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Over the past few centuries, our understanding of how the Sun drives space weather and climate on the Earth and other planets has advanced at an ever increasing rate. This 2010 volume, the last in this series of three heliophysics texts, focuses on long-term variability from the Sun's decade-long sunspot cycle and considers the evolution of the planetary system over ten billion years from a climatological perspective. Topics covered range from the dynamo action of stars and planets to processes in the Earth's troposphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere and their effects on planetary climate and habitability. Supplemented by online teaching materials, it can be used as a textbook for courses or as a foundational reference for researchers in fields from astrophysics and plasma physics to planetary and climate science.","my_library_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fop%3Dlibrary\u0026hl=en","is_magazine":false,"is_public_domain":false,"last_page":{"pid":"PA495","order":525,"title":"495"}},{"enableUserFeedbackUI":true,"pseudocontinuous":true,"is_cobrand":false,"sign_in_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fid%3DM8NwTYEl0ngC%26q%3Dpropagation%26source%3Dgbs_word_cloud_r%26hl%3Den\u0026hl=en","isEntityPageViewport":false,"showViewportOnboarding":false,"showViewportPlainTextOnboarding":false},{"page":[{"pid":"PA398","highlights":[{"X":347,"Y":221,"W":62,"H":13},{"X":118,"Y":241,"W":61,"H":13},{"X":388,"Y":257,"W":61,"H":13},{"X":94,"Y":355,"W":61,"H":13},{"X":417,"Y":639,"W":56,"H":12},{"X":161,"Y":691,"W":56,"H":12}],"flags":8,"order":428,"vq":"propagation"}]},null,{"number_of_results":49,"search_results":[{"page_id":"PA50","page_number":"50","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e the signal out before collapse. Moreover, magnetic flux cannot be carried into the inner regions efficiently as the cloud collapses owing to the low ionization state of the material (Umebayashiand Nakano, 1990). Fragmentation\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA64","page_number":"64","snippet_text":"... clumps within closed magnetospheric loops excites magnetic waves, which \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e to open field lines and then add momentum Hα, etc. C IV, OVI coronal gas disk wind Fig. 64 Formation and early evolution of stars and protoplanetary disks."},{"page_id":"PA111","page_number":"111","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e mechanism (Busse, 2002), and banana cells after their sheared, warped appearance in more slowly rotating systems (Glatzmaier, 1985), these are approximately two- dimensional convective rolls that are oriented parallel to the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA112","page_number":"112","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of these rotationally aligned structures (which is generally prograde relative to the local rotation rate) because it contributes to variations in potential vorticity (Miesch, 2005; for a definition of potential vorticity\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA123","page_number":"123","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e (as expected from the solar butterfly diagram; see Chapter 2). Whether this is a challenge to our dynamo paradigm or simply a consequence of insufficient resolution (which in turn implies insufficient stiffness and excessive\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA133","page_number":"133","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e away as Rossby waves before they merge. Rossby waves are large-scale vortical waves that arise in ... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e is highly anisotropic; it only inhibits transfer to small latitudinal wavenumbers. Transfer to small\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA135","page_number":"135","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e into the radiative interior, inducing transport of angular momentum and chemical elements between regions of excitation and dissipation. As gravity waves \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e downward, rotational shear and toroidal fields in the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA149","page_number":"149","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of the dynamo wave, in qualitative agreement with the observed equatorward drift of the latitudes of sunspot emergences as the solar cycle unfolds (see Fig. 2.2). 6.2.1.2 Kinematic α models with α-quenching Obviously, the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA153","page_number":"153","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e rule and produce equatorward \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e no matter what the sign of the α-effect is (Choudhuri et al., 1995; Küker et al., 2001). The behavioral turnover from dynamo wave-like solutions sets in when the circulation speed in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA155","page_number":"155","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e dynamo modes witha decadal period resembling that of the solar cycle for realistic, solar-like differential rotation and circulation profiles. 6.2.2 Solar cycle models based on active region decay On the basis of his\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA157","page_number":"157","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of the toroidal field in the tachocline is also driven by the meridional flow. The turnover time of the meridional flow is here again the primary determinant of the cycle period. With η=3 × 107 m2 s−1, this solution has a\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA158","page_number":"158","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e towards the pole, as per the Parker–Yoshimura sign rule. The thin-flux-tube approximation can be used ... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of the dynamo magnetic field even with a positive α-effect, as it does in true mean-field models (see\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA163","page_number":"163","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of magnetic fields as the cycle unfolds. 