Small galaxies are growing smaller | Astronomy & Geophysics

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>Small galaxies are growing smaller | Astronomy & Geophysics | Oxford Academic</title> <script type='text/javascript' defer src='//js.trendmd.com/trendmd.min.js' data-trendmdconfig='{"element":"#trendmd-suggestions"}' class='optanon-category-C0002'></script> <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.7.1/jquery.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script> <script>window.jQuery || document.write('<script src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/Themes/Silver/app/js/jquery.3.7.1.min.js" type="text/javascript">\x3C/script>')</script> <script src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/Themes/Silver/app/vendor/v-638654880267142888/jquery-migrate-1.4.1.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://platform-api.sharethis.com/js/sharethis.js#property=643701de45aa460012e1032e&product=sop' async='async' class='optanon-category-C0004'></script> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, maximum-scale=10" /> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=Edge" />  <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no" />  <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879241847311/apple-touch-icon.png"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879242047735/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879241997236/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879242697268/safari-pinned-tab.svg" color="#001C54"> <link rel="icon" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879242147229/favicon.ico"> <link rel="manifest" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879242447968/manifest.json"> <meta name="msapplication-config" content="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/v-638654879241847311/browserconfig.xml"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#002f65"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/fonts/icons.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/Themes/Client/app/css/v-638670583805500652/site.min.css" /> <link rel="preload" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Merriweather:300,400,400italic,700,700italic|Source+Sans+Pro:400,400italic,700,700italic" as="style" onload="this.onload=null;this.rel='stylesheet'"> <link href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/data/SiteBuilderAssetsOriginals/Live/CSS/journals/v-638647548564311250/global.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <link href="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/data/SiteBuilderAssets/Live/CSS/astrogeo/v-638567229664369101/Site.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <script> var dataLayer = [{"full_title":"Small galaxies are growing smaller","short_title":"Small galaxies are growing smaller","authors":"Steve Phillipps","issue_and_volume":"Volume 45 | Issue 6","type":"research-article","online_publication_date":"2004-12-01","access_type":"Paid","license_type":"free","event_type":"Login-full-text","supplier_tag":"SC_Journals","object_type":"Article","taxonomy":"taxId%3a39%7ctaxLabel%3aAcademicSubjects%7cnodeId%3aSCI00010%7cnodeLabel%3aScience+and+Mathematics%7cnodeLevel%3a1","siteid":"astrogeo","authzrequired":"true","turnaway_id":"SUB_NONE","doi":"10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x"}]; </script> <script> (function (w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({ 'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js' }); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.async = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); })(window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-W6DD7HV'); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> var App = App || {}; App.LoginUserInfo = { isInstLoggedIn: 0, isIndividualLoggedIn: 0 }; App.CurrentSubdomain = 'astrogeo'; App.SiteURL = 'academic.oup.com/astrogeo'; </script> <link href="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/chartist.js/latest/chartist.min.css" media="print" onload="this.onload=null;this.removeAttribute('media');" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","@id":"https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/45/6/6.6/216618","name":"Small galaxies are growing smaller","datePublished":"2004-12-01","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/issue/45/6","@type":"PublicationIssue","issueNumber":"6","datePublished":"2004-12-01","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/astrogeo","@type":"Periodical","name":"Astronomy & Geophysics","issn":["1468-4004"]}},"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x","inLanguage":"en","copyrightHolder":"The Royal Astronomical Society","copyrightYear":"2024","publisher":"Oxford University Press","author":[{"name":"Phillipps, Steve","affiliation":"Reader in astrophysics at the University of Bristol.","@type":"Person"}],"description":"Abstract. New telescope technology and major sky surveys are finding more and more dwarf galaxies. Steve Phillipps discusses how this growing population ma","pageStart":"6.6","pageEnd":"6.9","siteName":"OUP Academic","thumbnailURL":"https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/astrogeo/45/6/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x/2/m_45-6-6.6-fig001.jpeg?Expires=1795557643&Signature=22Xphsil4Qkcr3I93xFNF2jBdXnVcGR0pjqBK-nEZJg8klGwt2AQbfBjl3UHGAMVVqznvfBqUSMypZXjFY5qKo5AK2ECQoELRn1l~CaVafP1Pbld91ZsQqNFE1fbO9Kp3n5KHttgHZUtOLfBPks9cNQ2sa3G7B0RLmpocHCe2pxH59aXTfRujg-3BOowNkJQQE-xrSSzZxXY~kUJqCs8xRDKybPpYkTbqRyI36GqpyPOomwFay-2EQMJofFZaLcV8aKbkVFgV1xDaD37GdqI~xpOXfBdtoI7UA6gnz6-9ex2HfDoKotGicTxOspIyqPkcsn9-KBcj7JFdtjR6If4Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA","headline":"Small galaxies are growing smaller","image":"https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/astrogeo/45/6/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x/2/m_45-6-6.6-fig001.jpeg?Expires=1795557643&Signature=22Xphsil4Qkcr3I93xFNF2jBdXnVcGR0pjqBK-nEZJg8klGwt2AQbfBjl3UHGAMVVqznvfBqUSMypZXjFY5qKo5AK2ECQoELRn1l~CaVafP1Pbld91ZsQqNFE1fbO9Kp3n5KHttgHZUtOLfBPks9cNQ2sa3G7B0RLmpocHCe2pxH59aXTfRujg-3BOowNkJQQE-xrSSzZxXY~kUJqCs8xRDKybPpYkTbqRyI36GqpyPOomwFay-2EQMJofFZaLcV8aKbkVFgV1xDaD37GdqI~xpOXfBdtoI7UA6gnz6-9ex2HfDoKotGicTxOspIyqPkcsn9-KBcj7JFdtjR6If4Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA","image:alt":"The giant spiral galaxy NGC 1365 – what we often think of as a “typical” galaxy. (ESO VLT)"} </script> <meta property="og:site_name" content="OUP Academic" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Small galaxies are growing smaller" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Abstract. New telescope technology and major sky surveys are finding more and more dwarf galaxies. Steve Phillipps discusses how this growing population ma" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" /> <meta property="og:updated_time" content="" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/astrogeo/45/6/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x/2/m_45-6-6.6-fig001.jpeg?Expires=1795557643&Signature=22Xphsil4Qkcr3I93xFNF2jBdXnVcGR0pjqBK-nEZJg8klGwt2AQbfBjl3UHGAMVVqznvfBqUSMypZXjFY5qKo5AK2ECQoELRn1l~CaVafP1Pbld91ZsQqNFE1fbO9Kp3n5KHttgHZUtOLfBPks9cNQ2sa3G7B0RLmpocHCe2pxH59aXTfRujg-3BOowNkJQQE-xrSSzZxXY~kUJqCs8xRDKybPpYkTbqRyI36GqpyPOomwFay-2EQMJofFZaLcV8aKbkVFgV1xDaD37GdqI~xpOXfBdtoI7UA6gnz6-9ex2HfDoKotGicTxOspIyqPkcsn9-KBcj7JFdtjR6If4Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA" /> <meta property="og:image:url" content="https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/astrogeo/45/6/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x/2/m_45-6-6.6-fig001.jpeg?Expires=1795557643&Signature=22Xphsil4Qkcr3I93xFNF2jBdXnVcGR0pjqBK-nEZJg8klGwt2AQbfBjl3UHGAMVVqznvfBqUSMypZXjFY5qKo5AK2ECQoELRn1l~CaVafP1Pbld91ZsQqNFE1fbO9Kp3n5KHttgHZUtOLfBPks9cNQ2sa3G7B0RLmpocHCe2pxH59aXTfRujg-3BOowNkJQQE-xrSSzZxXY~kUJqCs8xRDKybPpYkTbqRyI36GqpyPOomwFay-2EQMJofFZaLcV8aKbkVFgV1xDaD37GdqI~xpOXfBdtoI7UA6gnz6-9ex2HfDoKotGicTxOspIyqPkcsn9-KBcj7JFdtjR6If4Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA" /> <meta property="og:image:secure_url" content="https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/astrogeo/45/6/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x/2/m_45-6-6.6-fig001.jpeg?Expires=1795557643&Signature=22Xphsil4Qkcr3I93xFNF2jBdXnVcGR0pjqBK-nEZJg8klGwt2AQbfBjl3UHGAMVVqznvfBqUSMypZXjFY5qKo5AK2ECQoELRn1l~CaVafP1Pbld91ZsQqNFE1fbO9Kp3n5KHttgHZUtOLfBPks9cNQ2sa3G7B0RLmpocHCe2pxH59aXTfRujg-3BOowNkJQQE-xrSSzZxXY~kUJqCs8xRDKybPpYkTbqRyI36GqpyPOomwFay-2EQMJofFZaLcV8aKbkVFgV1xDaD37GdqI~xpOXfBdtoI7UA6gnz6-9ex2HfDoKotGicTxOspIyqPkcsn9-KBcj7JFdtjR6If4Yw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA" /> <meta property="og:image:alt" content="The giant spiral galaxy NGC 1365 – what we often think of as a “typical” galaxy. (ESO VLT)" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Phillipps, Steve" /><meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Reader in astrophysics at the University of Bristol." /><meta name="citation_title" content="Small galaxies are growing smaller" /><meta name="citation_firstpage" content="6.6" /><meta name="citation_lastpage" content="6.9" /><meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" /><meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Astronomy & Geophysics" /><meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="A&G" /><meta name="citation_volume" content="45" /><meta name="citation_issue" content="6" /><meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2004/12/01" /><meta name="citation_issn" content="1366-8781" /><meta name="citation_publisher" content="Oxford Academic" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=McMillan, NY; Problems in Extragalactic Research; citation_year=1962; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=1977; citation_volume=180; citation_pages=81" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=2001; citation_volume=328; citation_pages=1039" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="A&A; citation_year=2000; citation_volume=355; citation_pages=915" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="PASA; citation_year=2000; citation_volume=17; citation_pages=227" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="Nature; citation_year=2003; citation_volume=423; citation_pages=519" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_text=in press; PASA; citation_year=2004; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=1998; citation_volume=301; citation_pages=369" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="AJ; citation_year=1988; citation_volume=96; citation_pages=1520" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="PASP; citation_year=1950; citation_volume=62; citation_pages=118" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=Yale University Press, New Haven; The Realm of the Nebulae; citation_year=1936; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="Nature; citation_year=1994; citation_volume=370; citation_pages=1941" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=1995; citation_volume=277; citation_pages=1354" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_text=submitted; AJ; citation_year=2004; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=1961; citation_volume=122; citation_pages=263" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="ApJ; citation_year=2003; citation_volume=599; citation_pages=1082" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="AJ; citation_year=2001; citation_volume=122; citation_pages=830" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=Kluwer, Dordrecht; Wide-Field