197049Kejian201622,184-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeerenboom19931Creel197049Kejian201622,184_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeerenboom1993">Peerenboom 1993</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFKejian2016">Kejian 2016</a>, p. 22,184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003141-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2003">Smith 2003</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiang2021267-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJiang2021267_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJiang2021">Jiang 2021</a>, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu2014267Goldin2012165Makeham199473-74-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu2014267Goldin2012165Makeham199473-74_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu2014">Liu 2014</a>, p. 267; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2012">Goldin 2012</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFMakeham1994">Makeham 1994</a>, p. 73-74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Schneider2013267Schwartz1985173–174,_186,_343,_3450Creel1970101-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewe19991007-1008Schneider2013267Schwartz1985173–174,_186,_343,_3450Creel1970101_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoewe1999">Loewe 1999</a>, p. 1007-1008; <a href="#CITEREFSchneider2013">Schneider 2013</a>, p. 267; <a href="#CITEREFSchwartz1985">Schwartz 1985</a>, pp. 173–174, 186, 343, 3450; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPines2024575-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2024575_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPines2024575_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPines2024">Pines 2024</a>, p. 575.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEss1993162-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEss1993162_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEss1993">Ess 1993</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiu1994xvi_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiu1994">Liu 1994</a>, p. xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELundahl1992136-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELundahl1992136_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLundahl1992">Lundahl 1992</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970Major2010209,_230,_432Pines2023-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970Major2010209,_230,_432Pines2023_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>; <a href="#CITEREFMajor2010">Major 2010</a>, pp. 209, 230, 432; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003141Goldin201189(2)Hansen1992345–346,_401-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003141Goldin201189(2)Hansen1992345–346,_401_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2003">Smith 2003</a>, p. 141; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 89(2); <a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, pp. 345–346, 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197099-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197099_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012165-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin2012165_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2012">Goldin 2012</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2003Creel1974222Watson1993197–198Goldin2012164-165-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2003Creel1974222Watson1993197–198Goldin2012164-165_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2003">Smith 2003</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1974">Creel 1974</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFWatson1993">Watson 1993</a>, pp. 197–198; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2012">Goldin 2012</a>, p. 164-165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999232-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999232_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis 1999</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHsiao197967_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsiao1979">Hsiao 1979</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel197051,_10,_61,_62,_81,_99Chan2018Kejian2016180Hansen1992360Goldin200565,95Harris2016-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel197051,_10,_61,_62,_81,_99Chan2018Kejian2016180Hansen1992360Goldin200565,95Harris2016_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, pp. 51, 10, 61, 62, 81, 99; 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<a href="#CITEREFPines2009">Pines 2009</a>, p. 110; <a href="#CITEREFPines2014">Pines 2014</a>, p. 116-117; <a href="#CITEREFHsiao1979">Hsiao 1979</a>, p. 483; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 61,81,115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Major2010209,_423Pines2023-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Major2010209,_423Pines2023_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFMajor2010">Major 2010</a>, pp. 209, 423; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMajor201025-26,34,487-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMajor201025-26,34,487_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMajor2010">Major 2010</a>, p. 25-26,34,487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDingxin2015273-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDingxin2015273_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDingxin2015">Dingxin 2015</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVankeerberghen200124,96Creel1960239,241Creel1970110-111,115-120Lewis1999491Makeham1994180-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVankeerberghen200124,96Creel1960239,241Creel1970110-111,115-120Lewis1999491Makeham1994180_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVankeerberghen2001">Vankeerberghen 2001</a>, p. 24,96; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1960">Creel 1960</a>, p. 239,241; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 110-111,115-120; <a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis 1999</a>, p. 491; <a href="#CITEREFMakeham1994">Makeham 1994</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193-94Pines201744-45Major2015186,194,632-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECreel1970101Loewe201193-94Pines201744-45Major2015186,194,632_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 101; <a href="#CITEREFLoewe2011">Loewe 2011</a>, p. 93-94; <a href="#CITEREFPines2017">Pines 2017</a>, p. 44-45; <a href="#CITEREFMajor2015">Major 2015</a>, p. 186,194,632.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen199213,345-347,375-376Creel197095,101,107,113Goldin2011108,112(15,24)Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith200396–98(8,10)-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHansen199213,345-347,375-376Creel197095,101,107,113Goldin2011108,112(15,24)Youlan194832–34Pines2023Smith200396–98(8,10)_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHansen1992">Hansen 1992</a>, p. 13,345-347,375-376; <a href="#CITEREFCreel1970">Creel 1970</a>, p. 95,101,107,113; <a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 108,112(15,24); <a href="#CITEREFYoulan1948">Youlan 1948</a>, p. 32–34; <a href="#CITEREFPines2023">Pines 2023</a>; <a href="#CITEREFSmith2003">Smith 2003</a>, p. 96–98(8,10).