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id="toc-Types_of_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Types of surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Description_of_surgical_procedure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description_of_surgical_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Description of surgical procedure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description_of_surgical_procedure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Description of surgical procedure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Description_of_surgical_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Setting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preoperative_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preoperative_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Preoperative care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preoperative_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preparing_for_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparing_for_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Preparing for surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparing_for_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intraoperative_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intraoperative_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Intraoperative phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intraoperative_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postoperative_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postoperative_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Postoperative care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postoperative_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Epidemiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Special populations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Special_populations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Special populations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Special_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elderly_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elderly_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Elderly people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elderly_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vulnerable_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vulnerable_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Vulnerable populations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vulnerable_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Global surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Human rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trepanation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trepanation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Trepanation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trepanation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Ancient Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sri_Lanka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sri_Lanka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Sri Lanka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sri_Lanka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_and_Medieval_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_Medieval_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Ancient and Medieval Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_Medieval_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Early modern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Modern surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infection_and_antisepsis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infection_and_antisepsis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8.1</span> <span>Infection and antisepsis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infection_and_antisepsis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgical_specialties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgical_specialties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Surgical specialties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgical_specialties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learned_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learned_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Learned societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learned_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_Surgery-related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_Surgery-related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>List of Surgery-related fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_Surgery-related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Surgery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9" title="جراحة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جراحة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirurch%C3%ADa" title="Cirurchía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cirurchía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A5%DC%A8%DC%92%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܥܨܒܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܥܨܒܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirux%C3%ADa" title="Ciruxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciruxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C9%99rrahiyy%C9%99" title="Cərrahiyyə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cərrahiyyə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82" title="جراحلیق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جراحلیق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="অস্ত্রোপচার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অস্ত্রোপচার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C4%81-kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Goā-kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goā-kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хірургія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хірургія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хірургія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Хірургія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="आपरेसन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="आपरेसन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хирургия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хирургия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirurgija" title="Hirurgija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hirurgija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirurgia" title="Cirurgia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cirurgia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Хирурги – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хирурги" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llawfeddygaeth" title="Llawfeddygaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llawfeddygaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgi" title="Kirurgi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kirurgi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgia" title="Kirurgia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kirurgia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Χειρουργική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χειρουργική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirug%C3%ADa" title="Cirugía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cirugía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgio" title="Kirurgio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kirurgio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgia" title="Kirurgia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kirurgia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="جراحی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جراحی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1inliacht" title="Máinliacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Máinliacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirurx%C3%ADa" title="Cirurxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cirurxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%99%B8%EA%B3%BC" title="외과 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="외과" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AA%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վիրաբուժություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիրաբուժություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgija" title="Kirurgija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kirurgija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgio" title="Kirurgio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kirurgio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedah" title="Bedah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bedah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgia" title="Chirurgia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Chirurgia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppskur%C3%B0ur" title="Uppskurður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Uppskurður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgia" title="Chirurgia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chirurgia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="כירורגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כירורגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedhah" title="Bedhah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bedhah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yas%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B_(Chirurgie)" title="Yasʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ (Chirurgie) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Yasʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ (Chirurgie)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಶಸ್ತ್ರಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶಸ್ತ್ರಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ქირურგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქირურგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хирургия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Хирургия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upasuaji" title="Upasuaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Upasuaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C5%9Fterger%C3%AE" title="Niştergerî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Niştergerî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хирургия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Хирургия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgia" title="Chirurgia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chirurgia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6irur%C4%A3ija" title="Ķirurģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķirurģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgija" title="Chirurgija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chirurgija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirurjia" title="Sirurjia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sirurjia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerusia" title="Cerusia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cerusia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seb%C3%A9szet" title="Sebészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sebészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хирургија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хирургија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="ശസ്ത്രക്രിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശസ്ത്രക്രിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembedahan" title="Pembedahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembedahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badah" title="Badah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Badah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D1%81_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Мэс засал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мэс засал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="ခွဲစိတ်ကုပညာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ခွဲစိတ်ကုပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veisele" title="Veisele – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Veisele" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यक्रिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="शल्यक्रिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="外科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="外科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgi" title="Kirurgi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kirurgi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgi" title="Kirurgi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kirurgi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirurgia" title="Cirurgia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cirurgia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Хирургий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Хирургий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarrohlik" title="Jarrohlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jarrohlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਸਰਜਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਰਜਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="جراحي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جراحي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgia" title="Chirurgia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chirurgia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirurgia" title="Cirurgia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cirurgia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chirurgie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runa_kuchuy" title="Runa kuchuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Runa kuchuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хирургия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хирургия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="शल्यचिकित्सा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgjia" title="Kirurgjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kirurgjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurg%C3%ACa" title="Chirurgìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Chirurgìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="ශල්‍යවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ශල්‍යවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Surgery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurgia" title="Chirurgia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chirurgia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgija" title="Kirurgija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kirurgija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نەشتەرگەری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەشتەرگەری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хирургија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хирургија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgija" title="Kirurgija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kirurgija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgia" title="Kirurgia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirurgia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgi" title="Kirurgi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kirurgi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pag-oopera" title="Pag-oopera – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pag-oopera" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88" title="அறுவைச் சிகிச்சை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறுவைச் சிகிச்சை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0_%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8" title="శస్త్ర చికిత్స – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శస్త్ర చికిత్స" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ศัลยศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศัลยศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerrahi" title="Cerrahi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cerrahi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хірургія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хірургія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA" title="جراحت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جراحت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirurzia" title="Chirurzia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Chirurzia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngo%E1%BA%A1i_khoa" title="Ngoại khoa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngoại khoa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgia" title="Kirurgia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kirurgia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siruhiya" title="Siruhiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Siruhiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="外科学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="外科学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="כירורגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כירורגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91" title="外科 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="外科" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="外科学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="外科学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed%C3%A8l" title="Bedèl – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Bedèl" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical procedures that involve incisive or invasive instruments into body cavities</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the medical specialty. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Surgery_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Surgery (disambiguation)">Surgery (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE.jpg/450px-%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE.jpg/600px-%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3664" data-file-height="2504" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Surgeons conducting operations</div></div></div></div> <p><b>Surgery</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">medical specialty</a> that uses manual and instrumental techniques to diagnose or treat <a href="/wiki/Pathological" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathological">pathological</a> conditions (e.g., trauma, disease, injury, malignancy), to alter bodily functions (e.g., malabsorption created by <a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">bariatric surgery</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Gastric_bypass" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric bypass">gastric bypass</a>), to reconstruct or improve aesthetics and appearance (<a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmetic surgery">cosmetic surgery</a>), or to remove unwanted <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> (<a href="/wiki/Body_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Body fat">body fat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scar" title="Scar">scars</a> or <a href="/wiki/Skin_tag" title="Skin tag">skin tags</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Foreign_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign bodies">foreign bodies</a>. </p><p>The act of performing surgery may be called a <b>surgical procedure</b> or <b>surgical operation</b>, or simply "surgery" or "operation". In this context, the verb "operate" means to perform surgery. The adjective <b>surgical</b> means pertaining to surgery; e.g. <a href="/wiki/Surgical_instrument" title="Surgical instrument">surgical instruments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operating_theater" title="Operating theater">surgical facility</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surgical_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical nurse">surgical nurse</a>. Most surgical procedures are performed by a pair of operators: a <a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">surgeon</a> who is the main operator performing the surgery, and a <a href="/wiki/Surgical_assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical assistant">surgical assistant</a> who provides in-procedure manual assistance during surgery. Modern surgical operations typically require a <b>surgical team</b> that typically consists of the surgeon, the surgical assistant, an <a href="/wiki/Anaesthetist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthetist">anaesthetist</a> (often also complemented by an <a href="/wiki/Anaesthetic_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaesthetic nurse">anaesthetic nurse</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Scrub_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrub nurse">scrub nurse</a> (who handles <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">sterile</a> equipment), a <a href="/wiki/Circulating_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulating nurse">circulating nurse</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Surgical_technologist" title="Surgical technologist">surgical technologist</a>, while procedures that mandate <a href="/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_bypass" title="Cardiopulmonary bypass">cardiopulmonary bypass</a> will also have a <a href="/wiki/Perfusionist" title="Perfusionist">perfusionist</a>. All surgical procedures are considered <i>invasive</i> and often require a period of <i>postoperative</i> care (sometimes <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensive care">intensive care</a>) for the patient to recover from the <a href="/wiki/Iatrogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iatrogenic">iatrogenic</a> trauma inflicted by the procedure. The duration of surgery can span from several minutes to tens of hours depending on the <a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">specialty</a>, the nature of the condition, the target <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/body_part" class="extiw" title="wikt:body part">body parts</a> involved and the circumstance of each procedure, but most surgeries are designed to be one-off interventions that are typically not intended as an ongoing or repeated type of treatment. </p><p>In British colloquialism, the term "surgery" can also refer to the facility where surgery is performed, or simply the <a href="/wiki/Doctor%27s_office" title="Doctor's office">office</a>/<a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">clinic</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dentist" title="Dentist">dentist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Veterinarian" title="Veterinarian">veterinarian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_(26875894332).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg/220px-Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg/330px-Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg/440px-Leikkaus_Punaisen_ristin_sairaalassa_Tampereella_%2826875894332%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3924" data-file-height="2465" /></a><figcaption>Surgery underway at the <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> Hospital in <a href="/wiki/Tampere" title="Tampere">Tampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> during the 1918 <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a person's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound. Other procedures that do not necessarily fall under this rubric, such as <a href="/wiki/Angioplasty" title="Angioplasty">angioplasty</a> or <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>, may be considered surgery if they involve "common" surgical procedure or settings, such as use of <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> measures and sterile fields, <a href="/wiki/Sedation" title="Sedation">sedation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>, proactive <a href="/wiki/Hemostasis" title="Hemostasis">hemostasis</a>, typical <a href="/wiki/Surgical_instrument" title="Surgical instrument">surgical instruments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Suturing">suturing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surgical_staple" title="Surgical staple">stapling</a>. All forms of surgery are considered invasive procedures; the so-called "noninvasive surgery" ought to be more appropriately called <a href="/wiki/Minimally_invasive_procedure" title="Minimally invasive procedure">minimally invasive procedures</a>, which usually refers to a procedure that utilizes natural orifices (e.g. most <a href="/wiki/Urological" class="mw-redirect" title="Urological">urological</a> procedures) or does not penetrate the structure being excised (e.g. endoscopic <a href="/wiki/Polypectomy" title="Polypectomy">polyp excision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubber_band_ligation" title="Rubber band ligation">rubber band ligation</a>, <a href="/wiki/LASIK" title="LASIK">laser eye surgery</a>), are <a href="/wiki/Percutaneous" title="Percutaneous">percutaneous</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catheter_ablation" title="Catheter ablation">catheter ablation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angioplasty" title="Angioplasty">angioplasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valvuloplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valvuloplasty">valvuloplasty</a>), or to a <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiosurgical</a> procedure (e.g. irradiation of a tumor).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_surgery">Types of surgery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, the degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation. </p> <ul><li>Based on timing:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elective_surgery" title="Elective surgery">Elective surgery</a> is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition, and is carried out at the person's convenience, or to the surgeon's and the surgical facility's availability.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-elective_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-elective surgery">Semi-elective surgery</a> is one that is better done early to avoid complications or potential deterioration of the patient's condition, but such risk are sufficiently low that the procedure can be postponed for a short period time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency surgery">Emergency surgery</a> is surgery which must be done without any delay to prevent death or serious disabilities and/or loss of limbs and functions.</li></ul></li> <li>Based on purpose:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_surgery" title="Exploratory surgery">Exploratory surgery</a> is performed to establish or aid a <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>.</li> <li>Therapeutic surgery is performed to treat a previously diagnosed condition. <ul><li>Curative surgery is a therapeutic procedure done to permanently remove a pathology.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a> is done to improve a body part's function and/or appearance. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_plastic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstructive plastic surgery">Reconstructive plastic surgery</a> is done to improve the function and/or subjective appearance of a damaged or malformed body part.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmetic surgery">Cosmetic surgery</a> is done to subjectively improve the appearance of an otherwise normal body part.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">Bariatric surgery</a> is done to assist <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a> when dietary and pharmaceutical methods alone have failed.</li></ul></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Resection"></span> </p> <ul><li>By type of procedure: <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">Amputation</a></b> involves removing an entire <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/body_part" class="extiw" title="wikt:body part">body part</a>, usually a <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limb</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">digit</a>; <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castration</a> is the amputation of <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> is the removal of <a href="/wiki/Foreskin" title="Foreskin">prepuce</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">penis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">clitoral hood</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">clitoris</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Female_circumcision" class="mw-redirect" title="Female circumcision">female circumcision</a>). <b><a href="/wiki/Replantation" title="Replantation">Replantation</a></b> involves reattaching a severed body part.</li> <li><b>Resection</b> is the removal of all or part of an <a href="/wiki/Internal_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal organ">internal organ</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Segmental_resection" title="Segmental resection">segmental resection</a> specifically removes an independent vascular region of an organ such as a <a href="/wiki/Lobes_of_liver" title="Lobes of liver">hepatic segment</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bronchopulmonary_segment" title="Bronchopulmonary segment">bronchopulmonary segment</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Renal_lobe" title="Renal lobe">renal lobe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NCI_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCI-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Excision</b> is the resection of only part of an organ, tissue or other body part (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>) without discriminating specific vascular territories. <b>Exenteration</b> is the complete removal of all organs and <a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue" title="Soft tissue">soft tissue</a> content (especially <a href="/wiki/Lymphoid_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphoid tissue">lymphoid tissues</a>) within a <a href="/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity">body cavity</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Surgical_extirpation" title="Surgical extirpation">Extirpation</a></b> is the complete excision or surgical destruction of a body part.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation">Ablation</a></b> is destruction of tissue through the use of energy-transmitting devices such as <a href="/wiki/Electrocautery" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocautery">electrocautery</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fulguration" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulguration">fulguration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">laser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focused_ultrasound" title="Focused ultrasound">focused ultrasound</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cryoablation" title="Cryoablation">freezing</a>.</li> <li><b>Repair</b> involves the direct closure or restoration of an injured, mutilated or deformed organ or body part, usually by <a href="/wiki/Suturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Suturing">suturing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Internal_fixation" title="Internal fixation">internal fixation</a>. <b><a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_surgery" title="Reconstructive surgery">Reconstruction</a></b> is an extensive repair of a complex body part (such as <a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">joints</a>), often with some degrees of structural/functional replacement and commonly involves grafting and/or use of implants.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Graft_(surgery)" title="Graft (surgery)">Grafting</a></b> is the relocation and establishment of a tissue from one part of the body to another. A <a href="/wiki/Flap_(surgery)" title="Flap (surgery)">flap</a> is the relocation of a tissue without complete separation of its original attachment, and a <a href="/wiki/Free_flap" title="Free flap">free flap</a> is a completely detached flap that carries an intact neurovascular structure ready for grafting onto a new location.