Spectroscopy; citation_year=1997; citation_pages=281" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="AJ; citation_year=1985; citation_volume=90; citation_pages=1759" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="Harvard Observatory Bulletin no. 908; citation_year=1938; citation_pages=1" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=Blakiston, Philadelphia; Galaxies; citation_year=1943; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="MNRAS; citation_year=2002; citation_volume=333; citation_pages=423" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="ApJ; citation_year=1972; citation_volume=171; citation_pages=L31" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=CUP, ; The Galaxies of the Local Group; citation_year=2000; " /><meta name="citation_reference" content="PASP; citation_year=1955; citation_volume=67; citation_pages=27" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="AJ; citation_year=2000; citation_volume=120; citation_pages=1579" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="ApJ; citation_year=2004; citation_volume=612; citation_pages=121" /><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_publisher=Springer, Berlin; Morphological Astronomy; citation_year=1957; " /><meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content="" /><meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-pdf/45/6/6.6/574594/45-6-6.6.pdf" /><meta name="description" content="Abstract. New telescope technology and major sky surveys are finding more and more dwarf galaxies. Steve Phillipps discusses how this growing population ma" /><meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-xml/45/6/6.6/216618" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_ASTROGEO_1997_01_9999" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_ASTROGEO_1996_01_240" /> <meta name="product_code" content="COMP_RetainedFBI" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_ASTROGEO_1996_01_228" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_astrogeo_1996_01_276" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_ASTROGEO_1996_01_180" /> <meta name="product_code" content="j_ALLJOURNALS" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_ASTROGEO_1996_01_216" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_astrogeo_1996_01_300" /> <meta name="product_code" content="J_216618" /> <meta name="product_code" content="I_7393" /> <script> var SCM = SCM || {}; SCM.pubGradeAdsEnabled = true; SCM.pubGradeJSLibrary = 'https://cdn.pbgrd.com/core-oup-new.js'; </script> <script async="async" src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> var googletag = googletag || {}; googletag.cmd = googletag.cmd || []; </script> <script type='text/javascript'> var gptAdSlots = []; googletag.cmd.push(function() { var mapping_ad1 = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([1024, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]]) .addSize([768, 0], [728, 90]) .addSize([0, 0], [320, 50]) .build(); gptAdSlots["ad1"] = googletag.defineSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_InFront_Ad1', [[970, 90], [728, 90], [320, 50]], 'adBlockHeader') .defineSizeMapping(mapping_ad1) .addService(googletag.pubads()); var mapping_ad2 = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([768, 0], [[300, 250], [300, 600], [160, 600]]) .build(); gptAdSlots["ad2"] = googletag.defineSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_InFront_Ad2', [[300, 250], [160, 600], [300, 600]], 'adBlockMainBodyTop') .defineSizeMapping(mapping_ad2) .addService(googletag.pubads()); var mapping_ad3 = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([768, 0], [[300, 250], [300, 600], [160, 600]]) .build(); gptAdSlots["ad3"] = googletag.defineSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_InFront_Ad3', [[300, 250], [160, 600], [300, 600]], 'adBlockMainBodyBottom') .defineSizeMapping(mapping_ad3) .addService(googletag.pubads()); var mapping_ad4 = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([0,0], [320, 50]) .addSize([768, 0], [728, 90]) .build(); gptAdSlots["ad4"] = googletag.defineSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_InFront_Ad4', [728, 90], 'adBlockFooter') .defineSizeMapping(mapping_ad4) .addService(googletag.pubads()); var mapping_ad6 = googletag.sizeMapping() .addSize([1024, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]]) .addSize([768, 0], [728, 90]) .addSize([0, 0], [320, 50]) .build(); gptAdSlots["ad6"] = googletag.defineSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_InFront_Ad6', [[728, 90], [970, 90]], 'adBlockStickyFooter') .defineSizeMapping(mapping_ad6) .addService(googletag.pubads()); gptAdSlots["adInterstitial"] = googletag.defineOutOfPageSlot('/116097782/astrogeo_Interstitial_Ad', googletag.enums.OutOfPageFormat.INTERSTITIAL) .addService(googletag.pubads()); googletag.pubads().addEventListener('slotRenderEnded', function (event) { if (!event.isEmpty) { $('.js-' + event.slot.getSlotElementId()).each(function () { if ($(this).find('iframe').length) { $(this).removeClass('hide'); } }); } }); googletag.pubads().addEventListener('impressionViewable', function (event) { if (!event.isEmpty) { $('.js-' + event.slot.getSlotElementId()).each(function () { var $adblockDiv = $(this).find('.js-adblock'); var $adText = $(this).find('.js-adblock-advertisement-text'); if ($adblockDiv && $adblockDiv.is(':visible') && $adblockDiv.find('*').length > 1) { $adText.removeClass('hide'); App.CenterAdBlock.Init($adblockDiv, $adText); } else { $adText.addClass('hide'); } //Initialize logic for Sticky Footer Ad var $stickyFooterDiv = $(this).parents('.js-sticky-footer-ad'); if ($stickyFooterDiv && $stickyFooterDiv.is(':visible') && $stickyFooterDiv.find('*').length > 1) { App.StickyFooterAd.Init(); } }); } }); googletag.pubads().setTargeting("jnlspage", "article-abstract"); googletag.pubads().setTargeting("jnlsurl", "astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618"); googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); googletag.pubads().disableInitialLoad(); googletag.pubads().collapseEmptyDivs(); }); </script> <input type="hidden" class="hfInterstitial" data-interstitiallinks="astrogeo/issue,astrogeo/advance-articles,astrogeo/advance-article,astrogeo/supplements,astrogeo/article,astrogeo/article-abstract,astrogeo/pages" data-subdomain="astrogeo" /> <script type="text/javascript"> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.pubads().setTargeting("jnlsdoi", "10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x"); googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> var NTPT_PGEXTRA= 'event_type=Login-full-text&supplier_tag=SC_Journals&object_type=Article&taxonomy=taxId%3a39%7ctaxLabel%3aAcademicSubjects%7cnodeId%3aSCI00010%7cnodeLabel%3aScience+and+Mathematics%7cnodeLevel%3a1&siteid=astrogeo&authzrequired=true&turnaway_id=SUB_NONE&doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x'; </script> <script src="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_js/casa.js" async></script> </head> <body data-sitename="astronomy&geophysics" class="off-canvas pg_Article pg_article " theme-astrogeo data-sitestyletemplate="Journal" > <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-W6DD7HV" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript> <a href="#skipNav" class="skipnav">Skip to Main Content</a> <input id="hdnSiteID" name="hdnSiteID" type="hidden" value="5264" /><input id="hdnAdDelaySeconds" name="hdnAdDelaySeconds" type="hidden" value="5000" /><input id="hdnAdConfigurationTop" name="hdnAdConfigurationTop" type="hidden" value="scrolldelay" /><input id="hdnAdConfigurationRightRail" name="hdnAdConfigurationRightRail" type="hidden" value="sticky" /> <div class="master-container js-master-container"> <section class="master-header row js-master-header vt-site-page-header"> <div class="widget widget-SitePageHeader widget-instance-SitePageHeader"> <div class="ad-banner js-ad-banner-header"> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-HeaderAd"> <div class="js-adBlock-parent-wrap adblock-parent-wrap"> <div class="adBlockHeader-wrap js-adBlockHeader hide"> <div id="adBlockHeader" class="js-adblock at-adblock" data-lazy-load-margin="150"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display('adBlockHeader'); }); </script> </div> <div class="advertisement-text at-adblock js-adblock-advertisement-text hide">Advertisement</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="oup-header sigma "> <div class="center-inner-row"> <div class="oup-header-logo"> <a href="/"> <img src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/umbrella/oxford-academic-logo.svg" alt="Oxford Academic" class="oup-header-image at-oup-header-image " /> </a> </div> <div class="widget widget-CustomNavLinks widget-instance-CustomNavLinksDeskTop"> <div class="custom-nav-links-box"> <div class="custom-nav-link"> <a href="/journals">Journals</a> </div> <div class="custom-nav-link"> <a href="/books">Books</a> </div> </div> </div> <ul class="oup-header-menu account-menu sigma-account-menu "> <li class="oup-header-menu-item mobile"> <a href="javascript:;" class="mobile-dropdown-toggle mobile-search-toggle"> <i class="icon-menu_search"><span class="screenreader-text">Search Menu</span></i> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item mobile info-icon-menu-item"> <a href="/pages/information" target="_blank" class="at-info-button sigma-info-wrapper" role="button"> <img class="sigma-info-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/i.svg" alt="Information" /> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item mobile account-icon-menu-item"> <a href="javascript:;" class="account-button js-account-button at-account-button " role="button" data-turnawayparams="journal%3dastrogeo"> <img class="sigma-account-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/account.svg" alt="Account" /> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item mobile"> <a href="javascript:;" class="mobile-dropdown-toggle mobile-nav-toggle"> <i class="icon-menu_hamburger"><span class="screenreader-text">Menu</span></i> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item desktop info-icon-menu-item"> <a href="/pages/information" target="_blank" class="at-info-button sigma-info-wrapper" role="button"> <img class="sigma-info-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/i.svg" alt="Information" /> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item desktop account-icon-menu-item"> <a href="javascript:;" class="account-button js-account-button at-account-button sigma-logo-wrapper" role="button" data-turnawayparams="journal%3dastrogeo"> <img class="sigma-account-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/account.svg" alt="Account" /> </a> </li> <li class="oup-header-menu-item desktop account-icon-menu-item"> <div class="widget widget-SeamlessAccess widget-instance-SitePageHeader"> <a href="javascript:;" class="js-shibboleth-action seamless-access-button seamless-button-header button-call-to-action at-institutional-sign-in" rel="nofollow" data-action-type="" data-entity-id=""> <span class="seamless-access-text">Sign in through your institution</span> </a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="login-box-placeholder js-login-box-placeholder hide"> <div class="spinner"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dropdown-panel-wrap"> <div