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<span>Neurocriminology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neurocriminology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neurocriminology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neurocriminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criminal_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Criminal perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Crime prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime_prediction-sublist" 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurolaw</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>An example of an fMRI brain scan. fMRI BOLD outputs (yellow) are overlaid on a brain anatomy image (gray) averaged from several humans. Similar images are used in a variety of applications, now including law.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Neurolaw</b> is a field of interdisciplinary study that explores the effects of discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> on legal rules and standards.<sup id="cite_ref-Petoft-Arian_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petoft-Arian-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drawing from <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive neuroscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a>, neurolaw practitioners seek to address not only the descriptive and predictive issues of how neuroscience is and will be used in the legal system, but also the normative issues of how neuroscience should and should not be used. </p><p>The rapid growth of <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) research has led to new insights on neuroanatomical structure and function, which has led to a greater understanding of human behavior and cognition. As a response, there has been an emergence of questions regarding how these findings can be applied to criminology and legal processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major areas of current neurolaw research include courtroom applications, legal implications of neuroscience findings, and how neuroscience-related jurisdiction can be created and applied.<sup id="cite_ref-Eagleman_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eagleman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Petoft_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petoft-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the growing interest in neurolaw and its potential applications, the legal realm recognizes the substantial opportunity for misuse and is proceeding cautiously with novel research outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Petoft-3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petoft-3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodenough_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenough-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term neurolaw was first coined by J. Sherrod Taylor in 1991, in a <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology_(journal)" title="Neuropsychology (journal)">Neuropsychology</a> journal article analyzing the role of psychologists and lawyers in the criminal justice system.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor-erickson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor-erickson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this publication, scholars from both fields began to network through presentations and dialogs, and start to publish books, articles, and other literature about this intersection. Parallel to the expansion of neurolaw, an emergence of <a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">neuroethics</a> was developing.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The intersection of neurolaw and ethics was able to be better scrutinized by the initiation of the Law and Neuroscience Project by The MacArthur Foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodenough_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenough-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phase I of this project was launched in 2007 with a $10 million grant.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initiative sustained forty projects addressing a multitude of issues, including experimental and theoretical data that will provide further evidence as to how neuroscience may eventually shape the law. The Gruter Institute for Law and Behavioral Research and the <a href="/wiki/Dana_Foundation" title="Dana Foundation">Dana Foundation</a> are some of the prominent institutions that receive grants and conduct neurolaw research under this initiative. </p><p>Neurolaw has also piqued the interests of several universities, such as <a href="/wiki/Baylor_College_of_Medicine" title="Baylor College of Medicine">Baylor College of Medicine</a>'s Initiative on Neuroscience and the Law, now known as the national nonprofit, called the Center for Science & Law.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SciLaw, as the organization is known, seeks to leverage neuroscience, law, ethics, programming, and data science to analyze policies and develop solutions to advance the criminal justice system. Their stated goal is to 'steer social policy in an evidenced-based manner, thereby reducing rates of incarceration and providing innovative options for improving the criminal justice system in a cost effective and humane way'.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>’s Center for Neuroscience and Society began in July 2009, and is working towards confronting the social, legal, and ethical inferences of neuroscience.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University" title="Vanderbilt University">Vanderbilt University</a> created the first dual J.D./PhD in the United States in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neurocriminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few important sources have shaped the way that neuroscience is currently used in the courtroom. Primarily, J. Sherrod Taylor's book, <i>Neurolaw: Brain and Spinal Cord Injury</i> (1997), which was used as a resource for attorneys to properly introduce medical jargon into the courtroom and to further develop the implications of neuroscience on litigation. In this book, Taylor also explained the consequences of <i><a href="/wiki/Daubert_v._Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals">Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Juliano_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juliano-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> case resulted in what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Daubert_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Daubert Standard">Daubert Standard</a>, which sets rules regarding the use of scientific evidence in the courtroom. This standard governs the way that neuroscience evidence can be presented during a court case. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_perception">Criminal perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Criminal perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recently, Petoft and his colleagues introduced a newly coined term: "Criminal perception" "as an ability that makes it possible for a child to understand criminal situations and behave lawfully." The term encompasses two distinct intertwined characteristics of children mean Social and Moral Personalities. The former employs the areas of the brain which contribute to normative cognition and person perception; and the latter stems from the cognitive networks by which gut feeling, emotional awareness, and conscious deliberation are realized in a criminal situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Petoft-Arian2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petoft-Arian2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Petoft-Arian3_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petoft-Arian3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crime_prediction">Crime prediction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Crime prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Behavioral testing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> evidence offer potentially more accurate modalities for predicting human behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing these tools to be used in criminology would be beneficial particularly in determining criminal sentence length and in assessing risk for which criminals should remain in jail or be released based on prediction of future offenses.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only could the adaptation of these tools aid in the process of <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">recidivism</a>, but they could also show indications for the need for personal rehabilitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In light of this information and its potential applications, the legal system seeks to create a balance between punishment and penalties based on the ability to predict additional criminal activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Eagleman_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eagleman-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Center for Science & Law has developed a suite of mobile and gamified NeuroCognitive Risk Assessments (NCRA)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to help steer people to the proper post-conviction rehabilitation programs by harnessing what drives individual decision making. By understanding individual differences in aggression, empathy, decision making, and impulsivity -- without reference to race -- the group states they can build better and fairer inroads to rehabilitation. As a risk assessment, it was found to be as predictive or more so than risk assessments commonly used. Holding consistent with their mission to "advance justice", the NCRA does not collect race data making for a more fair and unbiased assessment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insanity_defense">Insanity defense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Insanity defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tendency of the United States criminal justice system has been to limit the degree to which one can claim innocence based on <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>. During the middle of the 20th century many courts, through the <a href="/wiki/Durham_rule" title="Durham rule">Durham Rules</a> and the American Law Institute Model Penal Code, regarded impaired volition as legitimate grounds for the <a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">insanity defense</a>. However, when <a href="/wiki/John_Hinckley" class="mw-redirect" title="John Hinckley">John Hinckley</a> was acquitted due to insanity in 1982, a reversal of this opinion occurred, which spurred a narrowing definition of mental illness. Insanity decisions became increasingly based on the <a href="/wiki/M%E2%80%99Naghten_Rules" class="mw-redirect" title="M’Naghten Rules">M’Naghten Rules</a>, which asserted that unless one was able to prove that a mental illness kept him or her from knowing that their actions were wrong, or knowing the disposition of the criminal act, one would not be able to be tried as <a href="/wiki/Criminally_insane" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminally insane">criminally insane</a>. </p><p>Contemporary research conducted on the prefrontal cortex has criticized this standpoint because it considers impaired <a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">volition</a> as a factor. Many researchers and courts are beginning to consider "<a href="/wiki/Irresistible_impulse" title="Irresistible impulse">irresistible impulse</a>" as legitimate grounds for mental illness.<sup id="cite_ref-Sapolsky_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sapolsky-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the factors neurosciences have added to the insanity defense is the claim that the brain “made someone do it.” In these cases, the argument is based on the notion that individuals' decisions are made for them, before they are able to consciously realize what they are doing. </p><p>Further research on control and inhibition mechanisms will allow for further modifications to the insanity defense.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodenough_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenough-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impaired functioning of the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">PFC</a> is evidence that a prime factor in mental illness is disrupted volition. Many experiments using fMRI show that one of the functions of the PFC is to bias a person towards taking the more difficult action. This action is representative of a long-term reward, and it is competing with an action that will lead to immediate satisfaction. It is responsible for moral reasoning, including regret. Individual variations that impair the PFC are extremely detrimental to the decision-making process and give an individual a greater likelihood in a committing a crime he or she would have otherwise not committed.