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldin201191-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldin201191_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldin2011">Goldin 2011</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChan1991" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Alan K. L. (1991). Alan K. L. Chan (ed.). <i>Two Visions of the Way</i>. State University of New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791498729" title="Special:BookSources/9780791498729"><bdi>9780791498729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Visions+of+the+Way&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780791498729&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow1985" class="citation book cs1">Barlow, Jeffrey G. (1985). Donald H. Bishop (ed.). <i>Chinese Thought: An Introduction</i>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780836411300" title="Special:BookSources/9780836411300"><bdi>9780836411300</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Thought%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780836411300&rft.aulast=Barlow&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Cook" title="Scott Cook">Cook, Scott</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BHz4swEACAAJ"><i>The Bamboo Texts of Guodian: A Study and Complete Translation, Volume 2</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933947-64-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933947-64-8"><bdi>978-1-933947-64-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bamboo+Texts+of+Guodian%3A+A+Study+and+Complete+Translation%2C+Volume+2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-933947-64-8&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBHz4swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Creel, Herrlee Glessner</a> (1960). <i>Confucius, the Man and the Myth</i>. Kessinger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4367-1591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4367-1591-1"><bdi>978-1-4367-1591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucius%2C+the+Man+and+the+Myth&rft.pub=Kessinger&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-1-4367-1591-1&rft.aulast=Creel&rft.aufirst=Herrlee+Glessner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Creel, Herrlee Glessner</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C"><i>What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8"><bdi>978-0-226-12047-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Taoism%3F%3A+And+Other+Studies+in+Chinese+Cultural+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-226-12047-8&rft.aulast=Creel&rft.aufirst=Herrlee+Glessner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5p6EBnx4_W0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herrlee_G._Creel" title="Herrlee G. Creel">Creel, Herrlee Glessner</a> (1974). <i>Shen Pu-hai: Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12027-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12027-0"><bdi>978-0-226-12027-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shen+Pu-hai%3A+Chinese+Political+Philosopher+of+the+Fourth+Century+B.C.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-226-12027-0&rft.aulast=Creel&rft.aufirst=Herrlee+Glessner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chan, Alan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/">"Laozi"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a>; Nodelman, Uri (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Winter 2018 ed.)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Laozi&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2018&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flaozi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingxin2015" class="citation book cs1">Dingxin, Zhou (2015). <i>The Confucian Legalist State</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199351732" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199351732"><bdi>978-0199351732</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confucian+Legalist+State&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0199351732&rft.aulast=Dingxin&rft.aufirst=Zhou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuyvendak1992" class="citation book cs1">Duyvendak, J.J.L. (1992). <i>Tao Te Ching</i>. Charles E. 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Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-760347-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-760347-5"><bdi>978-0-19-760347-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+Moral-political+Philosophy+in+Early+China&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-760347-5&rft.aulast=Jiang&rft.aufirst=Tao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqXo_EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hongkyung_Kim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hongkyung Kim (page does not exist)">Kim, Hongkyung</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9EW5rwv5FQoC"><i>The Old Master: A Syncretic Reading of the Laozi from the Mawangdui Text A Onward</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-4013-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-4013-2"><bdi>978-1-4384-4013-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Master%3A+A+Syncretic+Reading+of+the+Laozi+from+the+Mawangdui+Text+A+Onward&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-4013-2&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hongkyung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9EW5rwv5FQoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeung2019" class="citation book cs1">Leung, Vincent S. 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Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.19186">10.3998/mpub.19186</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472901340" title="Special:BookSources/9780472901340"><bdi>9780472901340</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classifying+the+Zhuangzi+Chapters&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.series=Michigan+Monographs+in+Chinese+Studies%2C+vol.+65&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.19186&rft.isbn=9780472901340&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xiaogan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2014" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Xiaogan (2014). 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Vol.