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bypass_surgery" title="Bypass surgery">Bypass</a></b> involves the relocation/grafting of a tubular structure onto another in order to reroute the content flow of that target structure from a specific segment directly to a more distal ("downstream") segment.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">Implantation</a></b> is insertion of artificial <a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a> to replace or augment existing tissue.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation</a></b> is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from a different human (or animal) into the person undergoing surgery. <b><a href="/wiki/Organ_procurement" title="Organ procurement">Harvesting</a></b> is the resection of an organ or body part from a live human or animal (known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">donor</a></i>) for transplantation into another patient (known as the <i>recipient</i>).</li></ul></li> <li>By <a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">organ system</a>: Surgical specialties are traditionally and academically categorized by the organ, organ system or body region involved. Examples include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mediastinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediastinal">mediastinal</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_vessels" title="Great vessels">great vessels</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic surgery">Thoracic surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cavity" title="Thoracic cavity">thoracic cavity</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal surgery">Gastrointestinal surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Digestive_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive tract">digestive tract</a> and its accessory organs;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a> — the extra-mediastinal great vessels and peripheral <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urological_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Urological surgery">Urological surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">genitourinary system</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENT_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="ENT surgery">ENT surgery</a> — <a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Throat" title="Throat">throat</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Head and neck surgery">head and neck surgery</a> when including the <a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a> region;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Oral_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral cavity">oral cavity</a>, jaws, and face;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>, and;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a> — the <a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal system">musculoskeletal system</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>By degree of invasiveness of surgical procedures: <ul><li>Conventional <a href="/wiki/Open_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Open surgery">open surgery</a> (such as a <a href="/wiki/Laparotomy" title="Laparotomy">laparotomy</a>) requires a large incision to access the area of interest, and directly exposes the internal body cavity to the outside.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally-invasive_procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally-invasive procedures">Minimally-invasive surgery</a> involves much smaller surface incisions or even natural orifices (<a href="/wiki/Nostril" title="Nostril">nostril</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">urethra</a>) to insert miniaturized instruments within a body cavity or structure, as in <a href="/wiki/Laparoscopic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Laparoscopic surgery">laparoscopic surgery</a> or <a href="/wiki/Angioplasty" title="Angioplasty">angioplasty</a>.</li> <li>Hybrid surgery uses a combination of open and minimally-invasive techniques, and may include hand ports or larger incisions to assist with performance of elements of the procedure.</li></ul></li> <li>By equipment used: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laser_surgery" title="Laser surgery">Laser surgery</a> involves use of <a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">laser ablation</a> to divide tissue instead of a <a href="/wiki/Scalpel" title="Scalpel">scalpel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scissors" title="Scissors">scissors</a> or similar sharp-edged instruments.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosurgery" title="Cryosurgery">Cryosurgery</a> uses low-temperature <a href="/wiki/Cryoablation" title="Cryoablation">cryoablation</a> to freeze and destroy a target tissue.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrosurgery" title="Electrosurgery">Electrosurgery</a> involves use of <a href="/wiki/Electrocautery" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocautery">electrocautery</a> to cut and coagulate tissue.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsurgery" title="Microsurgery">Microsurgery</a> involves the use of an operating <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> for the surgeon to see and manipulate small structures.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Endoscopic surgery">Endoscopic surgery</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">optical instruments</a> to relay the image from inside an enclosed body cavity to the outside, and the surgeon performs the procedure using specialized handheld instruments inserted through <a href="/wiki/Trocar" title="Trocar">trocars</a> placed through the body wall. Most modern endoscopic procedures are <i>video-assisted</i>, meaning the images are viewed on a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">display screen</a> rather than through the <a href="/wiki/Eyepiece" title="Eyepiece">eyepiece</a> on the endoscope.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic surgery">Robotic surgery</a> makes use of <a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Da_Vinci_Surgical_System" title="Da Vinci Surgical System">Da Vinci</a> or the <a href="/wiki/ZEUS_robotic_surgical_system" title="ZEUS robotic surgical system">ZEUS robotic surgical systems</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remotely control</a> endoscopic or minimally-invasive instruments.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_surgical_procedures" title="List of surgical procedures">List of surgical procedures</a></div> <ul><li>Resection and excisional procedures start with a <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a> for the target organ to be excised (cut out) and end in the <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> <b>-ectomy</b>. For example, removal of part of the stomach would be called a subtotal gastrectomy.</li> <li>Procedures involving cutting into an organ or tissue end in <b>-otomy</b>. A surgical procedure cutting through the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal">abdominal</a> wall to gain access to the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cavity" title="Abdominal cavity">abdominal cavity</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Laparotomy" title="Laparotomy">laparotomy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgery#Minimally_invasive_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally invasive surgery">Minimally invasive procedures</a>, involving small incisions through which an endoscope is inserted, end in -<b>oscopy</b>. For example, such surgery in the abdominal cavity is called <a href="/wiki/Laparoscopy" title="Laparoscopy">laparoscopy</a>.</li> <li>Procedures for formation of a permanent or semi-permanent opening called a <a href="/wiki/Stoma_(medicine)" title="Stoma (medicine)">stoma</a> in the body end in <b>-ostomy</b>, such as creation of a colostomy, a connection of colon and the abdominal wall. This prefix is also used for connection between two viscera, such as how an esophagojejunostomy refers to a connection created between the esophagus and the jejunum.</li> <li>Plastic and reconstruction procedures start with the name for the body part to be reconstructed and end in <b>-plasty</b>. For example, <i>rhino-</i> is a prefix meaning "nose", therefore a <i><a href="/wiki/Rhinoplasty" title="Rhinoplasty">rhinoplasty</a></i> is a reconstructive or cosmetic surgery for the nose. A pyloroplasty refers to a type of reconstruction of the gastric pylorus.</li> <li>Procedures that involve cutting the muscular layers of an organ end in <b>-myotomy</b>. A pyloromyotomy refers to cutting the muscular layers of the gastric pylorus.</li> <li>Repair of a damaged or abnormal structure ends in <b>-orraphy</b>. This includes herniorrhaphy, another name for a hernia repair.</li> <li>Reoperation, revision, or "redo" procedures refer to a planned or unplanned return to the operating theater after a surgery is performed to re-address an aspect of patient care. Unplanned reasons for reoperation include postoperative <a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">complications</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">bleeding</a> or hematoma formation, development of a <a href="/wiki/Seroma" title="Seroma">seroma</a> or <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscess</a>, anastomotic leak, tissue <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> requiring <a href="/wiki/Debridement" title="Debridement">debridement</a> or excision, or in the case of malignancy, close or involved <a href="/wiki/Resection_margin" title="Resection margin">resection margins</a> that may require re-excision to avoid local recurrence. Reoperation can be performed in the acute phase, or it can be also performed months to years later if the surgery failed to solve the indicated problem. Reoperation can also be planned as a staged operation where components of the procedure are performed and/or reversed under separate anesthesia.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description_of_surgical_procedure">Description of surgical procedure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Description of surgical procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Setting">Setting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Inpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Inpatient">Inpatient</a> surgery is performed in a hospital, and the person undergoing surgery stays at least one night in the hospital after the surgery. <a href="/wiki/Outpatient_surgery" title="Outpatient surgery">Outpatient surgery</a> occurs in a hospital outpatient department or freestanding ambulatory surgery center, and the person who had surgery is discharged the same working day.<sup id="cite_ref-LemosIAAS2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LemosIAAS2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Office-based surgery occurs in a physician's office, and the person is discharged the same day.<sup id="cite_ref-Twersky2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twersky2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At a <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a>, modern surgery is often performed in an <a href="/wiki/Operating_theater" title="Operating theater">operating theater</a> using <a href="/wiki/Surgical_instrument" title="Surgical instrument">surgical instruments</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Operating_table" title="Operating table">operating table</a>, and other equipment. Among United States hospitalizations for non-maternal and non-neonatal conditions in 2012, more than one-fourth of stays and half of hospital costs involved stays that included operating room (OR) procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of <a href="/wiki/Aseptic_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Aseptic technique">aseptic technique</a>: the strict separation of "sterile" (free of microorganisms) things from "unsterile" or "contaminated" things. All surgical instruments must be <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilized</a>, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if it becomes contaminated (i.e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). Operating room staff must wear sterile attire (<a href="/wiki/Scrubs_(clothing)" title="Scrubs (clothing)">scrubs</a>, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preoperative_care">Preoperative care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Preoperative care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Preoperative_care" title="Preoperative care">Preoperative care</a></div> <p>Prior to surgery, the person is given a <a href="/wiki/Medical_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical examination">medical examination</a>, receives certain pre-operative tests, and their <a href="/wiki/Physical_fitness" title="Physical fitness">physical status</a> is rated according to the <a href="/wiki/ASA_physical_status_classification_system" title="ASA physical status classification system">ASA physical status classification system</a>. If these results are satisfactory, the person requiring surgery signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an <a href="/wiki/Autologous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autologous">autologous</a> <a href="/wiki/Blood_donation" title="Blood donation">blood donation</a> may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the <a href="/wiki/Digestive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive system">digestive system</a>, the person requiring surgery may be instructed to perform a <a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">bowel prep</a> by drinking a solution of <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol" title="Polyethylene glycol">polyethylene glycol</a> the night before the procedure. People preparing for surgery are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an <a href="/wiki/Nil_per_os" class="mw-redirect" title="Nil per os">NPO order</a> after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the person vomits during or after the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery practice accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-ACRfive_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACRfive-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">medical specialty</a> <a href="/wiki/Professional_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional organizations">professional organizations</a> recommend against routine pre-operative <a href="/wiki/Chest_radiograph" title="Chest radiograph">chest x-rays</a> for people who have an unremarkable medical history and presented with a physical exam which did not indicate a chest x-ray.<sup id="cite_ref-ACRfive_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACRfive-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Routine x-ray examination is more likely to result in problems like misdiagnosis, overtreatment, or other negative outcomes than it is to result in a benefit to the person.<sup id="cite_ref-ACRfive_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACRfive-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, other tests including <a href="/wiki/Complete_blood_count" title="Complete blood count">complete blood count</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prothrombin_time" title="Prothrombin time">prothrombin time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partial_thromboplastin_time" title="Partial thromboplastin time">partial thromboplastin time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_metabolic_panel" title="Basic metabolic panel">basic metabolic panel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urinalysis</a> should not be done unless the results of these tests can help evaluate surgical risk.