class="dropdown-panel mobile-search-dropdown"> <div class="mobile-search-inner-wrap"> <div class="navbar-search"> <div class="mobile-microsite-search"> <label for="SitePageHeader-mobile-navbar-search-filter" class="screenreader-text js-mobile-navbar-search-filter-label"> Navbar Search Filter </label> <select class="mobile-navbar-search-filter js-mobile-navbar-search-filter at-navbar-search-filter" id="SitePageHeader-mobile-navbar-search-filter"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="">Astronomy & Geophysics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Issue">This issue</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Parent">RAS Journals</option> <optgroup class="navbar-search-optgroup" label="Search across Oxford Academic"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="AcademicSubjects/SCI00010">Science and Mathematics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Books">Books</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Journals">Journals</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Umbrella">Oxford Academic</option> </optgroup> </select> <label for="SitePageHeader-mobile-microsite-search-term" class="screenreader-text js-mobile-microsite-search-term-label"> Mobile Enter search term </label> <input class="mobile-search-input mobile-microsite-search-term js-mobile-microsite-search-term at-microsite-search-term" type="text" maxlength="255" placeholder="Search" id="SitePageHeader-mobile-microsite-search-term"> <a href="javascript:;" class="mobile-microsite-search-icon mobile-search-submit icon-menu_search"> <span class="screenreader-text">Search</span> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dropdown-panel mobile-nav-dropdown"> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715215"> <a href="/astrogeo/issue" class="nav-link"> Issues </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715213"> <a href="javascript:;" class="nav-link js-nav-dropdown at-nav-dropdown" role="button" aria-expanded="false"> Submit <i class="desktop-nav-arrow icon-general-arrow-filled-down arrow-icon"></i> </a> <i class="mobile-nav-arrow icon-general_arrow-down"></i> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715216"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/General_Instructions" class="nav-link"> Author Guidelines </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715217"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/General_Instructions#Submissions" class="nav-link"> Submit To The EiC </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715218"> <a href="/astrogeo/subscribe" class="nav-link"> Purchase </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715219"> <a href="/my-account/email-alerts" class="nav-link"> Alerts </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715214"> <a href="javascript:;" class="nav-link js-nav-dropdown at-nav-dropdown" role="button" aria-expanded="false"> About <i class="desktop-nav-arrow icon-general-arrow-filled-down arrow-icon"></i> </a> <i class="mobile-nav-arrow icon-general_arrow-down"></i> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715220"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/About" class="nav-link"> About Astronomy & Geophysics </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715221"> <a href="http://ras.ac.uk/" class="nav-link"> About the Royal Astronomical Society </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715222"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/Editorial_Board" class="nav-link"> Editorial Board </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715223"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/rights_and_new_business_development" class="nav-link"> Rights and Permissions </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715224"> <a href="https://academic.oup.com/advertising-and-corporate-services/pages/astrogeo-media-kit" class="nav-link"> Advertising and Corporate Services </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715225"> <a href="http://science-and-mathematics-careernetwork.oxfordjournals.org" class="nav-link"> Journals Career Network </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-custom"> <a href="/journals" class="nav-link">Journals on Oxford Academic</a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-custom"> <a href="/books" class="nav-link">Books on Oxford Academic</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="journal-header journal-bg"> <div class="center-inner-row"> <div class="site-parent-link-wrap"> <a href="//academic.oup.com/ras" class="site-parent-link">RAS Journals</a> </div> <a href="/astrogeo" class="journal-logo-container"> <img id="logo-Astronomy&Geophysics" class="journal-logo" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/data/SiteBuilderAssets/Live/Images/astrogeo/astrogeo_title-1186088294.svg" alt="Astronomy & Geophysics" /> </a> <div class="society-logo-block"> <div class="society-block-inner-wrap"> <a href="http://ras.ac.uk/" target="" class="society-logo-container"> <img id="logo-RoyalAstronomicalSociety" class="society-logo" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/data/SiteBuilderAssets/Live/Images/astrogeo/astrogeo_h1760758999.svg" alt="Royal Astronomical Society" /> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="navbar"> <div class="center-inner-row"> <nav class="navbar-menu"> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715215"> <a href="/astrogeo/issue" class="nav-link"> Issues </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715213"> <a href="javascript:;" class="nav-link js-nav-dropdown at-nav-dropdown" role="button" aria-expanded="false"> Submit <i class="desktop-nav-arrow icon-general-arrow-filled-down arrow-icon"></i> </a> <i class="mobile-nav-arrow icon-general_arrow-down"></i> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715216"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/General_Instructions" class="nav-link"> Author Guidelines </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715217"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/General_Instructions#Submissions" class="nav-link"> Submit To The EiC </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715218"> <a href="/astrogeo/subscribe" class="nav-link"> Purchase </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715219"> <a href="/my-account/email-alerts" class="nav-link"> Alerts </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-0 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715214"> <a href="javascript:;" class="nav-link js-nav-dropdown at-nav-dropdown" role="button" aria-expanded="false"> About <i class="desktop-nav-arrow icon-general-arrow-filled-down arrow-icon"></i> </a> <i class="mobile-nav-arrow icon-general_arrow-down"></i> <ul class="site-menu site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu"> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715220"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/About" class="nav-link"> About Astronomy & Geophysics </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715221"> <a href="http://ras.ac.uk/" class="nav-link"> About the Royal Astronomical Society </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715222"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/Editorial_Board" class="nav-link"> Editorial Board </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715223"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/rights_and_new_business_development" class="nav-link"> Rights and Permissions </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715224"> <a href="https://academic.oup.com/advertising-and-corporate-services/pages/astrogeo-media-kit" class="nav-link"> Advertising and Corporate Services </a> </li> <li class="site-menu-item site-menu-lvl-1 at-site-menu-item" id="site-menu-item-1715225"> <a href="http://science-and-mathematics-careernetwork.oxfordjournals.org" class="nav-link"> Journals Career Network </a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="navbar-search-container js-navbar-search-container"> <a href="javascript:;" class="navbar-search-close js_close-navsearch">Close</a> <div class="navbar-search"> <div class="microsite-search"> <label for="SitePageHeader-navbar-search-filter" class="screenreader-text js-navbar-search-filter-label"> Navbar Search Filter </label> <select class="navbar-search-filter js-navbar-search-filter at-navbar-search-filter" id="SitePageHeader-navbar-search-filter"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="">Astronomy & Geophysics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Issue">This issue</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Parent">RAS Journals</option> <optgroup class="navbar-search-optgroup" label="Search across Oxford Academic"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="AcademicSubjects/SCI00010">Science and Mathematics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Books">Books</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Journals">Journals</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Umbrella">Oxford Academic</option> </optgroup> </select> <label for="SitePageHeader-microsite-search-term" class="screenreader-text js-microsite-search-term-label"> Enter search term </label> <input class="navbar-search-input microsite-search-term js-microsite-search-term at-microsite-search-term" type="text" maxlength="255" placeholder="Search" id="SitePageHeader-microsite-search-term"> <a href="javascript:;" class="microsite-search-icon navbar-search-submit icon-menu_search"> <span class="screenreader-text">Search</span> </a> </div> </div> <input id="hfCurrentBookSearch" name="hfCurrentBookSearch" type="hidden" value="" /><input id="hfCurrentBookScope" name="hfCurrentBookScope" type="hidden" value="CurrentBook" /><input id="hfBookSiteScope" name="hfBookSiteScope" type="hidden" value="Books" /><input id="hfSeriesScope" name="hfSeriesScope" type="hidden" value="taxWithOr" /><input id="hfParentSiteName" name="hfParentSiteName" type="hidden" value="RAS Journals" /><input id="hfParentSiteUrl" name="hfParentSiteUrl" type="hidden" value="academic.oup.com/ras" /><input id="hfSiteID" name="hfSiteID" type="hidden" value="5264" /><input id="hfParentSiteID" name="hfParentSiteID" type="hidden" value="5536" /><input id="hfJournalSiteScope" name="hfJournalSiteScope" type="hidden" value="Journals" /><input id="hfParentSiteScope" name="hfParentSiteScope" type="hidden" value="Parent" /><input id="hfDefaultSearchURL" name="hfDefaultSearchURL" type="hidden" value="search-results?page=1&q=" /><input id="hfIssueSearch" name="hfIssueSearch" type="hidden" value="&fl_IssueID=7393" /><input id="hfIssueSiteScope" name="hfIssueSiteScope" type="hidden" value="Issue" /><input id="hfUmbrellaScope" name="hfUmbrellaScope" type="hidden" value="Umbrella" /><input id="hfUmbrellaSiteUrl" name="hfUmbrellaSiteUrl" type="hidden" value="academic.oup.com" /><input id="hfUmbrellaSiteId" name="hfUmbrellaSiteId" type="hidden" value="191" /><input id="hfDefaultAdvancedSearchUrl" name="hfDefaultAdvancedSearchUrl" type="hidden" value="advanced-search?page=1&q=" /><input id="hfTaggedCollectionScope" name="hfTaggedCollectionScope" type="hidden" value="" /> <div class="navbar-search-advanced"><a href="/astrogeo/advanced-search" class="advanced-search js-advanced-search">Advanced Search</a></div> </div> <div class="navbar-search-collapsed"><a href="javascript:;" class="icon-menu_search js_expand-navsearch"><span