<sup id="cite_ref-Sapolsky_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sapolsky-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_death">Brain death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Brain death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Injuries or illnesses that lead to a <a href="/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent vegetative state">persistent vegetative state</a> have come to the forefront of many ethical, legal, and scientific issues regarding <a href="/wiki/Brain_death" title="Brain death">brain death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eagleman2008_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eagleman2008-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the exterior, it is a difficult to know when a patient is beyond hope for recovery, as well as to decide who has the right to end <a href="/wiki/Life_support" title="Life support">life support</a>. </p><p>Research initiatives in cognition have helped to develop an understanding of the vegetative state. Research has shown that although a person can be awake and conscious, he or she may not show any signs of awareness or recognition to external stimulation. In 2005, research was conducted on a 23-year-old female who suffered <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a> from an automobile accident. The woman was declared to be in a vegetative state; after five months she continued to be unresponsive, but brain pattern measurements indicated normal sleep and wake cycles. Using fMRI technology, researchers concluded that she was able to understand external stimuli via activity in specific regions of the brain. Particularly, she exhibited increased activity in the middle and superior temporal gyri similar to the way that a healthy individual would. This positive response revealed potential for medical imaging to be used to understand the implications of brain death, and to help answer legal, scientific, and ethical questions pertaining to individuals in vegetative states.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nootropics">Nootropics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nootropics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolaw also encompasses ethical questions regarding <a href="/wiki/Nootropics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nootropics">nootropics</a>, or mind-enhancing drugs. Current research suggests that the future may hold powerful medications that can specifically target and alter brain function by bypassing the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood brain barrier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanni_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanni-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The potential to significantly improve one's concentration, memory, or cognition through drug-use has raised numerous questions on the legality of these substances, and their appropriateness in everyday life. Analogous to the controversy over the use of <a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabolic steroids">anabolic steroids</a> in professional sports, many high schools and universities are wary of students eventually using nootropics to artificially boost academic performance. </p><p>Some of the questions raised regarding the use of nootropics include:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>How will these enhancers affect performance gaps between family income classes?</li> <li>Will it become necessary to use an enhancing drug simply to remain competitive in society?</li> <li>How does society distinguish between what is an acceptable substance (e.g., caffeine) and an unacceptable substance to alter one's mind?</li> <li>Do people have the right to experiment with substances to modify their own cognition?</li></ul> <p>Scientists and ethicists have attempted to answer these questions while analyzing the overall effect on society. For example, it is largely accepted that mind-enhancing drugs are acceptable for use on patients diagnosed with cognitive disorders, as in a case of prescribing <a href="/wiki/Adderall" title="Adderall">Adderall</a> to children and adults with <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>. However, Adderall and <a href="/wiki/Ritalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritalin">Ritalin</a> have also become popular black-market drugs, most notably on college campuses. Students often use them to maintain focus when struggling to complete large amounts of schoolwork, and often become dependent on the effects produced.<sup id="cite_ref-Talbot_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talbot-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is ethically questionable whether individuals who do not need nootropics should use them, and mostly unknown how continued usage could impact the brain chemistry of someone who is using nootropics for non-prescriptive reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_research">Current research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Current research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolaw advancements depend on state-of-the-art medical technology and grant-funded research. Among the most prominent technologies and disciplines used in neurolaw research are <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI), <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET scan), <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI), and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Epigenetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current research is exploring how genetic analysis can be used to assess risk and predict atypical behaviors. Studies have shown links between violent behaviors and a low <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a> variant of the <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase_A" title="Monoamine oxidase A">MAOA</a> gene.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preliminary research suggests that males that have this dysfunctional gene and have experienced childhood abuse are several hundred times more likely to commit a violent crime than those with normal MAOA gene expression. </p><p>Findings like this have sparked a conversation about 'neuroprediction' or using genetics and neuroimaging modalities to predict criminal behavior and assess individual risk. If the science behind prediction improves, lawmakers will need to decide the role that genetic, neuroanatomical, or neuropathic predictions can play in legal decisions for risk assessment, particularly when a criminal is being sentenced or released. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Neuroimaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Understanding structural and mechanistic neural dysfunction in criminals can help to determine motives and define criminal responsibility. </p><p>fMRI is particularly important because it allows for detailed functional <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">mapping of the human brain</a>. fMRI measures <a href="/wiki/Blood-oxygen-level-dependent_imaging" title="Blood-oxygen-level-dependent imaging">blood oxygen level dependent</a> (BOLD) contrast, which allows us to view the most active areas of the brain at a given moment based on blood flow. This imaging modality allows researchers to identify and understand complex neural pathways and mechanisms. Relevant mechanisms in neurolaw research are <a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulse</a>, and deceit circuitry. </p><p>Neuroimaging modalities can also be used to analyze neuroanatomical structures in terms of size and shape. Researchers are working towards defining the characteristics of healthy, well-functioning brain structures, which may help us better understand the dysfunctions and deficits in atypical, criminal brains.<sup id="cite_ref-Eagleman2008_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eagleman2008-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lie_detection">Lie detection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lie detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/FMRI_lie_detection" title="FMRI lie detection">FMRI lie detection</a></div> <p>There is potential to use fMRI evidence as a more advanced form of <a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">lie detection</a>, particularly in identifying the regions of the brain involved in truth telling, deception, and <a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">false memories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>False memories are a barrier in validating witness testimonies. Research has shown that when presented a list of semantically related words, participant recollection can often be unintentionally false and additive of words that were not originally present. This is a normal psychological occurrence but presents numerous problems to a jury when attempting to sort out the facts of a case.<sup id="cite_ref-Abe_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abe-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>fMRI imaging is also being used to analyze brain activity during intentional lies. Findings have shown that the <a href="/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex">dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</a> activates when subjects are pretending to know information, but that the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">right anterior hippocampus</a> activates when a subject presents false recognition in contrast to lying or accurately telling a truth. This indicates that there may be two separate neural pathways for lying and false memory recall. However, there are limitations to how much brain imaging can distinguish between truths and deceptions because these regions are common areas of executive control function; It is difficult to tell if the activation seen is due to the lie told, or something unrelated.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Future research aims to differentiate between when someone has genuinely forgotten an experience and when someone has made an active choice to withhold or fabricate information. Developing this distinction to the point of scientific validity would help discern when defendants are being truthful about their actions and when witnesses are being truthful about their experiences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroimaging_criticisms">Neuroimaging criticisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Neuroimaging criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of neuroimaging in the legal system creates a very divided audience. Many argue for its potential, while others argue it will not accurately replace human investigation of criminal decision-making processes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even considering recent research findings, neuroimaging is still inadequately understood. Additional medical factors like age, medication history, diet, and <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine</a> function need to be considered when viewing an fMRI image, and the sensitivity of the scanner needs to be considered as well. If the person being scanned is moving or inaccurately completing assigned tasks, the images produced will be invalid. Other critics highlight that the image derived from the technology does not display the brain's <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a>. Functional neuroimaging was not intended to calculate volition, and while it may offer insight into the processes that cause behavior, it is debated whether or not the images can objectively narrow in on <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">human reasoning</a> and specific thought processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Aggarwal_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aggarwal-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These factors make neuroimaging results hard to assess precisely, which is why there is hesitation towards presenting them in court cases. </p><p>Controversy over the science behind fMRI lie detection entered a federal courtroom in 2010 with a <a href="/wiki/Daubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Daubert">Daubert</a> hearing concerning its admissibility in a criminal trial. Ultimately, the images were excluded based on doubts about neuroimaging validity. A 2012 appeal of the case failed to change the court's view of the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal professionals suggest that there are currently too many serious, open questions about the suitability of neuroimaging for legal or other high stakes uses.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rusconi_594_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rusconi_594-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_in_practice">Application in practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Application in practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolaw techniques and policies are slowly entering the legal system due to professional and general public skepticism about its validity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently two companies, No Lie MRI and Cephos Corp, offer lie-detection services that utilize neuroimaging. Their services are considered to be a more advanced form of a polygraph test but are rarely accepted as evidence in the courtroom.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodenough_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenough-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rusconi_594_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rusconi_594-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chen_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of neuroimaging evidence for structural and functional analysis varies greatly by geographic region and cultural acceptance of the modality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, brain scan results have been increasingly utilized during the sentencing phase of trials, with the rate of cases involving neuroscience evidence doubling from 2006 to 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In two instances occurring in California and New York, defendants were able to reduce their sentence of first-degree murder to manslaughter using neuroimaging. Each case presented brain scans suggesting hindered neurological function hoping to mitigate their responsibility in the crime.