<sup id="cite_ref-ASCPfive_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASCPfive-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparing_for_surgery">Preparing for surgery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Preparing for surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Surgery" title="Special:EditPage/Surgery">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A surgical team may include a surgeon, anesthetist, a circulating nurse, and a "scrub tech", or surgical technician, as well as other assistants who provide equipment and supplies as required. While informed consent discussions may be performed in a clinic or acute care setting, the pre-operative holding area is where documentation is reviewed and where family members can also meet the surgical team. Nurses in the preoperative holding area confirm orders and answer additional questions of the family members of the patient prior to surgery. In the pre-operative holding area, the person preparing for surgery changes out of their street clothes and are asked to confirm the details of his or her surgery as previously discussed during the process of informed consent. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">IV line</a> is placed, and pre-operative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc.) are given.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the patient enters the operating room and is appropriately anesthetized, the team will then position the patient in an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Surgical_Positions" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical Positions">surgical position</a>. If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped (instead of shaving). The skin surface within the <a href="/wiki/Operating_field" title="Operating field">operating field</a> is cleansed and prepared by applying an <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> (typically <a href="/wiki/Chlorhexidine_gluconate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorhexidine gluconate">chlorhexidine gluconate</a> in alcohol, as this is twice as effective as <a href="/wiki/Povidone-iodine" title="Povidone-iodine">povidone-iodine</a> at reducing the risk of infection).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sterile drapes are then used to cover the borders of the <a href="/wiki/Operating_field" title="Operating field">operating field</a>. Depending on the type of procedure, the cephalad drapes are secured to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an "ether screen", which separate the <a href="/wiki/Anesthetist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthetist">anesthetist</a>/<a href="/wiki/Anesthesiologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthesiologist">anesthesiologist</a>'s working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">Anesthesia</a> is administered to prevent <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> from the trauma of cutting, tissue manipulation, application of thermal energy, and suturing. Depending on the type of operation, anesthesia may be provided <a href="/wiki/Local_anesthesia" title="Local anesthesia">locally, regionally</a>, or as <a href="/wiki/General_anesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="General anesthesia">general anesthesia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Spinal_anesthesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal anesthesia">Spinal anesthesia</a> may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. With local and spinal anesthesia, the surgical site is anesthetized, but the person can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia may render the person unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The person is typically <a href="/wiki/Intubation" title="Intubation">intubated</a> to protect their airway and placed on a <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_ventilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical ventilator">mechanical ventilator</a>, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents. The choice of surgical method and <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthetic</a> technique aims to solve the indicated problem, minimize the risk of complications, optimize the time needed for recovery, and limit the <a href="/wiki/Surgical_stress" title="Surgical stress">surgical stress</a> response. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intraoperative_phase">Intraoperative phase</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intraoperative phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The intraoperative phase begins when the surgery subject is received in the surgical area (such as the <a href="/wiki/Operating_theater" title="Operating theater">operating theater</a> or surgical <a href="/wiki/Hospital#Departments_or_wards" title="Hospital">department</a>), and lasts until the subject is transferred to a recovery area (such as a <a href="/wiki/Post-anesthesia_care_unit" title="Post-anesthesia care unit">post-anesthesia care unit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An incision is made to access the surgical site. <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">Blood vessels</a> may be clamped or <a href="/wiki/Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterized</a> to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle and then the peritoneum. In certain cases, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> may be cut to further access the interior of the body; for example, cutting the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a> for <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> surgery or cutting the <a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">sternum</a> for <a href="/wiki/Thoracic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic surgery">thoracic (chest) surgery</a> to open up the <a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a>. Whilst in surgery <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">aseptic technique</a> is used to prevent infection or further spreading of the disease. The surgeons' and assistants' hands, wrists and forearms are washed thoroughly for at least 4 minutes to prevent germs getting into the operative field, then sterile gloves are placed onto their hands. An antiseptic solution is applied to the area of the person's body that will be operated on. Sterile drapes are placed around the operative site. Surgical masks are worn by the surgical team to avoid germs on droplets of liquid from their mouths and noses from contaminating the operative site.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Work to correct the problem in body then proceeds. This work may involve: <span class="anchor" id="excision"></span> </p> <ul><li>excision – cutting out an organ, tumor,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or other tissue.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmental_resection" title="Segmental resection">resection</a> – partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>reconnection of organs, tissues, etc., particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">suturing</a> or stapling may be used. Surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of intestine is called <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>reduction – the movement or realignment of a body part to its normal position. e.g. Reduction of a broken nose involves the physical manipulation of the bone or cartilage from their displaced state back to their original position to restore normal airflow and aesthetics.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligature_(medicine)" title="Ligature (medicine)">ligation</a> – tying off blood vessels, ducts, or "tubes".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_grafting" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical grafting">grafts</a> – may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring of the area of the body in question. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the person's body and inserted to another area of the body. An example is <a href="/wiki/Vascular_bypass" title="Vascular bypass">bypass surgery</a>, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another part of the body. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>insertion of <a href="/wiki/Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">prosthetic</a> parts when needed. Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other parts. Sometimes a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of skull. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_hip" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial hip">Artificial hip</a> replacement has become more common.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heart_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart pacemaker">Heart pacemakers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heart_valve" title="Heart valve">valves</a> may be inserted. Many other types of <a href="/wiki/Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">prostheses</a> are used.</li> <li>creation of a <a href="/wiki/Stoma_(medicine)" title="Stoma (medicine)">stoma</a>, a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>in <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplant</a> surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor's body) is inserted into the recipient's body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthrodesis" title="Arthrodesis">arthrodesis</a> – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. <a href="/wiki/Spinal_fusion" title="Spinal fusion">Spinal fusion</a> is an example of adjacent <a href="/wiki/Vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrae">vertebrae</a> connected allowing them to grow together into one piece.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>modifying the <a href="/wiki/Digestive_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive tract">digestive tract</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">bariatric surgery</a> for <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>.</li> <li>repair of a <a href="/wiki/Fistula" title="Fistula">fistula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">hernia</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prolapse" title="Prolapse">prolapse</a>.</li> <li>repair according to the <a href="/wiki/ICD-10-PCS" class="mw-redirect" title="ICD-10-PCS">ICD-10-PCS</a>, in the Medical and Surgical Section 0, root operation Q, means restoring, to the extent possible, a body part to its normal anatomic structure and function. This definition, repair, is used only when the method used to accomplish the repair is not one of the other root operations. Examples would be <a href="/wiki/Colostomy" title="Colostomy">colostomy</a> takedown, <a href="/wiki/Herniorrhaphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herniorrhaphy">herniorrhaphy</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Hernia" title="Hernia">hernia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">surgical suture</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Laceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Laceration">laceration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>other procedures, including:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>clearing clogged ducts, blood or other vessels</li> <li>removal of calculi (stones)</li> <li>draining of accumulated fluids</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debridement" title="Debridement">debridement</a> – removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue</li></ul></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood</a> or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Once the procedure is complete, <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">sutures</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surgical_staple" title="Surgical staple">staples</a> are used to close the incision. Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped or reversed, and the person is taken off ventilation and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/extubate" class="extiw" title="wikt:extubate">extubated</a> (if general anesthesia was administered).<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postoperative_care">Postoperative care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Postoperative care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After completion of surgery, the person is transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Post_anesthesia_care_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Post anesthesia care unit">post anesthesia care unit</a> and closely monitored. When the person is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative period, the person's general function is assessed, the outcome of the procedure is assessed, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. There are several risk factors associated with postoperative complications, such as immune deficiency and obesity. Obesity has long been considered a risk factor for adverse post-surgical outcomes. It has been linked to many disorders such as obesity <a href="/wiki/Hypoventilation" title="Hypoventilation">hypoventilation</a> syndrome, <a href="/wiki/Atelectasis" title="Atelectasis">atelectasis</a> and pulmonary embolism, adverse cardiovascular effects, and wound healing complications.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days post-operatively, or after healing of the incision is well under way.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is not uncommon for <a href="/wiki/Drain_(surgery)" title="Drain (surgery)">surgical drains</a> to be required to remove blood or fluid from the surgical wound during recovery. Mostly these drains stay in until the volume tapers off, then they are removed. These drains can become clogged, leading to <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscess</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postoperative therapy may include <a href="/wiki/Adjuvant" title="Adjuvant">adjuvant</a> treatment such as <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, or administration of <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Anti-rejection_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-rejection medication">anti-rejection medication</a> for transplants. For postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV), solutions like saline, water, controlled breathing placebo and aromatherapy can be used in addition to medication.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other follow-up studies or <a href="/wiki/Physical_therapy" title="Physical therapy">rehabilitation</a> may be prescribed during and after the recovery period. A recent post-operative care philosophy has been early ambulation. Ambulation is getting the patient moving around. This can be as simple as sitting up or even walking around. The goal is to get the patient moving as early as possible. It has been found to shorten the patient's length of stay. Length of stay is the amount of time a patient spends in the hospital after surgery before they are discharged. In a recent study<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> done with lumbar decompressions, the patient's length of stay was decreased by 1–3 days. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">topical antibiotics</a> on surgical wounds to reduce infection rates has been questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-AADfive_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AADfive-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antibiotic ointments are likely to irritate the skin, slow healing, and could increase risk of developing <a href="/wiki/Contact_dermatitis" title="Contact dermatitis">contact dermatitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AADfive_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AADfive-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been suggested that topical antibiotics should only be used when a person shows signs of infection and not as a preventative.<sup id="cite_ref-AADfive_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AADfive-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A systematic review published by <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane (organisation)</a> in 2016, though, concluded that topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds reduce the risk of surgical site infections, when compared to no treatment or use of <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The review also did not find conclusive evidence to suggest that topical antibiotics increased the risk of local skin reactions or antibiotic resistance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Through a retrospective analysis of national administrative data, the association between mortality and day of elective surgical procedure suggests a higher risk in procedures carried out later in the working week and on weekends. The odds of death were 44% and 82% higher respectively when comparing procedures on a Friday to a weekend procedure. This "weekday effect" has been postulated to be from several factors including poorer availability of services on a weekend, and also, decrease number and level of experience over a weekend.