class="screenreader-text">Search Menu</span></a></div> </div> </div> <input type="hidden" name="searchScope" id="hfSolrJournalID" value="" /> <input type="hidden" id="hfSolrJournalName" value="" /> <input type="hidden" id="hfSolrMaxAllowSearchChar" value="100" /> <input type="hidden" id="hfJournalShortName" value="" /> <input type="hidden" id="hfSearchPlaceholder" value="" /> <input type="hidden" name="hfGlobalSearchSiteURL" id="hfGlobalSearchSiteURL" value="" /> <input type="hidden" name="hfSearchSiteURL" id="hfSiteURL" value="academic.oup.com/astrogeo" /> <input type="hidden" name="RedirectSiteUrl" id="RedirectSiteUrl" value="httpszazjzjacademiczwoupzwcom" /> <script type="text/javascript"> (function () { var hfSiteUrl = document.getElementById('hfSiteURL'); var siteUrl = hfSiteUrl.value; var subdomainIndex = siteUrl.indexOf('/'); hfSiteUrl.value = location.host + (subdomainIndex >= 0 ? siteUrl.substring(subdomainIndex) : ''); })(); </script> <input id="routename" name="RouteName" type="hidden" value="astrogeo" /> </div> </section> <div class="widget widget-SitewideBanner widget-instance-"> </div> <div id="main" class="content-main js-main ui-base"> <section class="master-main row"> <div class="center-inner-row no-overflow"> <div id="skipNav" tabindex="-1"></div> <div class="page-column-wrap"> <div id="InfoColumn" class="page-column page-column--left js-left-nav-col"> <div class="mobile-content-topbar hide"> <button class="toggle-left-col toggle-left-col__article">Article Navigation</button> </div> <div class="info-inner-wrap js-left-nav"> <button class="toggle-left-col__close btn-as-icon icon-general-close"> <span class="screenreader-text">Close mobile search navigation</span> </button> <div class="responsive-nav-title">Article Navigation</div> <div class="info-widget-wrap"> <div class="widget widget-IssueInfo widget-instance-OUP_IssueInfo_Article"> <div id="issueInfo-OUP_IssueInfo_Article" class="article-info-wrap clearfix"> <i class="icon-general-close mobile-nav-btn nav-open"></i> <a class="article-issue-link" href="/astrogeo/issue/45/6"> <div class="article-issue-img"> <img id="issueFallbackImage" class="fb-featured-image" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/img/generic-cover.png" alt="Issue Cover" /> </div> <div class="article-issue-info"> <div class="volume-issue__wrap"> <div class="volume trailing-comma">Volume 45</div> <div class="issue">Issue 6</div> </div> <div class="ii-pub-date"> December 2004 </div> </div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="content-nav"> </div> <div class="widget widget-ArticleNavLinks widget-instance-OUP_ArticleNavLinks_Article"> <ul class="inline-list"> <li class="prev arrow"> <a href="/astrogeo/article/45/6/6.5/216591">< Previous</a> </li> <li class="next arrow"> <a href="/astrogeo/article/45/6/6.10/216184">Next ></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sticky-toolbar js-sticky-toolbar"></div> <div id="ContentColumn" class="page-column page-column--center"> <div class="article-browse-top article-browse-mobile-nav js-mobile-nav"> <div class="article-browse-mobile-nav-inner js-mobile-nav-inner"> <button class="toggle-left-col toggle-left-col__article btn-as-link"> Article Navigation </button> </div> </div> <div class="article-browse-top article-browse-mobile-nav mobile-sticky-toolbar js-mobile-nav-sticky"> <div class="article-browse-mobile-nav-inner"> <button class="toggle-left-col toggle-left-col__article btn-as-link"> Article Navigation </button> </div> </div> <div class="content-inner-wrap"> <div class="widget widget-ArticleTopInfo widget-instance-OUP_Abstract_ArticleTop_Info_Widget"> <div class="module-widget article-top-widget"> <div class="access-state-logos all-viewports"> <span class="journal-info__format-label">Journal Article</span> </div> <div class="widget-items"> <div class="title-wrap"> <h1 class="wi-article-title article-title-main accessible-content-title at-articleTitle"> Small galaxies are growing smaller <i class='' title='' ></i> </h1> <a href="#no-access-message" class="get-access get-access-jumplink at-get-access-jumplink js-no-access-jumplink"> <span class="get-access-text">Get access</span> <img class='get-access-icon' src='/UI/app/svg/chevron-right-white.svg' alt='Arrow' aria-hidden='true'> </a> </div> <div class="wi-authors at-ArticleAuthors"> <div class="al-authors-list"> <span class="al-author-name-more js-flyout-wrap"> <button type="button" class="linked-name js-linked-name-trigger btn-as-link">Steve Phillipps</button><span class='delimiter'></span> <span class="al-author-info-wrap arrow-up"> <div class="info-card-author authorInfo_OUP_Abstract_ArticleTop_Info_Widget"> <div class="name-role-wrap"> <div class="info-card-name"> Steve Phillipps </div> </div> <div class="info-card-affilitation"> <div class="aff">Reader in astrophysics at the University of Bristol.</div> </div> <div class="info-card-search-label"> Search for other works by this author on: </div> <div class="info-card-search info-card-search-internal"> <a href="/astrogeo/search-results?f_Authors=Steve+Phillipps" rel="nofollow">Oxford Academic</a> </div> <div class="info-card-search info-card-search-google"> <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=author:%22Phillipps Steve%22">Google Scholar</a> </div> <div class="info-card-search info-card-search-ads"> <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?return_req=no_params&author=Phillipps,S">ADS</a> </div> </div> </span> </span> </div> </div> <div class="pub-history-wrap clearfix js-history-dropdown-wrap"> <div class="pub-history-row clearfix"> <div class="ww-citation-primary"><em>Astronomy & Geophysics</em>, Volume 45, Issue 6, December 2004, Pages 6.6–6.9, <a href='https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x'>https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x</a></div> </div> <div class="pub-history-row clearfix"> <div class="ww-citation-date-wrap"> <div class="citation-label">Published:</div> <div class="citation-date">01 December 2004</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script> $(document).ready(function () { $('.article-top-widget').on('click', '.ati-toggle-trigger', function () { $(this).find('.icon-general-add, .icon-minus').toggleClass('icon-minus icon-general-add'); $(this).siblings('.ati-toggle-content').toggleClass('hide'); }); // In Chrome, an anchor tag with target="_blank" and a "mailto:" href opens a new tab/window as well as the email client // I suspect this behavior will be corrected in the future // Remove the target="_blank" $('ul.wi-affiliationList').find('a[href^="mailto:"]').each(function () { $(this).removeAttr('target'); }); }); </script> </div> <div class="widget widget-ArticleLinks widget-instance-OUP_Article_Links_Widget"> </div> <div class="article-body js-content-body"> <div class="toolbar-wrap js-toolbar-wrap"> <div class="toolbar-inner-wrap"> <ul id="Toolbar" role="navigation"> <li class="toolbar-item item-with-dropdown item-views"> <a class="at-views-dropdown drop-trigger" href="javascript:;" data-dropdown="FilterDrop" aria-haspopup="true"> <i class="icon-menu_views"></i> <div class="toolbar-label"> <div class="toolbar-text">Views</div> <i class="icon-general-arrow-filled-down arrow-icon"></i> </div> </a> <ul id="ViewsDrop" class="f-dropdown js-dropdown-content" data-dropdown-content aria-label="submenu"> <div class="arrow-up"></div> <li class="article-content-filter js-article-content-filter" data-content-filter="article-content"> <a href="javascript:;"><span>Article contents</span></a> </li> <li class="at-figures-tables article-content-filter js-article-content-filter" data-content-filter="figures-tables"> <a href="javascript:;"><span>Figures & tables</span></a> </li> <li class="article-content-filter js-article-content-filter" data-content-filter="video"> <a href="javascript:;"><span>Video</span></a> </li> <li class="article-content-filter js-article-content-filter" data-content-filter="audio"> <a href="javascript:;"><span>Audio</span></a> </li> <li class="article-content-filter js-article-content-filter" data-content-filter="supplementary-data"> <a href="javascript:;"><span>Supplementary Data</span></a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toolbar-item item-cite js-item-cite"> <div class="widget widget-ToolboxGetCitation widget-instance-OUP_Get_Citation"> <a href="#" class="js-cite-button at-CiteButton" data-reveal-id="getCitation" data-reveal> <i class="icon-read-more"></i> <span>Cite</span> </a> <div id="getCitation" class="reveal-modal js-citation-modal" data-reveal> <h3 class="modal-title">Cite</h3> <div class="oxford-citation-text"> <p>Steve Phillipps, Small galaxies are growing smaller, <em>Astronomy & Geophysics</em>, Volume 45, Issue 6, December 2004, Pages 6.6–6.9, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x">https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x</a></p> </div> <div class="citation-download-wrap"> <form action="/Citation/Download" method="get" id="citationModal"> <input type="hidden" name="resourceId" value="216618" /> <input type="hidden" name="resourceType" value="3" /> <label for="selectFormat" class="hide js-citation-format-label">Select Format</label> <select required name="citationFormat" class="citation-download-format js-citation-format" id="selectFormat"> <option selected disabled >Select format</option> <option value="0" >.ris (Mendeley, Papers, Zotero)</option> <option value="1" >.enw (EndNote)</option> <option value="2" >.bibtex (BibTex)</option> <option value="3" >.txt (Medlars, RefWorks)</option> </select> <button class="btn citation-download-link disabled" type="submit">Download citation</button> </form> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" href="javascript:;"><i class="icon-general-close"></i><span class="screenreader-text">Close</span></a> </div> </div> </li> <li class="toolbar-item item-tools"> <div class="widget widget-ToolboxPermissions widget-instance-OUP_Get_Permissions"> <div class="module-widget"> <a href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?publisherName=OUP&publication=1468-4004&title=Small%20galaxies%20are%20growing%20smaller&publicationDate=2004-12-01&volumeNum=45&issueNum=6&author=Phillipps%2C%20Steve&startPage=6.6&endPage=6.9&contentId=10.1046%2Fj.1468-4004.2003.45606.x&oa=&orderBeanReset=True" id="PermissionsLink" class="" target="_blank"> <i class="icon-menu_permissions"> <span class="screenreader-text">Permissions Icon</span> </i> Permissions </a> </div> </div> </li> <li class="toolbar-item item-with-dropdown item-share"> <a href="javascript:;" class="drop-trigger js-toolbar-dropdown at-ShareButton" data-dropdown="ShareDrop"> <i class="icon-menu_share"><span class="screenreader-text">Share Icon</span></i> <span class="toolbar-label"> <span class="toolbar-text">Share</span> <i class="arrow-icon icon-general-arrow-filled-down js-toolbar-arrow-icon"></i> </span> </a> <ul id="ShareDrop" class="addthis_toolbox addthis_default_style addthis_20x20_style f-dropdown js-dropdown-content" data-dropdown-content> <li> <a class="st-custom-button addthis_button_facebook js-share-link" data-network="facebook" data-title="Small galaxies are growing smaller" data-url="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618" data-email-subject="Small galaxies are growing smaller" href="javascript:;"><span>Facebook</span></a> </li> <li> <a class="st-custom-button addthis_button_twitter js-share-link" data-network="twitter" data-title="Small galaxies are growing