+1%3A+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC-AD+220&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewe1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a> (1999). <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewe2011" class="citation book cs1">Loewe, Michael (2011). <i>Dong Zhongshu, a "Confucian" Heritage and the Chunqiu Fanlu</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004194656" title="Special:BookSources/9789004194656"><bdi>9789004194656</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dong+Zhongshu%2C+a+%22Confucian%22+Heritage+and+the+Chunqiu+Fanlu&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789004194656&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundahl1992" class="citation book cs1">Lundahl, Bertil (1992). Lundahl, Bertil (ed.). <i>Han Fei Zi: The Man and the Work</i>. Institute of Oriental Languages, Stockholm University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789171530790" title="Special:BookSources/9789171530790"><bdi>9789171530790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han+Fei+Zi%3A+The+Man+and+the+Work&rft.pub=Institute+of+Oriental+Languages%2C+Stockholm+University&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9789171530790&rft.aulast=Lundahl&rft.aufirst=Bertil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair2000" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H. (2000). "The <i>Zhuangzi</i> and its Impact". In Kohn, Livia (ed.). <i>Daoism Handbook</i>. 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(2015). <i>Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231169325" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231169325"><bdi>978-0231169325</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luxuriant+Gems+of+the+Spring+and+Autumn&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0231169325&rft.aulast=Major&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakeham1990" class="citation journal cs1">Makeham, John (1990). "The Legalist Concept of Hsing-ming: An Example of the Contribution of Archaeological Evidence to the Re-Interpretation of Transmitted Texts". <i>Monumenta Serica</i>. <b>39</b>: 87–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1990.11731214">10.1080/02549948.1990.11731214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=The+Legalist+Concept+of+Hsing-ming%3A+An+Example+of+the+Contribution+of+Archaeological+Evidence+to+the+Re-Interpretation+of+Transmitted+Texts&rft.volume=39&rft.pages=87-114&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1990.11731214&rft.aulast=Makeham&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakeham1994" class="citation book cs1">Makeham, John (1994). <i>Name and Actuality in Early Chinese Thought</i>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1174-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1174-3"><bdi>978-1-4384-1174-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Name+and+Actuality+in+Early+Chinese+Thought&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-1174-3&rft.aulast=Makeham&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMou2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bo_Mou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bo Mou (page does not exist)">Mou, Bo</a> (2008). <i>Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-24937-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-24937-4"><bdi>978-1-134-24937-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-134-24937-4&rft.aulast=Mou&rft.aufirst=Bo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeerenboom1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randall_Peerenboom" title="Randall Peerenboom">Peerenboom, Randall</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0ORAmNP5EC"><i>Law and Morality in Ancient China. The Silk Manuscripts of Huang-Lao</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791412381" title="Special:BookSources/9780791412381"><bdi>9780791412381</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Morality+in+Ancient+China.+The+Silk+Manuscripts+of+Huang-Lao&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780791412381&rft.aulast=Peerenboom&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOZ0ORAmNP5EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2009" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2009). <i>Envisioning Eternal Empire</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3275-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3275-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-3275-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Envisioning+Eternal+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3275-9&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2013" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2013). "Submerged by Absolute Power: The Ruler's Predicament in the Han Feizi". <i>Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei</i>. Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy. pp. 67–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-4318-2_4">10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4317-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-4317-5"><bdi>978-94-007-4317-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Submerged+by+Absolute+Power%3A+The+Ruler%27s+Predicament+in+the+Han+Feizi&rft.btitle=Dao+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Han+Fei&rft.series=Dao+Companions+to+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pages=67-86&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-4318-2_4&rft.isbn=978-94-007-4317-5&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2014" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2014). <i>Birth of an Empire</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-938169-07-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-938169-07-6"><bdi>978-1-938169-07-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth+of+an+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-938169-07-6&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2017" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2017). <i>The Book of Lord Shang: Apologetics of State Power in Early China. Abridged Edition</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-55038-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-55038-3"><bdi>978-0-231-55038-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Lord+Shang%3A+Apologetics+of+State+Power+in+Early+China.+Abridged+Edition&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-231-55038-3&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2022" class="citation journal cs1">Pines, Yuri (2022). "Han Feizi and the Earliest Exegesis of Zuozhuan". <i>Monumenta Serica</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 341–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.2022.2131797">10.1080/02549948.2022.2131797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=Han+Feizi+and+the+Earliest+Exegesis+of+Zuozhuan&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=341-365&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.2022.2131797&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Pines, Yuri</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/chinese-legalism/">"Legalism in Chinese Philosophy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a>; Nodelman, Uri (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Summer 2023 ed.)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legalism+in+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2023&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2023%2Fentries%2Fchinese-legalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2024" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L24aBQAAQBAJ"><i>Dao Companion to China's fa Tradition</i></a>. Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048129270" title="Special:BookSources/9789048129270"><bdi>9789048129270</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dao+Companion+to+China%27s+fa+Tradition&rft.place=Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9789048129270&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL24aBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1974" class="citation journal cs1">Rubin, Vitali (1974). "Shen Tao and Fa-Chia". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" title="Journal of the American Oriental Society">Journal of the American Oriental Society</a></i>. <b>94</b> (3): 337–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F600068">10.2307/600068</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/600068">600068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Shen+Tao+and+Fa-Chia&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=337-346&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F600068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F600068%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Vitali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2013" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, Henrique (2013). "Han Fei, De, Welfare". <i>Asian Philosophy</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 260–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09552367.2013.807584">10.1080/09552367.2013.807584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Han+Fei%2C+De%2C+Welfare&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=260-274&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09552367.2013.807584&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Henrique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2018" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, Henrique (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W5R8DwAAQBAJ"><i>An Introduction to Hanfei's Political Philosophy</i></a>. Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Scholars_Publishing" title="Cambridge Scholars Publishing">Cambridge Scholars Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0812-5"><bdi>978-1-5275-0812-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hanfei%27s+Political+Philosophy&rft.place=Lady+Stephenson+Library%2C+Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-0812-5&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Henrique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW5R8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_I._Schwartz" title="Benjamin I. 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Harvard: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-96191-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-96191-3"><bdi>978-0-674-96191-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Thought+in+Ancient+China&rft.place=Harvard&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-674-96191-3&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkA0c1hl3CXUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaughnessy2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_L_Shaughnessy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward L Shaughnessy (page does not exist)">Shaughnessy, Edward L</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xFe8EAAAQBAJ"><i>A Brief History of Ancient China</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226120478" title="Special:BookSources/9780226120478"><bdi>9780226120478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Ancient+China&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780226120478&rft.aulast=Shaughnessy&rft.aufirst=Edward+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxFe8EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShih2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Shih, Hu</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jRtEAAAAQBAJ"><i>English Writings of Hu Shih. Volume 2</i></a>. Princeton University: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Foreign_Language_Teaching_and_Research_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press (page does not exist)">Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-31180-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-31180-2"><bdi>978-3-642-31180-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Writings+of+Hu+Shih.+Volume+2&rft.place=Princeton+University&rft.pub=Foreign+Language+Teaching+and+Research+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-642-31180-2&rft.aulast=Shih&rft.aufirst=Hu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjRtEAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlingerland2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Slingerland" title="Edward Slingerland">Slingerland, Edward</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC"><i>Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513899-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513899-3"><bdi>978-0-19-513899-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effortless+Action%3A+Wu-wei+as+Conceptual+Metaphor+and+Spiritual+Ideal+in+Early+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513899-3&rft.aulast=Slingerland&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgSReaja3V3IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2003" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Kidder (2003). "Sima Tan and the Invention of Daoism, "Legalism," <i>et cetera</i>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Asian_Studies" title="The Journal of Asian Studies">The Journal of Asian Studies</a></i>. <b>62</b> (1): 129–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3096138">10.2307/3096138</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3096138">3096138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Sima+Tan+and+the+Invention+of+Daoism%2C+%22Legalism%2C%22+et+cetera&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-156&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3096138&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3096138%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Kidder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Watson" title="Burton Watson">Watson, Burton</a> (1993). <i>Records of the Grand Historian</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231081689" title="Special:BookSources/9780231081689"><bdi>9780231081689</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Records+of+the+Grand+Historian&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780231081689&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Burton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Watson" title="Burton Watson">Watson, Burton</a> (1996). <i>Xunzi: Basic writings</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231521321" title="Special:BookSources/9780231521321"><bdi>9780231521321</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xunzi%3A+Basic+writings&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780231521321&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Burton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Watson" title="Burton Watson">Watson, Burton</a> (2003). <i>Han Feizi Basic Writings</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52131-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52131-4"><bdi>978-0-231-52131-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han+Feizi+Basic+Writings&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52131-4&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Burton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinston2005" class="citation journal cs1">Winston, Kenneth (2005). "The Internal Morality of Chinese Legalism". <i>Singapore Journal of Legal Studies</i>: 313–347.