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postoperative pain affects an estimated 80% of people who underwent surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While pain is expected after surgery, there is growing evidence that pain may be inadequately treated in many people in the acute period immediately after surgery. It has been reported that incidence of inadequately controlled pain after surgery ranged from 25.1% to 78.4% across all surgical disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is insufficient evidence to determine if giving opioid pain medication pre-emptively (before surgery) reduces postoperative pain the amount of medication needed after surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postoperative recovery has been defined as an energy‐requiring process to decrease physical symptoms, reach a level of emotional well‐being, regain functions, and re‐establish activities.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, it has been identified that patients who have undergone surgery are often not fully recovered on discharge.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, of the 38.6 million hospital stays in U.S. hospitals, 29% included at least one operating room procedure. These stays accounted for 48% of the total $387 billion in hospital costs.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overall number of procedures remained stable from 2001 to 2011. In 2011, over 15 million operating room procedures were performed in U.S. hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data from 2003 to 2011 showed that U.S. hospital costs were highest for the surgical service line; the surgical service line costs were $17,600 in 2003 and projected to be $22,500 in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For hospital stays in 2012 in the United States, private insurance had the highest percentage of surgical expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_B,_Levit_K_and_Elixhauser_A_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore_B,_Levit_K_and_Elixhauser_A-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2012, mean hospital costs in the United States were highest for surgical stays.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_B,_Levit_K_and_Elixhauser_A_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore_B,_Levit_K_and_Elixhauser_A-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_populations">Special populations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Special populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elderly_people">Elderly people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Elderly people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Older adults have widely varying physical health. <a href="/wiki/Frailty_syndrome" title="Frailty syndrome">Frail elderly</a> people are at significant risk of post-surgical complications and the need for extended care. Assessment of older people before elective surgery can accurately predict the person's recovery trajectories.<sup id="cite_ref-Frailty_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frailty-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One frailty scale uses five items: unintentional weight loss, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_weakness" title="Muscle weakness">muscle weakness</a>, exhaustion, low physical activity, and slowed walking speed. A healthy person scores 0; a very frail person scores 5. Compared to non-frail elderly people, people with intermediate frailty scores (2 or 3) are twice as likely to have post-surgical complications, spend 50% more time in the hospital, and are three times as likely to be discharged to a skilled nursing facility instead of to their own homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Frailty_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frailty-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who are frail and elderly (score of 4 or 5) have even worse outcomes, with the risk of being discharged to a nursing home rising to twenty times the rate for non-frail elderly people.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surgery on children requires considerations that are not common in adult surgery. Children and adolescents are still developing physically and mentally making it difficult for them to make informed decisions and give consent for surgical treatments. <a href="/wiki/Bariatric_Surgery#Youth" class="mw-redirect" title="Bariatric Surgery">Bariatric surgery in youth</a> is among the controversial topics related to surgery in children.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_plastic_surgery" title="Pediatric plastic surgery">Pediatric plastic surgery</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vulnerable_populations">Vulnerable populations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vulnerable populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Doctors perform surgery with the consent of the person undergoing surgery. Some people are able to give better <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> than others. Populations such as <a href="/wiki/Incarceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Incarceration">incarcerated persons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">people living with dementia</a>, the mentally incompetent, persons subject to coercion, and other people who are not able to make decisions with the same authority as others, have special needs when making decisions about their personal healthcare, including surgery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_surgery">Global surgery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Global surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global surgery has been defined as 'the <a href="/wiki/Multidisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidisciplinary">multidisciplinary</a> enterprise of providing improved and equitable surgical care to the world's population, with its core belief as the issues of need, access and quality".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Halfdan_T._Mahler" title="Halfdan T. Mahler">Halfdan T. Mahler</a>, the 3rd Director-General of <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">the World Health Organization (WHO)</a>, first brought attention to the disparities in surgery and surgical care in 1980 when he stated in his address to the World Congress of the International College of Surgeons, "'the vast majority of the world's population has no access whatsoever to skilled surgical care and little is being done to find a solution.As such, surgical care globally has been described as the 'neglected stepchild of global health,' a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Farmer" title="Paul Farmer">Paul Farmer</a> to highlight the urgent need for further work in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Yong_Kim" title="Jim Yong Kim">Jim Young Kim</a>, the former President of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, proclaimed in 2014 that "surgery is an indivisible, indispensable part of health care and of progress towards universal health coverage."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (LCoGS) published the landmark report titled "Global Surgery 2030: evidence and solutions for achieving health, welfare, and economic development", describing the large, pre-existing burden of surgical diseases in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and future directions for increasing universal access to safe surgery by the year 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Commission highlighted that about 5 billion people lack access to safe and affordable surgical and anesthesia care and 143 million additional procedures were needed every year to prevent further <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a> from treatable surgical conditions as well as a $12.3 trillion loss in economic productivity by the year 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was especially true in the poorest countries, which account for over one-third of the population but only 3.5% of all surgeries that occur worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It emphasized the need to significantly improve the capacity for Bellwether procedures – <a href="/wiki/Laparotomy" title="Laparotomy">laparotomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">caesarean section</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_fracture" title="Open fracture">open fracture care</a> – which are considered a minimum level of care that first-level hospitals should be able to provide in order to capture the most basic emergency surgical care.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of the financial impact on the patients, the lack of adequate surgical and anesthesia care has resulted in 33 million individuals every year facing catastrophic health expenditure – the out-of-pocket healthcare cost exceeding 40% of a given household's income.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In alignment with the LCoGS call for action, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Assembly" title="World Health Assembly">World Health Assembly</a> adopted the resolution WHA68.15 in 2015 that stated, "Strengthening emergency and essential surgical care and anesthesia as a component of universal health coverage."<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Assembly_Resolution_WH_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Assembly_Resolution_WH-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This not only mandated the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> to prioritize strengthening the surgical and anesthesia care globally, but also led to governments of the member states recognizing the urgent need for increasing capacity in surgery and anesthesia. Additionally, the third edition of <a href="/wiki/Disease_Control_Priorities_Project" title="Disease Control Priorities Project">Disease Control Priorities</a> (DCP3), published in 2015 by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, declared surgery as essential and featured an entire volume dedicated to building surgical capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data from WHO and the World Bank indicate that scaling up infrastructure to enable access to surgical care in regions where it is currently limited or is non-existent is a low-cost measure relative to the significant morbidity and mortality caused by lack of surgical treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, a systematic review found that the <a href="/wiki/Cost-effectiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost-effectiveness">cost-effectiveness ratio</a> – dollars spent per DALYs averted – for surgical interventions is on par or exceeds those of major public health interventions such as <a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">oral rehydration therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_promotion" title="Breastfeeding promotion">breastfeeding promotion</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Management_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Management of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS antiretroviral therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding challenged the common misconception that surgical care is financially prohibitive endeavor not worth pursuing in LMICs. </p><p>A key policy framework that arose from this renewed global commitment towards surgical care worldwide is the National Surgical Obstetric and Anesthesia Plan (NSOAP).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NSOAP focuses on policy-to-action capacity building for surgical care with tangible steps as follows: (1) analysis of baseline indicators, (2) partnership with local champions, (3) broad stakeholder engagement, (4) consensus building and synthesis of ideas, (5) language refinement, (6) costing, (7) dissemination, and (8) implementation. This approach has been widely adopted and has served as guiding principles between international collaborators and local institutions and governments. Successful implementations have allowed for sustainability in terms of longterm monitoring, quality improvement, and continued political and financial support.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Human rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Access to surgical care is increasingly recognized as an integral aspect of healthcare and therefore is evolving into a normative derivation of human <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/ICESCR" class="mw-redirect" title="ICESCR">ICESCR</a> Article 12.1 and 12.2 define the human <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a> as "the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health"<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the August 2000, the UN <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> (CESCR) interpreted this to mean "right to the enjoyment of a variety of facilities, goods, services, and conditions necessary for the realization of the highest attainable health".<sup id="cite_ref-Comment_No._14_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Comment_No._14-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surgical care can be thereby viewed as a positive right – an entitlement to protective healthcare.<sup id="cite_ref-Comment_No._14_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Comment_No._14-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Woven through the International Human and Health Rights literature is the right to be free from surgical disease. The 1966 ICESCR Article 12.2a described the need for "provision for the reduction of the stillbirth-rate and of infant mortality and for the healthy development of the child"<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was subsequently interpreted to mean "requiring measures to improve… emergency obstetric services".<sup id="cite_ref-Comment_No._14_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Comment_No._14-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article 12.2d of the ICESCR stipulates the need for "the creation of conditions which would assure to all medical service and medical attention in the event of sickness",<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is interpreted in the 2000 comment to include timely access to "basic preventative, curative services… for appropriate treatment of <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>.".<sup id="cite_ref-Cultural_Rights_2000_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cultural_Rights_2000-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obstetric care shares close ties with <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive rights</a>, which includes access to reproductive health.<sup id="cite_ref-Cultural_Rights_2000_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cultural_Rights_2000-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surgeons and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> advocates, such as <a href="/wiki/Kelly_McQueen" title="Kelly McQueen">Kelly McQueen</a>, have described surgery as "Integral to the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is reflected in the establishment of the WHO <a href="/wiki/Global_Initiative_for_Emergency_and_Essential_Surgical_Care" title="Global Initiative for Emergency and Essential Surgical Care">Global Initiative for Emergency and Essential Surgical Care</a> in 2005,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2013 formation of the Lancet Commission for Global Surgery,<sup id="cite_ref-auto_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2015 <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> Publication of Volume 1 of its <a href="/wiki/Disease_Control_Priorities_Project" title="Disease Control Priorities Project">Disease Control Priorities Project</a> "Essential Surgery",<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 2015 <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Assembly" title="World Health Assembly">World Health Assembly</a> 68.15 passing of the Resolution for Strengthening Emergency and Essential Surgical Care and <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">Anesthesia</a> as a Component of <a href="/wiki/Universal_Health_Coverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Health Coverage">Universal Health Coverage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-World_Health_Assembly_Resolution_WH_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Assembly_Resolution_WH-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lancet Commission for Global Surgery outlined the need for access to "available, affordable, timely and safe" surgical and anesthesia care;<sup id="cite_ref-auto_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dimensions paralleled in <a href="/wiki/ICESCR" class="mw-redirect" title="ICESCR">ICESCR</a> General Comment No. 14, which similarly outlines need for available, accessible, affordable and timely healthcare.