smaller" data-url="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618" data-email-subject="Small galaxies are growing smaller" href="javascript:;"><span>Twitter</span></a> </li> <li> <a class="st-custom-button addthis_button_linkedin js-share-link" data-network="linkedin" data-title="Small galaxies are growing smaller" data-url="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618" data-email-subject="Small galaxies are growing smaller" href="javascript:;"><span>LinkedIn</span></a> </li> <li> <a class="st-custom-button addthis_button_email js-share-link" data-network="email" data-title="Small galaxies are growing smaller" data-url="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/45/6/6.6/216618" data-email-subject="Small galaxies are growing smaller" href="javascript:;"><span>Email</span></a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <div class="toolbar-search"> <div class="widget widget-SitePageHeader widget-instance-OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox"> <div class="dropdown-panel-wrap"> <div class="dropdown-panel mobile-search-dropdown"> <div class="mobile-search-inner-wrap"> <div class="navbar-search"> <div class="mobile-microsite-search"> <label for="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-mobile-navbar-search-filter" class="screenreader-text js-mobile-navbar-search-filter-label"> Navbar Search Filter </label> <select class="mobile-navbar-search-filter js-mobile-navbar-search-filter at-navbar-search-filter" id="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-mobile-navbar-search-filter"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="">Astronomy & Geophysics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Issue">This issue</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Parent">RAS Journals</option> <optgroup class="navbar-search-optgroup" label="Search across Oxford Academic"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="AcademicSubjects/SCI00010">Science and Mathematics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Books">Books</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Journals">Journals</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Umbrella">Oxford Academic</option> </optgroup> </select> <label for="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-mobile-microsite-search-term" class="screenreader-text js-mobile-microsite-search-term-label"> Mobile Enter search term </label> <input class="mobile-search-input mobile-microsite-search-term js-mobile-microsite-search-term at-microsite-search-term" type="text" maxlength="255" placeholder="Search" id="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-mobile-microsite-search-term"> <a href="javascript:;" class="mobile-microsite-search-icon mobile-search-submit icon-menu_search"> <span class="screenreader-text">Search</span> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="dropdown-panel mobile-nav-dropdown"> </div> </div> <div class="navbar"> <div class="center-inner-row"> <nav class="navbar-menu"> </nav> <div class="navbar-search-container js-navbar-search-container"> <a href="javascript:;" class="navbar-search-close js_close-navsearch">Close</a> <div class="navbar-search"> <div class="microsite-search"> <label for="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-navbar-search-filter" class="screenreader-text js-navbar-search-filter-label"> Navbar Search Filter </label> <select class="navbar-search-filter js-navbar-search-filter at-navbar-search-filter" id="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-navbar-search-filter"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="">Astronomy & Geophysics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Issue">This issue</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Parent">RAS Journals</option> <optgroup class="navbar-search-optgroup" label="Search across Oxford Academic"> <option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="AcademicSubjects/SCI00010">Science and Mathematics</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Books">Books</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Journals">Journals</option><option class="navbar-search-filter-option at-navbar-search-filter-option" value="Umbrella">Oxford Academic</option> </optgroup> </select> <label for="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-microsite-search-term" class="screenreader-text js-microsite-search-term-label"> Enter search term </label> <input class="navbar-search-input microsite-search-term js-microsite-search-term at-microsite-search-term" type="text" maxlength="255" placeholder="Search" id="OUP_ArticleToolbarSearchBox-microsite-search-term"> <a href="javascript:;" class="microsite-search-icon navbar-search-submit icon-menu_search"> <span class="screenreader-text">Search</span> </a> </div> </div> <div class="navbar-search-advanced"><a href="/astrogeo/advanced-search" class="advanced-search js-advanced-search">Advanced Search</a></div> </div> <div class="navbar-search-collapsed"><a href="javascript:;" class="icon-menu_search js_expand-navsearch"><span class="screenreader-text">Search Menu</span></a></div> </div> </div> <input id="routename" name="RouteName" type="hidden" value="astrogeo" /> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="ContentTab" class="content active"> <div class="widget widget-ArticleFulltext widget-instance-OUP_Abstract_Article_FullText_Widget"> <div class="module-widget"> <div class="widget-items" data-widgetname="ArticleFulltext"> <h2 scrollto-destination=2380761 id="2380761" class="abstract-title js-splitscreen-abstract-title" >Abstract</h2> <section class="abstract"><p class="chapter-para">New telescope technology and major sky surveys are finding more and more dwarf galaxies. <strong>Steve Phillipps</strong> discusses how this growing population may hold the clues to understanding a range of galaxy collisions and interactions.</p><p class="chapter-para">Galaxies are not always giant collections of billions of stars. Since the 1930s, when Harlow Shapley discovered the first dwarf spheroidal galaxies, technology has allowed the detection of ever fainter galaxies in our immediate neighbourhood. Our galaxy is now known to have a whole retinue of very small satellite galaxies, the lowest luminosity examples of which can hardly outshine one massive star. Some galaxies appear to be getting physically smaller. Evidence for this is found in the streams of stars detected around our galaxy and elsewhere and in galaxies that appear to have had their outer regions truncated. Recent surveys of galaxy clusters have revealed another new class of object, the ultra-compact dwarfs. Though no less luminous than other dwarf galaxies, their physical sizes, of order 20 pc, are far below anything previously seen. They are reminiscent of the nuclei of dE,N type galaxies and may well be descended from them via some destructive processes within galaxy clusters.</p></section> <div class="article-metadata-panel clearfix at-ArticleMetadata"></div>  <div class="widget widget-ArticlePubStateInfo widget-instance-OUP_ArticlePubStateInfo"> </div> <div class="article-metadata-standalone-panel clearfix"></div>  <span id="UserHasAccess" data-userHasAccess="False"></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-SolrResourceMetadata widget-instance-OUP_Article_ResourceMetadata_Widget"> <div class="article-metadata-panel solr-resource-metadata js-metadata-panel at-ContentMetadata"> <div class="article-metadata-tocSections"> <div class="article-metadata-tocSections-title">Issue Section:</div> <a href="/astrogeo/search-results?f_TocHeadingTitleList=Features">Features</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-EditorInformation widget-instance-OUP_Article_EditorInformation_Widget"> </div> <div id="no-access-message" class="article-top-info-user-restricted-options"> You do not currently have access to this article. </div> <div id="ContentTabFilteredView"></div> <div class="downloadImagesppt js-download-images-ppt st-download-images-ppt"> <a id="lnkDownloadAllImages" class="js-download-all-images-link btn" href="/DownloadFile/DownloadImage.aspx?image=&PPTtype=SlideSet&ar=216618&xsltPath=~/UI/app/XSLT&siteId=5264">Download all slides</a> </div> <div class="widget widget-ArticleDataRepositories widget-instance-Article_DryadLink"> </div> <div class="comments"> <div class="widget widget-UserCommentBody widget-instance-UserCommentBody_Article"> </div> <div class="widget widget-UserComment widget-instance-OUP_UserComment_Article"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="login-purchase-wrap"> <div id="article-purchase" class="unauth-row clearfix"> <div id="unauth" class="unauth-wrap"> <div class="widget widget-LoginBox widget-instance-LoginBox_UnAuthorizedLoginAndPaywall"> <div class="login-box" data-google-interstitial="false"> <div class="login-box__main-section-wrap"> <div class="login-box__section-wrap login-box_heading"> <div class="login-box__main-heading-wrap"> <h2>Sign in</h2> <a href="javascript:;" class="login-box__help js-login-help at-access-help"> <img class="login-box__help-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/i.svg" alt="Information" /> <span>Get help with access</span> </a> </div> </div> <div class="login-box__section-wrap login-box-society"> </div> <div class="login-box__section-wrap cols login-box_sign-in-accounts"> <div class="login-box__section column-border login-box_personal-account"> <h3 class="login-box__heading">Personal account</h3> <ul class="bullets"> <li>Sign in with email/username & password</li> <li>Get email alerts</li> <li>Save searches</li> <li>Purchase content</li> <li>Activate your purchase/trial code</li> <li>Add your ORCID iD</li> </ul> <div class="login-box__button-row"> <a rel="nofollow" class="button-call-to-action at-personal-sign-in js-sign-in-link" data-linkType="user-pass" href="javascript:;"> <span>Sign in</span> <img class="society-link-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/chevron-right-white.svg" alt="Arrow" aria-hidden="true"/> </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="at-personal-register-link js-register-link" href="/my-account/register?siteId=5264&returnUrl=http%3a%2f%2facademic.oup.com%2fastrogeo%2farticle-abstract%2f45%2f6%2f6.6%2f216618%3fredirectedFrom%3dfulltext">Register</a> </div> </div> <div class="login-box__section column-border login-box_institution"> <h3 class="login-box__heading">Institutional access</h3> <ol> <div class="widget widget-SeamlessAccess widget-instance-LoginBoxInstitutionalAccount"> <a href="javascript:;" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-shibboleth-action seamless-access-button seamless-button-login-box button-call-to-action at-institutional-sign-in" rel="nofollow" data-action-type="" data-entity-id=""> <span class="seamless-access-text">Sign in through your institution</span> </a> <div> <a href="javascript:;" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-shibboleth-action change-institution" rel="nofollow" data-action-type=""> Sign in through your institution </a> </div> </div> <li class="login-box__button-row"> <a rel="nofollow" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-sign-in-link" data-linkType="library-card" href="javascript:;">Sign in with a library card</a> </li> <li class="login-box__button-row"> <a rel="nofollow" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-sign-in-link at-institutional-sign-in-username" data-linkType="user-pass" href="javascript:;">Sign in with username/password</a> </li> <li class="login-box__button-row"> <a rel="nofollow" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-sign-in-link at-institutional-recommend" href="/pages/get-help-with-access/recommend-to-your-librarian?journal=astrogeo">Recommend to your librarian</a> </li> </ol> <h3 class="login-box__heading login-box__administrator_heading at-administrator-heading">Institutional account management</h3> <a rel="nofollow" class="login-box__sign-in-link js-sign-in-link" href="javascript:" data-linkType="user-pass">Sign in as administrator</a> </div> </div> <div id="divAccessHelp" class="accessHelp-modal small reveal-modal" data-reveal> <div tabindex="0" id="AccessHelpContainer" class="comment-form__wrap" data-reveal> <h2>Get help with access</h2> <h3>Institutional access</h3> <p> Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways: </p> <h4>IP based access</h4> <p> Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account. </p> <h4>Sign in through your institution</h4> <p> Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institutionâ€™s website and Oxford Academic. </p> <ol class="order"> <li>Click Sign in through your institution.