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Singapore+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Internal+Morality+of+Chinese+Legalism&rft.pages=313-347&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Winston&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVankeerberghen2001" class="citation book cs1">Vankeerberghen, Griet (2001). <i>The Huainanzi and Liu An's Claim to Moral Authority</i>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5147-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5147-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-5147-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Huainanzi+and+Liu+An%27s+Claim+to+Moral+Authority&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5147-2&rft.aulast=Vankeerberghen&rft.aufirst=Griet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoulan1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Youlan, Feng</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HZU0YKnpTH0C"><i>A Short History of Chinese Philosophy</i></a>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83634-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83634-8"><bdi>978-0-684-83634-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83634-8&rft.aulast=Youlan&rft.aufirst=Feng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHZU0YKnpTH0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu-Lan1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Yu-Lan, Fung</a> (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6vLsbZ-OFs4C"><i>A History of Chinese Philosophy</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02021-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02021-1"><bdi>978-0-691-02021-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02021-1&rft.aulast=Yu-Lan&rft.aufirst=Fung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6vLsbZ-OFs4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegalism+%28Chinese+philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a 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normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" 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law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law without the state">Law without the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_country_legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="List of country legal systems">Legal system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Li</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">Rational-legal authority</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-Fiqh">Usul al-Fiqh</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f3c7b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template talk:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_learning" title="Han learning">Han learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxist Philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Daoxue</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Syncretism (Chinese philosophy)">Mixed School</a></li></ul> <i><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Schools_of_Thought" title="Nine Schools of Thought">Nine Schools of Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></li></ul></div></i> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_philosophers" title="List of Chinese philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bu_Shang" title="Bu Shang">Bu Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunyu_Kun" title="Chunyu Kun">Chunyu Kun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xi" title="Deng Xi">Deng Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duanmu_Ci" title="Duanmu Ci">Duanmu Ci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaozi" title="Gaozi">Gaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_Shi" title="Hui Shi">Hui Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(philosopher)" title="Xu Xing (philosopher)">Xu Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Xian" title="Yuan Xian">Yuan Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zichan" title="Zichan">Zichan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisi" title="Zisi">Zisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongfang_Shuo" title="Dongfang Shuo">Dongfang Shuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dou_Wu" title="Dou Wu">Dou Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Kui_(scholar)" title="Jia Kui (scholar)">Jia Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_Fang" title="Jing Fang">Jing Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kong_Anguo" title="Kong Anguo">Kong Anguo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jia_(Western_Han)" title="Lu Jia (Western Han)">Lu Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Rong" title="Ma Rong">Ma Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Fu (Han dynasty)">Wang Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Yue" title="Xun Yue">Xun Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" title="Yang Xiong (author)">Yang Xiong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhen" title="Fan Zhen">Fan Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Xuan" title="Fu Xuan">Fu Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Kang" title="Ji Kang">Ji Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Su_(Cao_Wei)" title="Wang Su (Cao Wei)">Wang Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiahou_Xuan" title="Xiahou Xuan">Xiahou Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Daoyun" title="Xie Daoyun">Xie Daoyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Can" title="Xun Can">Xun Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Zhitui" title="Yan Zhitui">Yan Zhitui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi_Dun" title="Zhi Dun">Zhi Dun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Yi" title="Fu Yi">Fu Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Tong_(philosopher)" title="Wang Tong (philosopher)">Wang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhihe" title="Zhang Zhihe">Zhang Zhihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ao_(philosopher)" title="Li Ao (philosopher)">Li Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuxi" title="Liu Yuxi">Liu Yuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongyuan" title="Liu Zongyuan">Liu Zongyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji Yixuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Ten Kingdoms</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Hao" title="Cheng Hao">Cheng Hao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Hong" title="Hu Hong">Hu Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jiuyuan" title="Lu