<sup id="cite_ref-Comment_No._14_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Comment_No._14-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_surgery" title="History of surgery">History of surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_general_anesthesia" title="History of general anesthesia">History of general anesthesia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/220px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/330px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg/440px-Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="1954" /></a><figcaption>Plates VI and VII of the <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a>, an Egyptian surgical treatise</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trepanation">Trepanation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Trepanation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surgical treatments date back to the prehistoric era. The oldest for which there is evidence is <a href="/wiki/Trepanation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trepanation">trepanation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which a hole is <a href="/wiki/Drill" title="Drill">drilled</a> or scraped into the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a>, thus exposing the <a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> in order to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prehistoric surgical techniques are seen in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Human_mandible" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mandible">mandible</a> dated to approximately 2650 BC shows two perforations just below the root of the first <a href="/wiki/Molar_(tooth)" title="Molar (tooth)">molar</a>, indicating the draining of an <a href="/wiki/Tooth_abscess" class="mw-redirect" title="Tooth abscess">abscessed tooth</a>. Surgical texts from ancient Egypt date back about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today,<sup id="cite_ref-cossurg_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cossurg-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and used sutures to close wounds.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infections were treated with honey.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>9,000-year-old skeletal remains of a prehistoric individual from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus River Valley">Indus River valley</a> show evidence of teeth having been drilled.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i> is one of the oldest known surgical texts and its period is usually placed in the first millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-singhguide_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singhguide-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures for various forms of cosmetic surgery, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">plastic surgery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhinoplasty" title="Rhinoplasty">rhinoplasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sri_Lanka">Sri Lanka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1982 archaeologists were able to find significant evidence when the ancient land, called 'Alahana Pirivena' situated in Polonnaruwa, with ruins, was excavated. In that place ruins of an ancient hospital emerged. The hospital building was 147.5 feet in width and 109.2 feet in length. The instruments which were used for complex surgeries were there among the things discovered from the place, including forceps, scissors, probes, lancets, and scalpels. The instruments discovered may be dated to 11th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_Medieval_Greece">Ancient and Medieval Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ancient and Medieval Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hippocrates_rubens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/160px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/240px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hippocrates_rubens.jpg/320px-Hippocrates_rubens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2365" data-file-height="3301" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, who advocated for surgery to be performed by <a href="/wiki/Specialist_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist doctor">specialists</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, temples dedicated to the healer-god <a href="/wiki/Asclepius" title="Asclepius">Asclepius</a>, known as <i>Asclepieia</i> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">Ασκληπιεία</span>, sing. <i>Asclepieion</i> <i>Ασκληπιείον</i>), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Asclepieion of <a href="/wiki/Epidaurus" title="Epidaurus">Epidaurus</a>, some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations – including brain and eye surgery – that were not tried again for almost two millennia. <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> stated in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">oath</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400 BCE</span>) that general physicians must never practice surgery and that surgical procedures are to be conducted by <a href="/wiki/Specialist_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist doctor">specialists</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/Adelphi_University" title="Adelphi University">Adelphi University</a> discovered in the Paliokastro on <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a> ten skeletal remains, four women and six men, who were buried between the fourth and seventh centuries A.D. Their bones illuminated their physical activities, traumas, and even a complex form of brain surgery. According to the researchers: "The very serious trauma cases sustained by both males and females had been treated surgically or orthopedically by a very experienced physician/surgeon with great training in trauma care. We believe it to have been a military physician". The researchers were impressed by the complexity of the brain surgical operation.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1991 at the Polystylon fort in Greece, researchers discovered the head of a Byzantine warrior of the 14th century. Analysis of the lower jaw revealed that a surgery has been performed, when the warrior was alive, to the jaw which had been badly fractured and it tied back together until it healed.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, largely based upon <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Aegina" title="Paul of Aegina">Paul of Aegina</a>'s <i>Pragmateia</i>, the writings of <a href="/wiki/Albucasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Albucasis">Albucasis</a> (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusian-Arab</a> physician and scientist who practiced in the Zahra suburb of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, were influential.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Zahrawi specialized in curing disease by <a href="/wiki/Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterization</a>. He invented several <a href="/wiki/Surgical_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical instruments">surgical instruments</a> for purposes such as inspection of the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">urethra</a> and for removing foreign bodies from the throat, the ear, and other body organs. He was also the first to illustrate the various <a href="/wiki/Cannulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannulae">cannulae</a> and to treat <a href="/wiki/Wart" title="Wart">warts</a> with an iron tube and caustic metal<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as a boring instrument. He describes what is thought to be the first attempt at reduction <a href="/wiki/Mammaplasty" title="Mammaplasty">mammaplasty</a> for the management of <a href="/wiki/Gynaecomastia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecomastia">gynaecomastia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Anzjournal_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anzjournal-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first <a href="/wiki/Mastectomy" title="Mastectomy">mastectomy</a> to treat <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aramco0816_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aramco0816-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is credited with the performance of the first <a href="/wiki/Thyroidectomy" title="Thyroidectomy">thyroidectomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Zahrawi pioneered techniques of <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a> diagnosis, treating <a href="/wiki/Head_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Head injuries">head injuries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skull_fractures" class="mw-redirect" title="Skull fractures">skull fractures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal injuries">spinal injuries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subdural_effusion" title="Subdural effusion">subdural effusions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>. The first clinical description of an operative procedure for <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a> was given by Al-Zahrawi, who clearly describes the evacuation of superficial <a href="/wiki/Intracranial" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracranial">intracranial</a> fluid in <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocephalic">hydrocephalic</a> children.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_Europe">Early modern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Early modern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augenoperation_1195.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Augenoperation_1195.jpg/150px-Augenoperation_1195.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Augenoperation_1195.jpg/225px-Augenoperation_1195.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Augenoperation_1195.jpg/300px-Augenoperation_1195.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1534" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_miniature" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminated miniature">Illuminated miniature</a> of 12th-century eye surgery in Italy</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg/160px-Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg/240px-Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg/320px-Ambroise_Par%C3%A9_1573.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>Ambroise Paré (c. 1510–1590), father of modern military surgery.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montpellier" title="University of Montpellier">Montpellier</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">Padua</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">Bologna</a> were particularly renowned. In the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Rogerius_(physician)" title="Rogerius (physician)">Rogerius Salernitanus</a> composed his <i>Chirurgia</i>, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. <a href="/wiki/Barber_surgeon" title="Barber surgeon">Barber-surgeons</a> generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basic surgical principles for asepsis etc., are known as <a href="/wiki/Halsteads_principles" class="mw-redirect" title="Halsteads principles">Halsteads principles</a>. </p><p>There were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. The professor of anatomy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>, was a pivotal figure in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. In his anatomic treaties <i><a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a></i>, he exposed the many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The second figure of importance in this era was <a href="/wiki/Ambroise_Par%C3%A9" title="Ambroise Paré">Ambroise Paré</a> (sometimes spelled "Ambrose"<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil; an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of <a href="/wiki/Egg_yolk" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg yolk">egg yolk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rose_oil" title="Rose oil">rose oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a>. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective <a href="/wiki/Ligature_(medicine)" title="Ligature (medicine)">ligation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> during an <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">amputation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_surgery">Modern surgery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Modern surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in Europe. An important figure in this regard was the Scottish surgical scientist, <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a>, generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He brought an <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others, he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He greatly advanced knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a> and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the <a href="/wiki/Achilles_tendon" title="Achilles tendon">Achilles tendon</a> and a more effective method for applying ligature of the <a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">arteries</a> in case of an <a href="/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also one of the first to understand the importance of <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>, the danger of the spread of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> and how the problem of <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> of the wound, bone <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesions</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included <a href="/wiki/Percival_Pott" class="mw-redirect" title="Percival Pott">Percival Pott</a> (1713–1788) who described <a href="/wiki/Pott_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pott disease">tuberculosis on the spine</a> and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a> (he noticed a connection between <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweep" title="Chimney sweep">chimney sweep</a>'s exposure to soot and their high incidence of <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweeps%27_carcinoma" title="Chimney sweeps' carcinoma">scrotal cancer</a>). <a href="/wiki/Astley_Paston_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Astley Paston Cooper">Astley Paston Cooper</a> (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta, and <a href="/wiki/James_Syme" title="James Syme">James Syme</a> (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the <a href="/wiki/Ankle_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankle joint">ankle joint</a> and successfully carried out the first <a href="/wiki/Hemipelvectomy" title="Hemipelvectomy">hip disarticulation</a>. </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> control through <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a> was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a>. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to <a href="/wiki/Amputation" title="Amputation">amputations</a> and external growth removals. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a>, first used by the American surgeon <a href="/wiki/Crawford_Long" title="Crawford Long">Crawford Long</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a>, discovered by Scottish obstetrician <a href="/wiki/James_Young_Simpson" title="James Young Simpson">James Young Simpson</a> and later pioneered by <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a>, physician to <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Muscle_relaxant" title="Muscle relaxant">muscle relaxants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Curare" title="Curare">curare</a> allowed for safer applications.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infection_and_antisepsis">Infection and antisepsis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Infection and antisepsis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Hungarian</a> doctor <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a> who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths; however, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> dismissed his advice.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Lister2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Joseph_Lister2.jpg/170px-Joseph_Lister2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Joseph_Lister2.jpg/255px-Joseph_Lister2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Joseph_Lister2.jpg/340px-Joseph_Lister2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a>, pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic#Usage_in_surgery" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic surgery</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Until the pioneering work of British surgeon <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a> in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "<a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Miasma theory of disease">miasma</a>") was responsible for <a href="/wiki/Infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections">infections</a> in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a> were not available.<sup id="cite_ref-storyof_medicine_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-storyof_medicine-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lister became aware of the work of French <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, who showed that rotting and <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> could occur under <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_infection" title="Anaerobic infection">anaerobic conditions</a> if <a href="/wiki/Micro-organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organisms">micro-organisms</a> were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the <a href="/wiki/Micro-organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organisms">micro-organisms</a> responsible for <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_solutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical solutions">chemical solutions</a>. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying <a href="/wiki/Carbolic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbolic acid">carbolic acid</a> on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the <i><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic_Principle_of_the_Practice_of_Surgery" title="Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery">Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery</a></i>, which was reprinted in the <i>British Medical Journal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FUSourcebook_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FUSourcebook-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PG-JL_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PG-JL-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Lister continued to develop improved methods of <a href="/wiki/Antisepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisepsis">antisepsis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">asepsis</a> when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister introduced the Steam Steriliser to <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilize</a> equipment, instituted rigorous hand washing and later implemented the wearing of rubber gloves. These three crucial advances – the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment – laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a>. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated <a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">photographic plate</a>. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae,_1685_-_2984755.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Hieronymus Fabricius, Operationes chirurgicae, 1685"><img alt="Hieronymus Fabricius, Operationes chirurgicae, 1685" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif/lossy-page1-138px-Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif/lossy-page1-207px-Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif/lossy-page1-276px-Acquapendente_-_Operationes_chirurgicae%2C_1685_-_2984755.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3519" data-file-height="5105" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Fabricius" title="Hieronymus Fabricius">Hieronymus Fabricius</a>, <i>Operationes chirurgicae</i>, 1685</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Syng Dorsey wrote the first American textbook on surgery"><img alt="John Syng Dorsey wrote the first American textbook on surgery" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg/166px-John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg/249px-John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg/332px-John_Syng_Dorsey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">John Syng Dorsey wrote the first American textbook on surgery</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="An operation in 1753, painted by Gaspare Traversi."><img alt="An operation in 1753, painted by Gaspare Traversi." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG/200px-1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG/300px-1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG/400px-1753_Traversi_Operation_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3485" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> An operation in 1753, painted by <a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Traversi" title="Gaspare Traversi">Gaspare Traversi</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surgical_specialties">Surgical specialties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Surgical specialties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <dl><dd></dd></dl></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_surgery" title="Breast surgery">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craniofacial_surgery" title="Craniofacial surgery">Craniofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental surgery">Dental surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Oncological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopaedic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthopaedic surgery">Orthopaedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otolaryngology" class="mw-redirect" title="Otolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Paediatric (Pediatric)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodontal_surgery" title="Periodontal surgery">Periodontal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podiatric_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Podiatric surgery">Podiatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin surgery">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Learned_societies">Learned societies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Learned societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Neurosurgical_Societies" title="World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies">World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Surgeons" title="American College of Surgeons">American College of Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_College_of_Osteopathic_Surgeons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American College of Osteopathic Surgeons (page does not exist)">American College of Osteopathic Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Orthopedic_Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons">American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Foot_and_Ankle_Surgeons" title="American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons">American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australasian_College_of_Surgeons" title="Royal Australasian College of Surgeons">Royal Australasian College of Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australasian_College_of_Dental_Surgeons" title="Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons">Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_of_Canada" title="Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada">Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_in_Ireland" title="Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland">Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh">Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_of_Glasgow" title="Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow">Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_England" title="Royal College of Surgeons of England">Royal College of Surgeons of England</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">Anesthesia</a> – State of medically-controlled temporary loss of sensation or awareness</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASA_physical_status_classification_system" title="ASA physical status classification system">ASA physical status classification system</a> – System for assessing the fitness of patients before surgery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a> – Any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a> – Type of surgery performed on the heart</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_Procedural_Terminology" title="Current Procedural Terminology">Current Procedural Terminology</a> (<abbr>CPT</abbr>) – Procedural classification used in the United States – for <a href="/wiki/Outpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Outpatient">outpatient</a> surgical procedures <a href="/wiki/Medical_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical coding">medical coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drain_(surgery)" title="Drain (surgery)">Surgical drain</a> – Tube used to remove pus, blood or other fluids from a wound</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">Endoscopy</a> – Procedure used in medicine to look inside the body</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_image-guided_surgery" title="Fluorescence image-guided surgery">Fluorescence image-guided surgery</a> – medical imaging technique<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnosurgery" title="Hypnosurgery">Hypnosurgery</a> – Practice of using hypnosis for sedation during surgery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_Cost_and_Utilization_Project" title="Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project">Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project</a> (<abbr>HCUP</abbr>) – a family of health care databases etc. from the US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICD-10_Procedure_Coding_System" title="ICD-10 Procedure Coding System">ICD-10 Procedure Coding System</a> – Medical classification system used for procedural coding (<a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a>, 10th edition, Procedural Coding System; <a href="/wiki/Inpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Inpatient">inpatient</a> surgical procedures medical coding)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_ventilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet ventilation">Jet ventilation</a> – Methods of inspiratory support<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surgical_procedures" title="List of surgical procedures">List of surgical procedures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgery#Minimally_invasive_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimally invasive surgery">Minimally invasive procedure</a> – Surgical technique that limits size of surgical incisions needed<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operative_report" title="Operative report">Operative report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perioperative_mortality" title="Perioperative mortality">Perioperative mortality</a> – Any death occurring within 30 days after surgery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_Assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Physician Assistant">Physician Assistant</a> – Mid-level health care provider<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_surgery" title="Remote surgery">Remote surgery</a> – Ability for a doctor to perform surgery on a patient even though they are not physically in the same location<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot-assisted_surgery" title="Robot-assisted surgery">Robot-assisted surgery</a> – Surgical procedure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgeon%27s_assistant" title="Surgeon's assistant">Surgeon's assistant</a> – person who assists with a surgical operation under the direction of a surgeon<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_Outcomes_Analysis_and_Research" title="Surgical Outcomes Analysis and Research">Surgical Outcomes Analysis and Research</a> – Medical research program</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_sieve" title="Surgical sieve">Surgical sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a> – Surgical specialty</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_surgery" title="Reconstructive surgery">Reconstructive surgery</a> – Surgery to restore form and function</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumasurgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheumasurgery">Rheumasurgery</a> – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO_Surgical_Safety_Checklist" title="WHO Surgical Safety Checklist">WHO Surgical Safety Checklist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_medicine" title="Women in medicine">Women in medicine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_Surgery-related_fields">List of Surgery-related fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: List of Surgery-related fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bariatric_surgery" title="Bariatric surgery">Bariatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">χειρουργική</span> <i>cheirourgikē</i> (composed of χείρ, "hand", and ἔργον, "work"), via <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">chirurgiae</i>, meaning "hand work"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/doctors-surgery">"Doctor's surgery"</a>. <i>Collins English Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180210062151/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/doctors-surgery">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Doctor%27s+surgery&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fdoctors-surgery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UTJbAAAAcAAJ"><i>The Medical times: a journal of medical science, literature, criticism, and news. 1845/46, Sept. - Apr</i></a>. 1846.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medical+times%3A+a+journal+of+medical+science%2C+literature%2C+criticism%2C+and+news.+1845%2F46%2C+Sept.+-+Apr.