</li> <li>Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.</li> <li>When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.</li> <li>Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.</li> </ol> <p> If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institutionâ€™s website, please contact your librarian or administrator. </p> <h4>Sign in with a library card</h4> <p> Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian. </p> <h3>Society Members</h3> <p> Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways: </p> <h4>Sign in through society site</h4> <p> Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see â€˜Sign in through society siteâ€™ in the sign in pane within a journal: </p> <ol class="order"> <li>Click Sign in through society site.</li> <li>When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.</li> <li>Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.</li> </ol> <p> If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society. </p> <h4>Sign in using a personal account</h4> <p> Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below. </p> <h3>Personal account</h3> <p> A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions. </p> <p> Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. </p> <h3>Viewing your signed in accounts</h3> <p> Click the account icon in the top right to: </p> <ul> <li>View your signed in personal account and access account management features.</li> <li>View the institutional accounts that are providing access.</li> </ul> <h3>Signed in but can't access content</h3> <p> Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian. </p> <h3>Institutional account management</h3> <p> For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more. </p> </div> <button class="accessHelp__close btn-as-icon icon-general-close js-access-help-close"> <span class="screenreader-text">Close access help modal</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-PurchaseOptions widget-instance-OUP_ArticlePage_PurchaseOptions"> <div class="purchase-wrap"> <h2 class="purchase-title">Purchase</h2> <div> <a class="purchase-subscription-links" href="/astrogeo/Subscribe/CurrentYear">Subscription prices and ordering for this journal</a> </div> <div> <a class="purchase-subscription-link" href="/pages/purchasing">Purchasing options for books and journals across Oxford Academic</a> </div> <div class="purchase-ppv-wrap-article clearfix"> <h3>Short-term Access</h3> <div class="register-ribbon-wrap"> <p> To purchase short-term access, please sign in to your personal account above. </p> <p> Don't already have a personal account? <a class="at-ShortTermAccess-Register" href="https://academic.oup.com/my-account/register?siteId=5264&returnUrl=https://academic.oup.com%2fastrogeo%2farticle-abstract%2f45%2f6%2f6.6%2f216618%3fredirectedFrom%3dfulltext">Register</a> </p> </div> Small galaxies are growing smaller - 24 Hours access <div class="purchase-currency-wrap"> <div class="purchase-currency"> EUR €15.00 </div> <div class="purchase-currency"> GBP £13.00 </div> <div class="purchase-currency"> USD $16.00 </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="divDeepDive" class="deep-dive-wrap js-deepdyve-link" data-issn="13668781" data-eissn="14684004" data-doi="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" data-fieldname="journal_doi" data-affiliate="OUP"> <h3 class="deep-dive-title">Rental</h3> <div class="deep-dive-box"> <div class="deep-dive-img"> <a class="deepDiveLink" href="https://www.deepdyve.com/doc-view?docId=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x&fieldName=journal_doi&affiliateId=OUP" target="_blank"><img src="https://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/deepdyve-link-button.svg" style="border:none" alt="Read this now at DeepDyve" /></a> </div> <div class="deep-dive-text"> This article is also available for rental through DeepDyve. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="Sidebar" class="page-column page-column--right"> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-ArticlePageTopSidebar"> <div class="js-adBlock-parent-wrap adblock-parent-wrap"> <div class="adBlockMainBodyTop-wrap js-adBlockMainBodyTop hide"> <div id="adBlockMainBodyTop" class="js-adblock at-adblock" data-lazy-load-margin="150"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display('adBlockMainBodyTop'); }); </script> </div> <div class="advertisement-text at-adblock js-adblock-advertisement-text hide">Advertisement</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-dynamic " data-count="1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-inner-wrap"> <div class="widget widget-dynamic " data-count="8"> <div class="widget-dynamic-inner-wrap"> <div class="widget widget-ArticleLevelMetrics widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_ArticleLevelMetrics"> <div class="artmet-wrapper horizontal-artmet"> <div class="contentmet-border"> <div class="contentmet-wrapper horizontal-contentmet"> <div class="contentmet-citations contentmet-badges-wrap js-contentmet-citations hide"> <h3 class="contentmet-text">Citations</h3> <div class="contentmet-item contentmet-dimensions"> <div class="widget widget-DimensionsBadge widget-instance-ArticleLevelMetrics_DimensionsBadge"> <span class="__dimensions_badge_embed__" data-doi="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" data-legend="never" data-style="small_circle" data-hide-zero-citations="false"></span> <script async src="https://badge.dimensions.ai/badge.js" charset="utf-8"></script> </div> </div> </div> <div class="contentmet-views contentmet-badges-wrap js-contentmet-views"> <h3 class="contentmet-text">Views</h3> <div class="contentmet-item circle-text circle-text-views"> <div class="contentmet-number">450</div> </div> </div> <div class="contentmet-item contentmet-badges-wrap"> <h3 class="contentmet-text">Altmetric</h3> <div class="contentmet-item contentmet-altmetric"> <div class="widget widget-AltmetricLink widget-instance-ArticleLevelMetrics_AltmetricLinkSummary">  <div id="altmetricEmbedId" runat="server" class='altmetric-embed' data-badge-type="donut" data-hide-no-mentions="false" data-doi="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" ></div> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js'></script> </div> </div> </div> <div class="contentmet-modal-trigger-wrap clearfix"> <a href="javascript:;" class="artmet-modal-trigger js-artmet-modal-trigger at-alm-metrics-modal-trigger" data-resource-id="216618" data-resource-type="3"> <img class="contentmet-info-icon" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/i.svg" alt="Information"> <span class="contentmet-more-info">More metrics information</span> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="artmet-modal js-artmet-modal" id="MetricsModal"> <div class="artmet-modal-contents js-metric-modal-contents at-alm-modal-contents"> <div class="artmet-full-wrap clearfix js-metric-full-wrap hide"> <div class="widget-title-1 artmet-widget-title-1">Metrics</div> <div class="artmet-item artmet-views-wrap"> <div class="artmet-views clearfix"> <div class="artmet-total-views"> <span class="artmet-text">Total Views</span> <span class="artmet-number">450</span> </div> <div class="artmet-breakdown-views-wrap"> <div class="artmet-breakdown-view breakdown-border"> <span class="artmet-number">308</span> <span class="artmet-text">Pageviews</span> </div> <div class="artmet-breakdown-view"> <span class="artmet-number">142</span> <span class="artmet-text">PDF Downloads</span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="artmet-views-since">Since 2/1/2017</div> </div> <script> var ChartistData = ChartistData || {}; ChartistData.data = { labels: ['Feb 2017', 'Mar 2017', 'Aug 2017', 'Nov 2017', 'Dec 2017', 'Jan 2018', 'Feb 2018', 'Mar 2018', 'Apr 2018', 'May 2018', 'Jun 2018', 'Jul 2018', 'Aug 2018', 'Sep 2018', 'Oct 2018', 'Nov 2018', 'Dec 2018', 'Jan 2019', 'Feb 2019', 'Mar 2019', 'Apr 2019', 'May 2019', 'Jun 2019', 'Jul 2019', 'Aug 2019', 'Sep 2019', 'Oct 2019', 'Nov 2019', 'Dec 2019', 'Jan 2020', 'Feb 2020', 'Mar 2020', 'Apr 2020', 'May 2020', 'Jun 2020', 'Jul 2020', 'Aug 2020', 'Sep 2020', 'Oct 2020', 'Nov 2020', 'Dec 2020', 'Jan 2021', 'Feb 2021', 'Mar 2021', 'Apr 2021', 'May 2021', 'Jun 2021', 'Jul 2021', 'Sep 2021', 'Oct 2021', 'Nov 2021', 'Dec 2021', 'Jan 2022', 'Feb 2022', 'Mar 2022', 'Apr 2022', 'May 2022', 'Jun 2022', 'Jul 2022', 'Aug 2022', 'Sep 2022', 'Oct 2022', 'Nov 2022', 'Dec 2022', 'Jan 2023', 'Feb 2023', 'Mar 2023', 'Apr 2023', 'May 2023', 'Jul 2023', 'Aug 2023', 'Sep 2023', 'Oct 2023', 'Nov 2023', 'Dec 2023', 'Jan 2024', 'Feb 2024', 'Mar 2024', 'Apr 2024', 'May 2024', 'Jun 2024', 'Jul 2024', 'Aug 2024', 'Sep 2024', 'Oct 2024'], series: [[2, 1, 1, 1, 8, 4, 13, 4, 3, 18, 4, 7, 7, 7, 3, 5, 4, 1, 2, 7, 13, 3, 2, 2, 3, 10, 9, 9, 5, 5, 9, 3, 5, 4, 4, 2, 7, 5, 5, 8, 5, 2, 3, 7, 1, 5, 3, 1, 6, 7, 3, 4, 1, 4, 9, 6, 4, 1, 5, 9, 20, 16, 1, 6, 4, 6, 4, 7, 3, 2, 9, 3, 10, 3, 5, 5, 13, 11, 5, 2, 3, 2, 4, 4, 1]] }; </script> <div class="artmet-item artmet-chart"> <div class="ct-chart ct-octave js-ct-chart"></div> <div class="artmet-table"> <table> <thead> <tr> <th>Month:</th> <th>Total Views:</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td>February 