Jiuyuan">Lu Jiuyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chuyi" title="Wang Chuyi">Wang Chuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Shi" title="Ye Shi">Ye Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiru" title="Chen Jiru">Chen Jiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang Zongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Zicheng" title="Hong Zicheng">Hong Zicheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Hong" title="Jiao Hong">Jiao Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Zhide" title="Lai Zhide">Lai Zhide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)">Li Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongzhou" title="Liu Zongzhou">Liu Zongzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Rufang_(Ming_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo Rufang (Ming dynasty)">Luo Rufang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Dehong" title="Qian Dehong">Qian Dehong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ji_(philosopher)" title="Wang Ji (philosopher)">Wang Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Gen" title="Wang Gen">Wang Gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Cheng_(philosopher)" title="Wu Cheng (philosopher)">Wu Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Ai" title="Xu Ai">Xu Ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_Ruoshui" title="Zhan Ruoshui">Zhan Ruoshui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongmou" title="Chen Hongmou">Chen Hongmou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Menglei" title="Chen Menglei">Chen Menglei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhen" title="Dai Zhen">Dai Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Bao" title="Fang Bao">Fang Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Lanfen" title="Fang Lanfen">Fang Lanfen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Quan" title="Fang Quan">Fang Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Guifen" title="Feng Guifen">Feng Guifen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_Zizhen" title="Gong Zizhen">Gong Zizhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Yanwu" title="Gu Yanwu">Gu Yanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Liangji" title="Hong Liangji">Hong Liangji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Yun" title="Ji Yun">Ji Yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Qixi" title="Ma Qixi">Ma Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yiming" title="Liu Yiming">Liu Yiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pingge" title="Pan Pingge">Pan Pingge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Zhen" title="Tang Zhen">Tang Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fuzhi" title="Wang Fuzhi">Wang Fuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Yuan_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yan Yuan (Qing dynasty)">Yan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Yue" title="Yu Yue">Yu Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhengxie" title="Yu Zhengxie">Yu Zhengxie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuecheng" title="Zhang Xuecheng">Zhang Xuecheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Cunyu" title="Zhuang Cunyu">Zhuang Cunyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Carsun Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._C._Chang" title="P. C. Chang">P. C. Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Daqi" title="Chen Daqi">Chen Daqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung-ying_Cheng" title="Chung-ying Cheng">Chung-ying Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ien_Mu" title="Ch'ien Mu">Ch'ien Mu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Anping" title="Chu Anping">Chu Anping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Keli" title="Fang Keli">Fang Keli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Su" title="Gu Su">Gu Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Zhun" title="Gu Zhun">Gu Zhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Qiaomu" title="Hu Qiaomu">Hu Qiaomu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Gang" title="Hua Gang">Hua Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Yuelin" title="Jin Yuelin">Jin Yuelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Shui-chuen" title="Lee Shui-chuen">Lee Shui-chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shicen" title="Li Shicen">Li Shicen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zehou" title="Li Zehou">Li Zehou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Shuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Renzong" title="Qiu Renzong">Qiu Renzong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Chun-i" title="Tang Chun-i">Tang Chun-i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Yijie" title="Tang Yijie">Tang Yijie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsang_Lap_Chuen" title="Tsang Lap Chuen">Tsang Lap Chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fuguan" title="Xu Fuguan">Xu Fuguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Changji" title="Yang Changji">Yang Changji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Haiguang" title="Yin Haiguang">Yin Haiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dunkang" title="Yu Dunkang">Yu Dunkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Dongsun" title="Zhang Dongsun">Zhang Dongsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shenfu" title="Zhang Shenfu">Zhang Shenfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Guoping" title="Zhou Guoping">Zhou Guoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Zuoren" title="Zhou Zuoren">Zhou Zuoren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(philosophy)" title="Fa (philosophy)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mozi#Philosophy" title="Mozi">Jian'ai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_zuo" title="Jing zuo">Jing zuo</a></i></li> <li><i>Li</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qing_(philosophy)" title="Qing (philosophy)">Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Si_(philosophy)" title="Si (philosophy)">Si</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ti_(philosophy)" title="Ti (philosophy)">Ti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)">Xin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)#East_Asian_philosophies" title="Nature (philosophy)">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">Yong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhengming" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengming">Zhengming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_China" title="Logic in China">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Classical_China" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy#Ancient_China" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting#Philosophy" title="Ink wash painting">Ink wash</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shan_shui#Concepts" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a> <ul><li><a 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