6.3.3 Cycle modulation through time delays In solar cycle models based on the Babcock–Leighton mechanism of poloidal field generation, meridional circulation effectively sets – and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA190","page_number":"190","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of shear waves and hence is liquid. The small inner core, with a radius Ric =0.35Rc, is clearly distinct. Since its discovery in 1935, it has been assumed to be solid. This is not Fig. 7.5. Interior structure of planets with\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA225","page_number":"225","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e faster than the fast mode (sound) speed, the interaction region can expand once shock formation occurs. Observations reveal that relatively few stream interaction regionsare bounded by shocks at 1AU (e.g. Gosling et al., 1972\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA227","page_number":"227","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e through aplasma always deflects the plasma in the direction in which the shock is itself \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e, these observations demonstrate that forward shocks associated with CIRs preferentially \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e anti-sunward, westward\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA228","page_number":"228","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e roughly perpendicular to the interfaces; thus the forward waves in both hemispheres \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e anti-sunward, westward, and toward the opposite hemisphere, whereas the reverse waves \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e sunward (in the plasma rest frame)\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA229","page_number":"229","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e westward (to greater heliographic longitudes as displayed) and toward the opposite hemisphere in the slow wind, while the reverse shocks \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e eastward and poleward into the fast wind and eventually above the latitudes\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA243-IA16","page_number":"243","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e inward, the solar wind flow ends at a spheroidal shock wave, which is called the termination shock, where the supersonic flow changes suddenly to a subsonic outward flow. The interstellar plasma is moving at about 26km/s\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA248","page_number":"248","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e out to the termination shock and into the heliosheath. There is a strong correlation between the rate of CMEs and sunspotnumbers that have been observed over periods of high and low solar activity. From this, one may conclude\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA252","page_number":"252","snippet_text":"... processes to \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e past the Earth. This would include, for example, strong shock waves from a nearby supernova. But, in general, the recurring fluctuations on time scales \u0026lt; 105 yr which 252 The heliosphere and cosmic rays."},{"page_id":"PA253","page_number":"253","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e quite rapidly away from the heliosphere and in most cases the interstellar intensity will be unchanged up to quite close to the heliosphere. However, because of the guiding of the particles by the magnetic field, there will\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA255","page_number":"255","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e in the solar system. This energy loss is a significant factor in the modulation process. In contrast, where the fluid is compressed, such as at the termination shock, the particles gain energy from the flow. The Parker\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA267","page_number":"267","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e through the heliosphere is months to years (Jokipii, 1989), a continuing increase in the intensity of cosmic rays should be expected. The longer-term effects of the prolonged 2008 minimum will be interesting to see. They will\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA320","page_number":"320","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e through the heliosphere, which forms a bubble with a radius of about 100AU around the Sun that is filled with solar plasma-carrying magnetic fields. The \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of the cosmic rays is described by the transport equation\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA372","page_number":"372","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e radio waves over the horizon is restricted to much lower frequencies because the maximum ionospheric density has decreased; • because the F1 layer is located significantly lower than the F2 layer \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e, paths for radio\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA373","page_number":"373","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e. 14.3.3 Other geospace climate impacts In modeling the ionosphere and thermosphere as the solar EUV energy flux is changed, there are at least two impacts of significance for the outer reaches of geospace. First, assuming\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA389","page_number":"389","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e. They have the ability to \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e from sources in the lower atmosphere into the thermosphere (see Vol. I, Fig. 12.1 for definitions of atmospheric domains), where they may achieve large amplitudes by virtue of a tendency\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA390","page_number":"390","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e gravity waves are also present, but the primary source of slow waves is zonal flow over mountains and this generates mostly zonal \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e. decreasing ambient density. Atmospheric tides (principally those excited by the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA391","page_number":"391","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e disturbance via an interplay between pressure forces and the divergence of the horizontal wind. Atmospheric tides Atmospheric tides are the response to periodic astronomical forcing. Atmospheric tides are forced primarily by\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA393","page_number":"393","snippet_text":"... with height in amplitude superimposed on considerable structure. The growth is common to vertically \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e Fig. 15.4. A long wave train of gravity waves visualized. df dy + + − 15.2 Examples of observed atmospheric waves 393."},{"page_id":"PA396","page_number":"396","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e The discussion in Section 15.3.2 explains how wave motion originates but it does not explain wave \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e. This is addressed in Figure 15.7. The schematic shows two relative vorticity cells of opposite sign. The contours\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA397","page_number":"397","snippet_text":"... β/k2; (15.4) hence Rossby waves \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e westward (against the direction of rotation) relative to the mean flow, in agreement with the qualitative discussion above. The group velocity is ∂ω ∂k = ug = ̄u 15.3 Dynamics of planetary waves 397."