&rft.date=1846&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUTJbAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/reconstructive-procedures">"Reconstructive Procedures"</a>. <i>American Society of Plastic Surgeons</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Society+of+Plastic+Surgeons&rft.atitle=Reconstructive+Procedures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.plasticsurgery.org%2Freconstructive-procedures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/cosmetic-procedures">"Cosmetic Procedures"</a>. <i>American Society of Plastic Surgeons</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Society+of+Plastic+Surgeons&rft.atitle=Cosmetic+Procedures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.plasticsurgery.org%2Fcosmetic-procedures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NCI-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NCI_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/segmental-resection">"segmental resection"</a>. <i>National Cancer Institute Dictionary of Cancer Terms</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Cancer+Institute+Dictionary+of+Cancer+Terms&rft.atitle=segmental+resection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancer.gov%2Fpublications%2Fdictionaries%2Fcancer-terms%2Fdef%2Fsegmental-resection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/extirpation">"extirpation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster+dictionary&rft.atitle=extirpation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fmedical%2Fextirpation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LemosIAAS2006-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LemosIAAS2006_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemosJarrettPhilip2006" class="citation book cs1">Lemos P, Jarrett P, Philip B, eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201129170007/https://www.iaas-med.com/files/historical/DaySurgery.pdf"><i>Day surgery: development and practice</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: International Association for Ambulatory Surgery. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-989-20-0234-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-989-20-0234-7"><bdi>978-989-20-0234-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaas-med.com/files/historical/DaySurgery.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Day+surgery%3A+development+and+practice&rft.place=London&rft.pub=International+Association+for+Ambulatory+Surgery&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-989-20-0234-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaas-med.com%2Ffiles%2Fhistorical%2FDaySurgery.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Twersky2008-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Twersky2008_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwerskyPhilip2008" class="citation book cs1">Twersky RS, Philip BK, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VJT_yygipvYC&pg=PA284"><i>Handbook of ambulatory anesthesia</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73328-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-73328-9"><bdi>978-0-387-73328-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+ambulatory+anesthesia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=284&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-73328-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVJT_yygipvYC%26pg%3DPA284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFingarStocksWeissSteiner2014" class="citation web cs1">Fingar KR, Stocks C, Weiss AJ, Steiner CA (December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb186-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2012.jsp">"Most Frequent Operating Room Procedures Performed in U.S. Hospitals, 2003–2012"</a>. <i>HCUP Statistical Brief No. 186</i>. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503163129/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb186-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2012.jsp">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HCUP+Statistical+Brief+No.+186&rft.atitle=Most+Frequent+Operating+Room+Procedures+Performed+in+U.S.+Hospitals%2C+2003%E2%80%932012&rft.date=2014-12&rft.aulast=Fingar&rft.aufirst=KR&rft.au=Stocks%2C+C&rft.au=Weiss%2C+AJ&rft.au=Steiner%2C+CA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcup-us.ahrq.gov%2Freports%2Fstatbriefs%2Fsb186-Operating-Room-Procedures-United-States-2012.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Debas HT, Donker P, Gawande A, Jamison DT, Kruk ME, Mock CN, editors. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Knife+Man%3A+The+Extraordinary+Life+and+Times+of+John+Hunter%2C+Father+of+Modern+Surgery&rft.pub=Crown+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7679-1652-3&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBFAsAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131026210110/http://library.uthscsa.edu/2010/12/john-hunter-%E2%80%9Cthe-father-of-scientific-surgery%E2%80%9D-resources-from-the-collection-of-the-p-i-nixon-library/">"John Hunter: "the father of scientific surgery": Resources from the collection of the P.I. Nixon Library"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.uthscsa.edu/2010/12/john-hunter-%E2%80%9Cthe-father-of-scientific-surgery%E2%80%9D-resources-from-the-collection-of-the-p-i-nixon-library/">the original</a> on 26 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Hunter%3A+%22the+father+of+scientific+surgery%22%3A+Resources+from+the+collection+of+the+P.I.+Nixon+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.uthscsa.edu%2F2010%2F12%2Fjohn-hunter-%25E2%2580%259Cthe-father-of-scientific-surgery%25E2%2580%259D-resources-from-the-collection-of-the-p-i-nixon-library%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/news/print/hematology-oncology/%7BC9A8CA57-FA27-4432-AADF-D8EE0671428F%7D/John-Hunter-Founder-of-Scientific-Surgery">"John Hunter: 'Founder of Scientific Surgery'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131214210131/http://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/news/print/hematology-oncology/%7Bc9a8ca57-fa27-4432-aadf-d8ee0671428f%7D/john-hunter-founder-of-scientific-surgery">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Hunter%3A+%27Founder+of+Scientific+Surgery%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healio.com%2Fhematology-oncology%2Fnews%2Fprint%2Fhematology-oncology%2F%257BC9A8CA57-FA27-4432-AADF-D8EE0671428F%257D%2FJohn-Hunter-Founder-of-Scientific-Surgery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2002" class="citation book cs1">Gordon ML (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pYer05UwKBYC"><i>Sir James Young Simpson and Chloroform (1811–1870)</i></a>. The Minerva Group, Inc. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4102-0291-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4102-0291-8"><bdi>978-1-4102-0291-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+James+Young+Simpson+and+Chloroform+%281811%E2%80%931870%29&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=The+Minerva+Group%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4102-0291-8&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpYer05UwKBYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-storyof_medicine-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-storyof_medicine_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2005" class="citation book cs1">Robinson V (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKkCwqDEI9QC&q=%22good+old+surgical+stink%22&pg=PA420"><i>The Story of Medicine</i></a>. Kessinger Publishing. p. 420. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-5431-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4191-5431-7"><bdi>978-1-4191-5431-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Medicine&rft.pages=420&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4191-5431-7&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKkCwqDEI9QC%26q%3D%2522good%2Bold%2Bsurgical%2Bstink%2522%26pg%3DPA420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister1867" class="citation journal cs1">Lister J (March 1867). "On a new method of treating compound fracture, abscess, etc.: with observations on the conditions of suppuration". <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>89</b> (2272): 326–329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2802%2951192-2">10.1016/S0140-6736(02)51192-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=On+a+new+method+of+treating+compound+fracture%2C+abscess%2C+etc.%3A+with+observations+on+the+conditions+of+suppuration.&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2272&rft.pages=326-329&rft.date=1867-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2802%2951192-2&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span><br />Five articles running from:<br />Volume 89, Issue 2272, 16 March 1867, pp. 326–29 (Originally published as Volume 1, Issue 2272)<br /> to:<br />Volume 90, Issue 2291, 27 July 1867, pp. 95–96 Originally published as Volume 2, Issue 2291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister1867" class="citation journal cs1">Lister J (September 1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2310614">"On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery"</a>. <i>British Medical Journal</i>. <b>2</b> (351): 246–248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.2.351.246">10.1136/bmj.2.351.246</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2310614">2310614</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20744875">20744875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+Antiseptic+Principle+in+the+Practice+of+Surgery&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=351&rft.pages=246-248&rft.date=1867-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2310614%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20744875&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.2.351.246&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2310614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span>. Reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister2010" class="citation journal cs1">Lister BJ (August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2895849">"The classic: On the antiseptic principle in the practice of surgery. 1867"</a>. <i>Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research</i>. <b>468</b> (8): 2012–2016. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11999-010-1320-x">10.1007/s11999-010-1320-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2895849">2895849</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20361283">20361283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Orthopaedics+and+Related+Research&rft.atitle=The+classic%3A+On+the+antiseptic+principle+in+the+practice+of+surgery.+1867&rft.volume=468&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2012-2016&rft.date=2010-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2895849%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20361283&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11999-010-1320-x&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=BJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2895849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FUSourcebook-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FUSourcebook_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister" class="citation web cs1">Lister J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1867lister.asp">"Modern History Sourcebook: Joseph Lister (1827–1912): Antiseptic Principle Of The Practice Of Surgery, 1867"</a>. Fordham University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111107163352/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1867lister.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modern+History+Sourcebook%3A+Joseph+Lister+%281827%E2%80%931912%29%3A+Antiseptic+Principle+Of+The+Practice+Of+Surgery%2C+1867&rft.pub=Fordham+University&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fmod%2F1867lister.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span>Modernized version of text</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PG-JL-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PG-JL_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister2007" class="citation book cs1">Lister J (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23968"><i>On the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery by Baron Joseph Lister</i></a>. Project Gutenberg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009065204/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23968">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Antiseptic+Principle+of+the+Practice+of+Surgery+by+Baron+Joseph+Lister&rft.pub=Project+Gutenberg&rft.date=2007-12&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F23968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurgery" class="Z3988"></span> E-text, audio at Project Gutenberg.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Surgery</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Surgery" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Surgery">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Surgery" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Surgery">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Surgery" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Surgery">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Surgery" class="extiw" title="q:Surgery">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Surgery" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Surgery">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Surgery" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Surgery">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Surgery" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Surgery">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surgery&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2269">Bartolo, M., Bargellesi, S., Castioni, C. A., Intiso, D., Fontana, A., Copetti, M., Scarponi, F., Bonaiuti, D., & Intensive Care and Neurorehabilitation Italian Study Group (2017). Mobilization in early rehabilitation in intensive care unit patients with severe acquired brain injury: An observational study. Journal of rehabilitation medicine, 49(9), 715–722.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.04.060">Ni, C.-yan, Wang, Z.-hong, Huang, Z.-ping, Zhou, H., Fu, L.-juan, Cai, H., Huang, X.-xuan, Yang, Y., Li, H.-fen, & Zhou, W.-ping. (2018). Early enforced mobilization after liver resection: A prospective randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Surgery, 54, 254–258.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-021-00310-x">Lei, Y. T., Xie, J. W., Huang, Q., Huang, W., & Pei, F. X. (2021). Benefits of early ambulation within 24 h after total knee arthroplasty: a multicenter retrospective cohort study in China. Military Medical Research, 8(1), 17.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21037/jgo.2017.11.05">Stethen, T. W., Ghazi, Y. A., Heidel, R. E., Daley, B. J., Barnes, L., Patterson, D., & McLoughlin, J. M. (2018). Walking to recovery: the effects of missed ambulation events on postsurgical recovery after bowel resection. Journal of gastrointestinal oncology, 9(5), 953–961.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2019.02.02">Yakkanti, R. R., Miller, A. J., Smith, L. S., Feher, A. W., Mont, M. A., & Malkani, A. L. (2019). Impact of early mobilization on length of stay after primary total knee arthroplasty. Annals of translational medicine, 7(4), 69.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Surgery" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Surgery" title="Template:Surgery"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Surgery" title="Template talk:Surgery"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Surgery" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Surgery"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Surgery" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surgery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General procedures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incision_and_drainage" title="Incision and drainage">Incision and drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">Endoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intubation" title="Intubation">Intubation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamponade" title="Tamponade">Tamponade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balloon_tamponade" title="Balloon tamponade">Balloon tamponade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_irrigation" title="Therapeutic irrigation">Therapeutic irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic_lavage" title="Antiseptic lavage">Antiseptic lavage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_replacement" title="Joint replacement">Joint replacement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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