2017</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2017</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2017</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2017</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2017</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2018</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2018</td> <td>13</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2018</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2018</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2018</td> <td>18</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2018</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2018</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2018</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2018</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2018</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2018</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2018</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2019</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2019</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2019</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2019</td> <td>13</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2019</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2019</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2019</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2019</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2019</td> <td>10</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2019</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2019</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2019</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2020</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2020</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2020</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2020</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2020</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2020</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2020</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2020</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2020</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2020</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2020</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2020</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2021</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2021</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2021</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2021</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2021</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2021</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2021</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2021</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2021</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2021</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2021</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2022</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2022</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2022</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2022</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2022</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2022</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2022</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2022</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2022</td> <td>20</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2022</td> <td>16</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2022</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2022</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2023</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2023</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2023</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2023</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2023</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2023</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2023</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2023</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2023</td> <td>10</td> </tr> <tr> <td>November 2023</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>December 2023</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>January 2024</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February 2024</td> <td>13</td> </tr> <tr> <td>March 2024</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>April 2024</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>May 2024</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>June 2024</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>July 2024</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>August 2024</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>September 2024</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>October 2024</td> <td>1</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> <div class="artmet-stats-wrap clearfix"> <div class="artmet-item artmet-citations hide"> <div class="widget-title-2 artmet-widget-title-2">Citations</div> <div class="artmet-badges-wrap artmet-dimensions"> <div class="widget widget-DimensionsBadge widget-instance-ArticleLevelMetrics_DimensionsBadgeDetails"> <span class="__dimensions_badge_embed__" data-doi="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" data-legend="always" data-style="" data-hide-zero-citations="false"></span> <script async src="https://badge.dimensions.ai/badge.js" charset="utf-8"></script> </div> <span class="artmet-dimensions-text">Powered by Dimensions</span> </div> </div> <div class="artmet-item artmet-altmetric js-show-if-unknown"> <div class="widget-title-2 artmet-widget-title-2">Altmetrics</div> <div class="artmet-badges-wrap js-artmet-badges"> <div class="widget widget-AltmetricLink widget-instance-ArticleLevelMetrics_AltmetricLinkDetails">  <div id="altmetricEmbedId" runat="server" class='altmetric-embed' data-badge-type="donut" data-hide-no-mentions="false" data-doi="10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" data-badge-details = "right" ></div> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js'></script> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a class="artmet-close-modal js-artmet-close-modal">×</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-Alerts widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_Alerts"> <div class="alertsWidget"> <h3>Email alerts</h3> <div class="userAlert alertType-1"> <a href="javascript:;" class="js-user-alert" role="button" data-userLoggedIn="False" data-alertType="1" href="javascript:;">Article activity alert</a> </div> <div class="userAlert alertType-3"> <a href="javascript:;" class="js-user-alert" role="button" data-userLoggedIn="False" data-alertType="3" href="javascript:;">Advance article alerts</a> </div> <div class="userAlert alertType-5"> <a href="javascript:;" class="js-user-alert" role="button" data-userLoggedIn="False" data-alertType="5" href="javascript:;">New issue alert</a> </div> <div class="userAlert alertType-MarketingLink"> <a href="javascript:;" class="js-user-alert" role="button" data-userLoggedIn="False" data-additionalUrl="/my-account/communication-preferences" href="javascript:;">Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic</a> </div> <div class="userAlertSignUpModal reveal-modal small" data-reveal> <div class="userAlertSignUp at-userAlertSignUp"></div> <a href="javascript:;" role="button" aria-label="Close" class="close-reveal-modal" href="javascript:;"> <i class="icon-general-close"></i> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-TrendMD widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0trendmd"> <div id="trendmd-suggestions"></div> <div class="options" data-suppress-if-hum-is-present="True"></div> </div> <div class="widget widget-AstrophysicsDataSystem widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_AstrophysicsDataSystem"> <h3>Astrophysics Data System</h3> <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x" target="_blank">ADS Abstract</a> </div> <div class="widget widget-ArticleCitedBy widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_ArticleCitedBy"> <div class="rail-widget_wrap vt-articles-cited-by"> <h3 class="article-cited-title">Citing articles via</h3> <div class="widget-links_wrap"> <div class="article-cited-link-wrap google-scholar-url"> <a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=link:https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fastrogeo%2Farticle%2F45%2F6%2F6.6%2F216618" target="_blank">Google Scholar</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-ArticleListNewAndPopular widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_ArticleNewPopularCombined"> <ul class="articleListNewAndPopularCombinedView"> <li> <h3> <a href="javascript:;" class="articleListNewAndPopular-mode active" data-mode="MostRecent">Latest</a> </h3> </li> <li> <h3> <a href="javascript:;" class="articleListNewAndPopular-mode " data-mode="MostRead">Most Read</a> </h3> </li> <li> <h3> <a href="javascript:;" class="articleListNewAndPopular-mode " data-mode="MostCited">Most Cited</a> </h3> </li> </ul> <section class="articleListNewPopContent articleListNewAndPopular-ContentView-MostRecent hasContent"> <div id="newPopularList-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_ArticleNewPopularCombined" class="fb"> <div class="widget-layout widget-layout--vert "> <div class="widget-columns widget-col-1"> <div class="col"> <div class="widget-dynamic-entry journalArticleItem at-widget-entry-SCL"> <span class="hfDoi" data-attribute="10.1093/astrogeo/atae051" aria-hidden="true"></span> <a class="journal-link" href="/astrogeo/article/65/5/5.4/7794772?searchresult=1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-title"> News in Astronomy & Geophysics – October 2024 </div> </a> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-image-synopsis"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-synopsis"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget-dynamic-entry journalArticleItem at-widget-entry-SCL"> <span class="hfDoi" data-attribute="10.1093/astrogeo/atae054" aria-hidden="true"></span> <a class="journal-link" href="/astrogeo/article/65/5/5.13/7794771?searchresult=1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-title"> NAM2024 from Hull </div> </a> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-image-synopsis"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-synopsis"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget-dynamic-entry journalArticleItem at-widget-entry-SCL"> <span class="hfDoi" data-attribute="10.1093/astrogeo/atae057" aria-hidden="true"></span> <a class="journal-link" href="/astrogeo/article/65/5/5.31/7794770?searchresult=1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-title"> On the trail of particle rain </div> </a> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-image-synopsis"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-synopsis"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget-dynamic-entry journalArticleItem at-widget-entry-SCL"> <span class="hfDoi" data-attribute="10.1093/astrogeo/atae055" aria-hidden="true"></span> <a class="journal-link" href="/astrogeo/article/65/5/5.20/7794769?searchresult=1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-title"> Quantum gravity in the skies? </div> </a> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-image-synopsis"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-synopsis"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget-dynamic-entry journalArticleItem at-widget-entry-SCL"> <span class="hfDoi" data-attribute="10.1093/astrogeo/atae056" aria-hidden="true"></span> <a class="journal-link" href="/astrogeo/article/65/5/5.28/7794768?searchresult=1"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-title"> Who wants to be a geophysicist? </div> </a> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-image-synopsis"> <div class="widget-dynamic-journal-synopsis"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div></div> </section> <section class="articleListNewPopContent articleListNewAndPopular-ContentView-MostRead hide"> </section> <section class="articleListNewPopContent articleListNewAndPopular-ContentView-MostCited hide"> </section> </div> <div class="widget widget-RelatedTaxonomies widget-instance-Article_RightRailB0Article_RightRail_RelatedTaxonomies"> <div class="widget-related-taxonomies-wrap vt-related-taxonomies"> <div