},{"page_id":"PA398","page_number":"398","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e energy and phase in opposite directions with respect to the zonal current. 15.3.4.3 Rossby-wave group \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e The \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of phase and amplitude are closely related; both \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e with the group velocity. A\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA399","page_number":"399","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e vorticity, gravity waves \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e via the interplay of the divergence of the horizontal wind field and horizontal pressure gradients. 15.4.1 Prototype gravity waves The simplest system that supports gravity waves is an\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA401","page_number":"401","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e eastward and westward. The eigenfunctions are θsn(μ) = Psn(μ), (15.13) where the Psn(μ) are Legendre polynomials. These waves are irrotational gravity waves on a sphere. Waves of this type are referred to as Class-1 waves by\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA405","page_number":"405","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e to great heights and achieve large amplitudes. External waves have constant phase with height and wave ... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e is favored by small h. Evanescence occurs for large h. It may also occur that equivalent depths are\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA407","page_number":"407","snippet_text":"... eigenfrequencies for an atmosphere for an s = 1 westward \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e wave. (Adapted from Fig. 2 of Longuet-Higgins, 1968.) Fig. 15.18. Geostrophic mean zonal winds calculated from radiative equilibrium. 15.6 Oscillations of an atmosphere\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA409","page_number":"409","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e that depends on winds. 15.7.1 Laplace\u0026#39;s tidal theory for forced waves Rather than one equivalent depth and an infinite set of associated frequencies, there is an infinite set of equivalent depths associated with a given\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA411","page_number":"411","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e through background flow in middle and high latitudes is the quasi-geostrophic system. In this system the motion is non-divergent except when coupled to planetary vorticity and the stream function is geostrophic (i.e. as when\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA412","page_number":"412","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e is favored by long horizontal wavelengths (small k). The stronger the zonal winds, the smaller k has to be to give \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e. In westward flow all waves are blocked. These indications are consistent with the observations\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA417","page_number":"417","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e waves in eastward winds (Lindzen and Holton, 1968; Holton and Lindzen, 1972). The two examples given ... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e upwards and waves of very small amplitude in the lower atmosphere can become large-amplitude waves in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA418","page_number":"418","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e into the thermosphere. The main thermal forcing in the thermosphere is due to the absorption of solar extreme ultraviolet radiation by atomic oxygen (Chapman and Lindzen, 1970). There is little if any evidence of quasi\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA419","page_number":"419","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e into the thermosphere if they can avoid breakdown, filtering by the background winds, and dissipation by eddy and molecular diffusion and ion drag (Lindzen, 1970, 1981; Pitteway and Hines, 1963). The waves that are able to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA420","page_number":"420","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e great distances. The ionospheric manifestations are referred to as traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs). Figure 15.21 shows an example of a traveling atmospheric disturbance seen in density near 400km measured by the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA422","page_number":"422","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e vertically outside of this frequency range. Suppose that a planet is rotating so rapidly that N = f. Then m2 \u0026lt;0 and vertically \u003cb\u003epropagating\u003c/b\u003e gravity waves do not exist. If this were the case on Earth, the climatic state of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA429","page_number":"429","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagate\u003c/b\u003e downwards to the troposphere and produce a signal that is larger than can be expected from direct radiative forcing. 16.3 Atmospheric photochemistry The photolysis of molecules by solar radiation initiates a number of chemical\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA441","page_number":"441","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e. Gravity waves, however, break when the resulting vertical temperature gradient reaches unstable conditions. Kodera and Kuroda (2002) have suggested that planetary wave \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e could be affected by changes in solar\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA444","page_number":"444","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003epropagation\u003c/b\u003e of polar night jet anomalies (also described above) into the upper troposphere. More detailed analyses and model investigations are needed to address this question and to identify the mechanisms involved. An interesting\u0026nbsp;..."}],"search_query_escaped":"propagation"},{});</script></div></div></div><script>(function() {var href = window.location.href;if (href.indexOf('?') !== -1) {var parameters = href.split('?')[1].split('&');for (var i = 0; i < parameters.length; i++) {var param = parameters[i].split('=');if (param[0] == 'focus') {var elem = document.getElementById(param[1]);if (elem) {elem.focus();}}}}})();</script>