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brain images were also used in the case of <i>Harrington v. State of Iowa</i> in 2003 as evidence for the defense.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodenough_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodenough-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the case of <i>Harrington v. State of Iowa</i>, the brain images were solely shown to the judge and not a jury panel, reducing the ability of this case to be used as precedent for utilizing brain imaging as evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai, India</a>, the legal system has taken a more rapid approach in applying neuroscience and has already incorporated it into criminal convictions. In 2008, an Indian woman was convicted of murder based on strong <a href="/wiki/Circumstantial_evidence" title="Circumstantial evidence">circumstantial evidence</a>, including a brain scan that suggested her guilt. This conviction was sharply criticized by Hank Greely, a professor of law at Stanford University. Greely contested the scan based on evidence produced by a <a href="/wiki/Brain_Electrical_Oscillation_Signature_Profiling" title="Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling">Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling</a> test (BEOSP). No scientific peer-review studies had ever been published demonstrating the efficacy of BEOS, raising questions about its reliability in such an important decision.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_and_military">Government and military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Government and military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States Military has become increasingly interested in the possibilities of neuroscience research. Brain imaging could help to distinguish between enemy combatants from those who pose no risk or determine the mental stability of their own soldiers. Nootropic drugs could also be used to enhance the focus and memories of soldiers, allowing for better recognition of dangers and improved performance. However, this has led to questions regarding the personal privacy of soldiers and detainees, and the compliance requirements that may come with performance enhancement. Although the civilian court system is reluctant to use unproven technologies, the military's future use of them may generate controversy over the possible innocence or guilt of enemy combatants.<sup id="cite_ref-Begley_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Begley-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the advent of novel technological innovations and information in the field of neuroscience, the military has begun to anticipate specific uses for such neuroscience research. However, these approaches, which can alter human cognitive abilities as well as infringe on an individual's right to the privacy of his or her own thoughts, are still innovatory and early in development. Present day treaties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">U.N. Declaration of Human Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Conventions</a>, address only the use of certain chemical agents and are not regulating the fast-paced evolution of recent advancements in cognitive science research. Due to this ambiguity and the potential of technology misuse, it has become increasingly pressing to address the regulations and ethics needed for neuroscience research.<sup id="cite_ref-Huang_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another area of interest to the military is the use of human enhancement drugs. <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), a <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">Pentagon</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>, is responsible for significant amount of military research and development of technology. With the announcement of the <a href="/wiki/BRAIN_Initiative" title="BRAIN Initiative">BRAIN Initiative</a> in 2013, DARPA began to support this initiative through a number of programs involving under-researched neuroscience topics like <a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation_(medicine)" title="Neuromodulation (medicine)">neuromodulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proprioception" title="Proprioception">proprioception</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">neurotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A current operation of DARPA is named the Preventing Sleep Deprivation Program, which conducts research on the molecular processes and changes in the brain involved with sleep deprivation, with the ultimate purpose to maximize warfighters’ cognitive abilities, even with sleep deprivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Clancy_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clancy-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of this research, sleep deprivation prevention drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ampakine" title="Ampakine">Ampakine</a> CX717 have increased in significance. However, because these chemical drugs directly affect natural chemical reactions and receptors in the body, the ethics of their use as well as safety are in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Kluger_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kluger-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cautions_and_concerns">Cautions and concerns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cautions and concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public opinion of neurolaw is influenced by cultural, political, and media-related factors. Surveys show that the general public does not have a well-formed understanding of neurolaw.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approval seems to depend highly on how the topic is framed and may even vary depending on partisanship. Due to glorified depictions of forensics labs on popular television shows, brain imaging has faced criticism for having a "<a href="/wiki/CSI_effect" title="CSI effect">CSI effect</a>". It is possible that some people have a false understanding of forensic science based on inaccurate portrayals.