class="widget-related-taxonomies_title">More from Oxford Academic</div> <div class="widget-related-taxonomies"> <a id="more-from-oa-AcademicSubjects_SCI00010" class="related-taxonomies-link" href="/search-results?tax=AcademicSubjects/SCI00010">Science and Mathematics</a> </div> <div class="widget-related-taxonomies"> <a id="more-from-oa-format-Books" class="related-taxonomies-link" href="/books">Books</a> </div> <div class="widget-related-taxonomies"> <a id="more-from-oa-format-Journals" class="related-taxonomies-link" href="/journals">Journals</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-ArticlePageTopMainBodyBottom"> <div class="js-adBlock-parent-wrap adblock-parent-wrap"> <div class="adBlockMainBodyBottom-wrap js-adBlockMainBodyBottom hide"> <div id="adBlockMainBodyBottom" class="js-adblock at-adblock js-adblock-lazy-loading" data-lazy-load-margin="150"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display('adBlockMainBodyBottom'); }); </script> </div> <div class="advertisement-text at-adblock js-adblock-advertisement-text hide">Advertisement</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <input id="hfArticleTitle" name="hfArticleTitle" type="hidden" value="" /> <input id="hfLeftNavStickyOffset" name="hfLeftNavStickyOffset" type="hidden" value="29" /> </div> </section> </div> <div class="mobile-mask"> </div> <section class="footer_wrap vt-site-footer"> <div class="ad-banner-footer sticky-footer-ad js-sticky-footer-ad"> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-StickyFooterAd"> <div class="js-adBlock-parent-wrap adblock-parent-wrap"> <div class="adBlockStickyFooter-wrap js-adBlockStickyFooter hide"> <div id="adBlockStickyFooter" class="js-adblock at-adblock" data-lazy-load-margin="150"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display('adBlockStickyFooter'); }); </script> </div> <div class="advertisement-text at-adblock js-adblock-advertisement-text hide">Advertisement</div> <button type="button" class="close-footer-ad js-close-footer-ad"> <span class="screenreader-text">close advertisement</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="widget widget-SitePageFooter widget-instance-SitePageFooter"> <div class="ad-banner ad-banner-footer"> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-FooterAd"> <div class="js-adBlock-parent-wrap adblock-parent-wrap"> <div class="adBlockFooter-wrap js-adBlockFooter hide"> <div id="adBlockFooter" class="js-adblock at-adblock js-adblock-lazy-loading" data-lazy-load-margin="150"> <script> googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display('adBlockFooter'); }); </script> </div> <div class="advertisement-text at-adblock js-adblock-advertisement-text hide">Advertisement</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="journal-footer journal-bg"> <div class="center-inner-row"> <div class="journal-footer-menu"> <ul> <li class="link-1"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/About">About Astronomy & Geophysics</a> </li> <li class="link-2"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/Editorial_Board">Editorial Board</a> </li> <li class="link-3"> <a href="/astrogeo/pages/General_Instructions">Author Guidelines</a> </li> <li class="link-4"> <a href="https://aandg.org/contact">Contact Us</a> </li> <li class="link-5"> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/astrongeo/">Facebook</a> </li> </ul><ul><li class="link-1"> <a href="https://twitter.com/AstronGeo ">X (formerly Twitter)</a> </li> <li class="link-2"> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCUZJ5FO9ayrmepOM4FHAASw">YouTube</a> </li> <li class="link-3"> <a href="/astrogeo/subscribe">Purchase</a> </li> <li class="link-4"> <a href="http://www.oxfordjournals.org/en/library-recommendation-form.html">Recommend to your Library</a> </li> <li class="link-5"> <a href="https://academic.oup.com/advertising-and-corporate-services/pages/astrogeo-media-kit">Advertising and Corporate Services</a> </li> </ul><ul><li class="link-1"> <a href="http://science-and-mathematics-careernetwork.oxfordjournals.org">Journals Career Network</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="journal-footer-affiliations">  <a href="https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo" target=""> <img id="footer-logo-Astronomy&Geophysics" class="journal-footer-affiliations-logo" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/data/SiteBuilderAssets/Live/Images/astrogeo/astrogeo_f1-232466434.svg" alt="Astronomy & Geophysics" /> </a> </div> <div class="journal-footer-colophon"> <ul> <li>Online ISSN 1468-4004</li> <li>Print ISSN 1366-8781</li> <li>Copyright © 2024 The Royal Astronomical Society</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="oup-footer"> <div class="center-inner-row"> <div class="widget widget-SelfServeContent widget-instance-OupUmbrellaFooterSelfServe"> <input type="hidden" class="SelfServeContentId" value="GlobalFooter_Links" /> <input type="hidden" class="SelfServeVersionId" value="0" /> <div class="oup-footer-row journal-links"> <div class="global-footer selfservelinks"> <ul> <li><a href="/pages/about-oxford-academic">About Oxford Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/about-oxford-academic/publish-journals-with-us">Publish journals with us</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/about-oxford-academic/our-university-press-partners">University press partners</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/what-we-publish">What we publish</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/new-features">New features</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="global-footer selfservelinks"> <ul> <li><a href="/pages/authoring">Authoring</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/open-research/open-access">Open access</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/purchasing">Purchasing</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/institutional-account-management">Institutional account management</a></li> <li><a href="https://academic.oup.com/pages/purchasing/rights-and-permissions">Rights and permissions</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="global-footer selfservelinks"> <ul> <li><a href="/pages/get-help-with-access">Get help with access</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/about-oxford-academic/accessibility">Accessibility</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/contact-us">Contact us</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/media-enquiries">Media enquiries</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="global-footer selfservelinks global-footer-external"> <ul> <li><a href="https://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.mynewsdesk.com/uk/oxford-university-press">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://languages.oup.com/">Oxford Languages</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="OUP-mission"> <p>Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide</p> <img class="journal-footer-logo" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/UI/app/svg/umbrella/oup-logo.svg" alt="Oxford University Press" width="150" height="42" /> </div> </div> <div class="oup-footer-row"> <div class="oup-footer-row-links"> <ul> <li>Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press</li> <li><button id="Change-Preferences" type="button" onclick="window.top.document.dispatchEvent(new Event('changeConsent'))">Cookie settings</button></li> <li><a href="https://global.oup.com/cookiepolicy">Cookie policy</a></li> <li><a href="https://global.oup.com/privacy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/legal-and-policy/legal-notice">Legal notice</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <style type="text/css"> /* Issue right column fix for tablet/mobile */ @media (max-width: 1200px) { .pg_issue .widget-instance-OUP_Issue { width: 100%; } } .sf-facet-list .sf-facet label, .sf-facet-list .taxonomy-label-wrap label { font-size: 0.9375rem; } .issue-pagination-wrap .pagination-container { float: right; } </style> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ss-ui-only"> </div> </section> </div> <div class="widget widget-SiteWideModals widget-instance-SiteWideModals"> <div id="revealModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal> <div id="revealContent"></div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" href="javascript:;"><i class="icon-general-close"></i><span class="screenreader-text">Close</span></a> </div> <div id="globalModalContainer" class="modal-global-container"> <div id="globalModalContent"> <div class="js-globalModalPlaceholder"></div> </div> <a class="close-modal js-close-modal" href="javascript:;"><i class="icon-general-close"><span class="screenreader-text">Close</span></i></a> </div> <div id="globalModalOverlay" class="modal-overlay js-modal-overlay"></div> <div id="NeedSubscription" class="reveal-modal small" data-reveal> <div class="subscription-needed"> <h5>This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only</h5> <p><a href="/sign-in">Sign In</a> or <a href="/my-account/register?siteId=5264&returnUrl=%2fastrogeo%2farticle-abstract%2f45%2f6%2f6.6%2f216618%3fredirectedFrom%3dfulltext">Create an Account</a></p> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" href="javascript:;"><i class="icon-general-close"></i><span class="screenreader-text">Close</span></a> </div> <div id="noAccessReveal" class="reveal-modal tiny" data-reveal> <p>This PDF is available to Subscribers Only</p> <a class="hide-for-article-page" id="articleLinkToPurchase" data-reveal><span>View Article Abstract & Purchase Options</span></a> <div class="issue-purchase-modal"> <p>For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.</p> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" href="javascript:;"><i class="icon-general-close"></i><span class="screenreader-text">Close</span></a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> MathJax = { tex: { inlineMath: [['|$', '$|'], ['\$', '\$']] } }; </script> <script id="MathJax-script" async src="//cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/mathjax@3/es5/tex-mml-chtml.js"></script>   <script> var NTPT_PGEXTRA = 'event_type=Login-full-text\u0026supplier_tag=SC_Journals\u0026object_type=Article\u0026taxonomy=taxId%3a39%7ctaxLabel%3aAcademicSubjects%7cnodeId%3aSCI00010%7cnodeLabel%3aScience+and+Mathematics%7cnodeLevel%3a1\u0026siteid=astrogeo\u0026authzrequired=true\u0026turnaway_id=SUB_NONE\u0026doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45606.x'; </script>  <script type="text/javascript" src="//ouptag.scholarlyiq.com/ntpagetag.js" class="optanon-category-C0002"></script> <noscript> <img src="//ouptag.scholarlyiq.com/ntpagetag.gif?js=0" height="1" width="1" border="0" hspace="0" vspace="0" alt="Scholarly IQ" /> </noscript> <script type="text/javascript" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/Themes/Client/app/jsdist/v-638670583927851610/site.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/chartist.js/latest/chartist.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/Themes/Client/app/jsdist/v-638670583841550894/article-page.min.js"></script> <div class="ad-banner js-ad-riser ad-banner-riser"> <div class="widget widget-AdBlock widget-instance-RiserAd"> </div> </div> <script src="//oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/scm.proxylogging.js"></script> <div class="end-of-page-js"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Small galaxies are growing smaller | Astronomy & Geophysics | Oxford Academic