<sup id="cite_ref-Merikangas_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merikangas-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could lead to them having a stronger opinion about technological evidence or neurolaw initiatives. </p><p>Neuroscience is still not fully understood. There is not enough evidence of structural and functional relationships to be able to confidently link a brain feature to a criminal behavior or issue.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This uncertainty leaves room for misuse of neuroscientific evidence in a courtroom. American professor of law and psychology <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Morse" title="Stephen J. Morse">Stephen J. Morse</a> described the abuse of neuroscience in courtrooms with a pseudo-disease he called "brain overclaim syndrome". He comments on the idea of people having <a href="/wiki/Diminished_responsibility" title="Diminished responsibility">diminished responsibility</a> or no responsibility for their actions because those actions were caused by "the brain", in situations where the science could not support such causal claims. He raises the question of whether brains should be blamed for crimes, or the people behind them.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lawmakers and judges are cautious due to the lack of concrete findings in neurolaw. Before making decisions on how to regulate and utilize neuroscience research in court, lawmakers and judges must consider the implications that will come with suggested changes. Neuroimaging and genetic evidence have the potential to be helpful in legal processes and ensure that dangerous criminals stay behind bars, but it also has the potential to be abused in a way that imprisons undeserving parties on purpose or due to negligent use of the science.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although some experts recognize the possibilities and drawbacks of brain imaging, others still completely reject the field. In the future, judges must decide on the relevance and validity of neurological evidence so that it can enter the courtroom, and juries must be open to understanding scientific concepts but not be too willing to place all faith in neuroscience.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Petoft-Arian-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Petoft-Arian_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPetoft2019" class="citation journal cs1">Petoft, Arian (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archiviopenale.it/File/Download?codice=830489da-90d0-4f0d-9f9f-79780b98a155">"A Historical Overview of Law and Neuroscience: From the Emergence of Medico-Legal Discourses to Developed Neurolaw"</a>. <i>Archivio Penale</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 53–8. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4395810">4395810</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25874060">25874060</a>.</cite><span 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeynen2019" class="citation journal cs1">Meynen, Gerben (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4688026">"Neurolaw: recognizing opportunities and challenges for psychiatry"</a>. <i>Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 3–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1503%2Fjpn.150317">10.1503/jpn.150317</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1180-4882">1180-4882</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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(2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/content/full/36/4/499">"Commentary: Functional MRI Lie Detection"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law</i>. <b>36</b> (4): 499–501. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19092067">19092067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Psychiatry+and+the+Law&rft.atitle=Commentary%3A+Functional+MRI+Lie+Detection&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=499-501&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19092067&rft.aulast=Merikangas&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jaapl.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F36%2F4%2F499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesWagner2018" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Owen D.; Wagner, Anthony D. (2018-04-01). "Law and Neuroscience: Progress, Promise, and Pitfalls". Rochester, NY. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3178272">3178272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Law+and+Neuroscience%3A+Progress%2C+Promise%2C+and+Pitfalls&rft.date=2018-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3178272%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Owen+D.&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Anthony+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchen2012" class="citation journal cs1">Buchen, L (18 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/polopoly_fs/1.10456!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/484304a.pdf?origin=ppub">"Science in court: Arrested development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>484</b> (7394): 304–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.484..304B">2012Natur.484..304B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F484304a">10.1038/484304a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517146">22517146</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205071132">205071132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Science+in+court%3A+Arrested+development.&rft.volume=484&rft.issue=7394&rft.pages=304-6&rft.date=2012-04-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F484304a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205071132%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22517146&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Natur.484..304B&rft.aulast=Buchen&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fpolopoly_fs%2F1.10456%21%2Fmenu%2Fmain%2FtopColumns%2FtopLeftColumn%2Fpdf%2F484304a.pdf%3Forigin%3Dppub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morse, S. (2006). Brain Overclaim Syndrome and Criminal Responsibility: A Diagnostic Note. Retrieved from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/28">http://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/28</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEagleman2011" class="citation news cs1">Eagleman, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2011/07/the-brain-on-trial/308520/">"The Brain on Trial"</a>. No. July/August. The Atlantic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Brain+on+Trial&rft.issue=July%2FAugust&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Eagleman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2011%2F07%2Fthe-brain-on-trial%2F308520%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Lavin_Agency_Speakers_Bureau" class="citation web cs1">The Lavin Agency Speakers Bureau. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JcN5hVhWTsU">"Neuroscience and the Legal System: David Eagleman"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/JcN5hVhWTsU">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Neuroscience+and+the+Legal+System%3A+David+Eagleman&rft.au=The+Lavin+Agency+Speakers+Bureau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DJcN5hVhWTsU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_RSA" class="citation web cs1">The RSA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EREriwV71mA">"David Eagleman - The Brain and The Law"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/EREriwV71mA">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=David+Eagleman+-+The+Brain+and+The+Law&rft.au=The+RSA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DEREriwV71mA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIenca2017" class="citation news cs1">Ienca, Marcello, & Roberto Andorno (2017). "Towards New Human Rights in the Age of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology". <i>Life Sciences, Society and Policy</i>. Vol. 13, no. 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40504-017-0050-1">10.1186/s40504-017-0050-1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Life+Sciences%2C+Society+and+Policy&rft.atitle=Towards+New+Human+Rights+in+the+Age+of+Neuroscience+and+Neurotechnology&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40504-017-0050-1&rft.aulast=Ienca&rft.aufirst=Marcello%2C+%26+Roberto+Andorno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetoft2015" class="citation news cs1">Petoft, Arian (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijnl.tums.ac.ir/index.php/ijnl/article/view/780/548">"Neurolaw: a brief introduction"</a>. Iranian Journal of Neurology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Neurolaw%3A+a+brief+introduction&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Petoft&rft.aufirst=Arian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijnl.tums.ac.ir%2Findex.php%2Fijnl%2Farticle%2Fview%2F780%2F548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetoft2015" class="citation news cs1">Petoft, Arian (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sarvasumana.in/vol2is2.html">"Toward Human Behavior Sciences from the Perspective of Neurolaw"</a>. International Journal of Public Mental Health and Neurosciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Toward+Human+Behavior+Sciences+from+the+Perspective+of+Neurolaw&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Petoft&rft.aufirst=Arian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsarvasumana.in%2Fvol2is2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Rosen, Jeffrey (2007-03-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/11/magazine/11Neurolaw.t.html">"The Brain on the Stand"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times Magazine">New York Times Magazine</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-03-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Brain+on+the+Stand&rft.date=2007-03-11&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F03%2F11%2Fmagazine%2F11Neurolaw.t.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2009" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Owen; et al. (2009). "Brain Imaging for Legal Thinkers: A Guide for the Perplexed". Vol. 5. Stanford Technology Law Review. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1563612">1563612</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brain+Imaging+for+Legal+Thinkers%3A+A+Guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1563612%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2012" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Owen, & Francis X. Shen (2012). "Law and Neuroscience in the United States". International Neurolaw: A Comparative Analysis, p. 349, T.M. Spranger, ed. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2001085">2001085</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Law+and+Neuroscience+in+the+United+States&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2001085%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Owen%2C+%26+Francis+X.+Shen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Owen; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/courses/neurolaw/">"Law and Neuroscience Casebook"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Law+and+Neuroscience+Casebook&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psy.vanderbilt.edu%2Fcourses%2Fneurolaw%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawneuro.org/bibliography.php">"Law and Neuroscience Bibliography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Law+and+Neuroscience+Bibliography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawneuro.org%2Fbibliography.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2016" class="citation news cs1">Wagner, Anthony; et al. (2016). "fMRI and Lie Detection". "MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Law and Neuroscience". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2881586">2881586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=fMRI+and+Lie+Detection&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2881586%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolaw" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolaw&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a 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href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial 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title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuroscience" title="Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuroscience" title="Template talk:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuroscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neuroscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience" title="Outline of neuroscience">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Basic<br />science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">Brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-reading" title="Brain-reading">Brain-reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_neuroscience" title="Cellular neuroscience">Cellular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaging_genetics" title="Imaging genetics">Imaging genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience" title="Integrative neuroscience">Integrative neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_neuroscience" title="Molecular neuroscience">Molecular neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_decoding" title="Neural decoding">Neural decoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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