CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Electricity - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a32b2eb8-79a5-46a4-af4d-54f89a0d2496","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Electricity","wgTitle":"Electricity","wgCurRevisionId":1276844178,"wgRevisionId":1276844178,"wgArticleId":9550,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Use dmy dates from December 2022","Use British English from December 2024","Commons category link from Wikidata","Good articles","Electric and magnetic fields in matter","Electricity"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Electricity","wgRelevantArticleId":9550,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false, "wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q12725","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled": false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.17"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/1200px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1409"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/800px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="939"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/640px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="751"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Electricity - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Electricity rootpage-Electricity skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Electricity" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Electricity" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Electricity" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Electricity" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Concepts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Concepts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electric_charge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_charge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Electric charge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_charge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_current" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_current"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Electric current </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_current-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Electric field </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_potential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_potential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Electric potential </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_potential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Electromagnets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Electric circuits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Electric power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Electronics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromagnetic_wave" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetic_wave"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Electromagnetic wave </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetic_wave-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production,_storage_and_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production,_storage_and_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Production, storage and uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production,_storage_and_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production, storage and uses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production,_storage_and_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Generation_and_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generation_and_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Generation and transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generation_and_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission_and_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission_and_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Transmission and storage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission_and_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity_and_the_natural_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity_and_the_natural_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Electricity and the natural world </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electricity_and_the_natural_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Electricity and the natural world subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Electricity_and_the_natural_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physiological_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Physiological effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiological_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_phenomena_in_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_phenomena_in_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Electrical phenomena in nature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_phenomena_in_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cultural perception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Electricity</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 170 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-170" aria-hidden="true" > 170 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisiteit" title="Elektrisiteit – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektrisiteit" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizit%C3%A4t" title="Elektrizität – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Elektrizität" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AE%E1%88%A8%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B2" title="ኮረንቲ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኮረንቲ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="विद्युत – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="विद्युत" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="كهرباء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كهرباء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidat" title="Electricidat – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Electricidat" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%97%DC%AA%DC%92%DC%90" title="ܟܗܪܒܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܟܗܪܒܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ելեկտրականութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ելեկտրականութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%8E" title="বিদ্যুৎ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বিদ্যুৎ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lletricid%C3%A1" title="Lletricidá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lletricidá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="विद्युत – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="विद्युत" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendyry" title="Tendyry – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tendyry" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik" title="Elektrik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="الکتریک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکتریک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B9ran" title="Kùran – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kùran" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E" title="তড়িৎ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lestr%C3%A9k" title="Lestrék – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Lestrék" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-kh%C3%AC" title="Tiān-khì – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-khì" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80" title="Электр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Электр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Электрычнасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электрычнасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Электрычнасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Электрычнасьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="बिजली – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बिजली" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisidad" title="Elektrisidad – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Elektrisidad" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Електричество – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електричество" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricitet" title="Elektricitet – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektricitet" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredan" title="Tredan – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tredan" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Сахилгаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сахилгаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricitat" title="Electricitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electricitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Электро – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электро" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisidad" title="Elektrisidad – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Elektrisidad" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elekt%C5%99ina" title="Elektřina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektřina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magetsi" title="Magetsi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Magetsi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trydan" title="Trydan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trydan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricitet" title="Elektricitet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektricitet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="تريسينتي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تريسينتي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizit%C3%A4t" title="Elektrizität – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrizität" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elekter" title="Elekter – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elekter" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ηλεκτρισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Цитерь – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Цитерь" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad" title="Electricidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electricidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro" title="Elektro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletricid%C3%A1" title="Eletricidá – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Eletricidá" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizitate" title="Elektrizitate – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektrizitate" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%87" title="الکتریسیته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکتریسیته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Electricity" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravmagn" title="Ravmagn – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Ravmagn" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectricit%C3%A9" title="Électricité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électricité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisiteit" title="Elektrisiteit – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Elektrisiteit" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletricit%C3%A2t" title="Eletricitât – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Eletricitât" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leictreachas" title="Leictreachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leictreachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dealan" title="Dealan – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Dealan" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidade" title="Electricidade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Electricidade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%A3" title="電氣 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電氣" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%B3%E0%AB%80" title="વીજળી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વીજળી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C" title="वीज – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="वीज" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0" title="전기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Էլեկտրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="विद्युत – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricitet" title="Elektricitet – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektricitet" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektro" title="Elektro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Elektro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listrik" title="Listrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricitate" title="Electricitate – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Electricitate" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%93%B4%E1%95%95%E1%92%90%E1%90%85%E1%94%AD%E1%96%85/ikumautit" title="ᓴᕕᒐᐅᔭᖅ/ikumautit – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᓴᕕᒐᐅᔭᖅ/ikumautit" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%85" title="Электрондых – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Электрондых" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazuba" title="Amazuba – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Amazuba" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafmagn" title="Rafmagn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafmagn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettricit%C3%A0" title="Elettricità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettricità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9C" title="חשמל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חשמל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listrik" title="Listrik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Listrik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laatriki_mi%C5%8B" title="Laatriki miŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Laatriki miŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9B%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ವಿದ್ಯುಚ್ಛಕ್ತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುಚ್ಛಕ್ತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ელექტრობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტრობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80" title="Электр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tredan" title="Tredan – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Tredan" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umeme" title="Umeme – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Umeme" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisite" title="Elektrisite – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektrisite" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lektrisit%C3%A9" title="Élektrisité – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Élektrisité" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr%C3%AEk" title="Elektrîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Elektrîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80" title="Электр – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricitas" title="Electricitas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Electricitas" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr%C4%ABba" title="Elektrība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektrība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizit%C3%A9it" title="Elektrizitéit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Elektrizitéit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra" title="Elektra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettri%C3%A7it%C3%A6" title="Elettriçitæ – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Elettriçitæ" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricit%C3%A8%C3%A8t" title="Elektricitèèt – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Elektricitèèt" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotil%C3%ADki" title="Lotilíki – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lotilíki" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amasannyalaze" title="Amasannyalaze – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Amasannyalaze" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletricit%C3%A0" title="Eletricità – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Eletricità" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektromoss%C3%A1g" title="Elektromosság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektromosság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Електрицитет – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електрицитет" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aratra" title="Aratra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Aratra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="വൈദ്യുതി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യുതി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C" title="वीज – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वीज" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="كهربا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كهربا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik" title="Elektrik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listrik" title="Listrik – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Listrik" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%AAng" title="Diêng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diêng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilatricidade" title="Eilatricidade – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eilatricidade" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="လျှပ်စစ်ဓာတ်အား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လျှပ်စစ်ဓာတ်အား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriciteit" title="Elektriciteit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektriciteit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="विद्युत – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विद्युत" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="विद्युत – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विद्युत" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97" title="電気 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電気" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettric%C3%ACt%C3%A0" title="Elettricìtà – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Elettricìtà" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektritsiteet" title="Elektritsiteet – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Elektritsiteet" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisitet" title="Elektrisitet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrisitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisitet" title="Elektrisitet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrisitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Atricita%C3%A9" title="Êtricitaé – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Êtricitaé" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricitat" title="Electricitat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Electricitat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%A4" title="ବିଦ୍ୟୁତ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବିଦ୍ୟୁତ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektirikii" title="Elektirikii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Elektirikii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr" title="Elektr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਬਿਜਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਜਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AC%D9%84%DB%8C" title="بجلی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بجلی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7" title="برېښنا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېښنا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilekchrixiti" title="Ilekchrixiti – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ilekchrixiti" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizit%C3%A4t" title="Elektrizität – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektrizität" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektryczno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Elektryczność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektryczność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletricidade" title="Eletricidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eletricidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik" title="Elektrik – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricitate" title="Electricitate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electricitate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinchikilla" title="Pinchikilla – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pinchikilla" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електрика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Електрика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Электричество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электричество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D2%95%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Чаҕылыма – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Чаҕылыма" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Electricity" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrizit%C3%A4t" title="Elektrizität – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Elektrizität" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohlakase" title="Mohlakase – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Mohlakase" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohlakase" title="Mohlakase – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Mohlakase" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motlakase" title="Motlakase – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Motlakase" data-language-autonym="Setswana" data-language-local-name="Tswana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Setswana</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriciteti" title="Elektriciteti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektriciteti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettricitati" title="Elettricitati – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Elettricitati" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%BA" title="විද්‍යුතය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යුතය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electricity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="برقييات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برقييات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrina" title="Elektrina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektrina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrika" title="Elektrika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektrika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koronto" title="Koronto – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Koronto" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="کارەبا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کارەبا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Електрицитет – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електрицитет" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricitet" title="Elektricitet – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektricitet" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listrik" title="Listrik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Listrik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4hk%C3%B6" title="Sähkö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sähkö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektricitet" title="Elektricitet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektricitet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisidad" title="Elektrisidad – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Elektrisidad" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்சாரம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்சாரம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisiti" title="Trisiti – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Trisiti" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80" title="Электр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Электр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%81" title="విద్యుత్తు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విద్యుత్తు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="ไฟฟ้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไฟฟ้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manyw%C3%AB%C3%ABth" title="Manywëëth – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Manywëëth" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik" title="Elektrik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%90l%C9%9Bktrisiti" title="Ɛlɛktrisiti – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Ɛlɛktrisiti" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_a%CC%B1gwomnati" title="Long a̱gwomnati – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Long a̱gwomnati" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електрика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електрика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82" title="برق – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%90%D9%84%DB%90%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="ئېلېكتر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئېلېكتر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektruz" title="Elektruz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Elektruz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n" title="Điện – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eelektri" title="Eelektri – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Eelektri" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisidad" title="Elektrisidad – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Elektrisidad" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mb%C3%ABj" title="Mbëj – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Mbëj" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5" title="电 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gezi" title="Gezi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Gezi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עלעקטריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עלעקטריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ctann%C3%A1" title="Ìtanná – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìtanná" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB" title="電 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik" title="Elektrik – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alektra" title="Alektra – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Alektra" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB" title="電 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="電" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12725#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Electricity" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electricity">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electricity">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Electricity" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Electricity" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&oldid=1276844178" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Electricity&id=1276844178&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectricity">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectricity">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Electricity&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electricity&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Electricity" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Electricity" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Electricity" hreflang="en">Wikiversity</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12725" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phenomena related to electric charge</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Electricity_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Electricity (disambiguation)">Electricity (disambiguation)</a>. "Electric" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Electric_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Electric (disambiguation)">Electric (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lighting strikes on a city at night" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/260px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/390px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg/520px-London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2469" data-file-height="2898" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> (pictured) and <a href="/wiki/Urban_lighting" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban lighting">urban lighting</a> are some of the most dramatic effects of electricity</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solenoid"><img alt="Solenoid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/190px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/285px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/380px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_electromagnetics" title="Computational electromagnetics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism" title="List of textbooks in electromagnetism">Textbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_phenomena" title="List of electrical phenomena">Phenomena</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">Charge density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">Conductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electret" title="Electret">Electret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment" title="Electric dipole moment">Electric dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_flux" title="Electric flux">Electric flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">Electrostatic discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_induction" title="Electrostatic induction">Electrostatic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law" title="Gauss's law">Gauss law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">Permittivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization_density" title="Polarization density">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectricity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">Magnetostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law" title="Biot–Savart law">Biot–Savart law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_magnetism" title="Gauss's law for magnetism">Gauss magnetic law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">Magnetic flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_scalar_potential" title="Magnetic scalar potential">Magnetic scalar potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">Magnetic vector potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetization" title="Magnetization">Magnetization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-hand_rule#Electromagnetism" title="Right-hand rule">Right-hand rule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Electrodynamics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_radiation" title="Cyclotron radiation">Cyclotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">Displacement current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_current" title="Eddy current">Eddy current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">Electromagnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">Electromagnetic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefimenko%27s_equations" title="Jefimenko's equations">Jefimenko equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larmor_formula" title="Larmor formula">Larmor formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenz%27s_law" title="Lenz's law">Lenz law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_stress_tensor" title="Maxwell stress tensor">Maxwell tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poynting_vector" title="Poynting vector">Poynting vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Electrical network</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">Capacitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_density" title="Current density">Current density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">Direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_impedance" title="Electrical impedance">Impedance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">Inductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_analysis_(electrical_circuits)" title="Network analysis (electrical circuits)">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Parallel circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance" title="Electrical resistance and conductance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonator#Electromagnetics" title="Resonator">Resonant cavities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Series circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(radio_frequency)" title="Waveguide (radio frequency)">Waveguides</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_circuit" title="Magnetic circuit">Magnetic circuit</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DC_motor" title="DC motor">DC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_machine" title="Electric machine">Electric machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrator%E2%80%93capacitor_model" title="Gyrator–capacitor model">Gyrator–capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">Induction motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_motor" title="Linear motor">Linear motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetomotive_force" title="Magnetomotive force">Magnetomotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeance" title="Permeance">Permeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_complex_reluctance" title="Magnetic complex reluctance">Reluctance (complex)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance" title="Magnetic reluctance">Reluctance (real)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotor_(electric)" title="Rotor (electric)">Rotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stator" title="Stator">Stator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism" title="Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism">Covariant formulation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor" title="Electromagnetic tensor">Electromagnetic tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism_and_special_relativity" title="Classical electromagnetism and special relativity">Electromagnetism and special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-current" title="Four-current">Four-current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential" title="Electromagnetic four-potential">Four-potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_descriptions_of_the_electromagnetic_field" title="Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field">Mathematical descriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations_in_curved_spacetime" title="Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime">Maxwell equations in curved spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_electromagnetism" title="Relativistic electromagnetism">Relativistic electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor" title="Electromagnetic stress–energy tensor">Stress–energy tensor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">Ampère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biot" title="Jean-Baptiste Biot">Biot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Davy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Faraday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Fizeau" title="Hippolyte Fizeau">Fizeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopkinson" title="John Hopkinson">Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_D._Jefimenko" title="Oleg D. Jefimenko">Jefimenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">Joule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Kirchhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Larmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Lenz" title="Emil Lenz">Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Marie_Li%C3%A9nard" title="Alfred-Marie Liénard">Liénard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Ohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">Poynting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ritchie_(physicist)" title="William Ritchie (physicist)">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Savart" title="Félix Savart">Savart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Singer" title="George Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz" title="Charles Proteus Steinmetz">Steinmetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Wiechert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electromagnetism" title="Template talk:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Electricity is the set of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> phenomena associated with the presence and <a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">motion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> possessing an <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>. Electricity is related to <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, both being part of the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, as described by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>. Common phenomena are related to electricity, including <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">electric heating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_discharge" title="Electric discharge">electric discharges</a> and many others. The presence of either a positive or negative <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> produces an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>. The motion of electric charges is an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> and produces a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>. In most applications, <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a> determines the <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> acting on an electric charge. <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">work</a> done to move an electric charge from one point to another within an electric field, typically measured in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>. Electricity plays a central role in many modern technologies, serving in <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> where electric current is used to energise equipment, and in <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> dealing with <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuits">electrical circuits</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Active_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Active device">active components</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The study of electrical phenomena dates back to antiquity, with theoretical understanding progressing slowly until the 17th and 18th centuries. The development of the theory of electromagnetism in the 19th century marked significant progress, leading to electricity's industrial and residential application by <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical engineers">electrical engineers</a> by the century's end. This rapid expansion in electrical technology at the time was the driving force behind the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a>, with electricity's versatility driving transformations in both industry and society. Electricity is integral to applications spanning <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">heating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">communications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>, making it the foundation of modern industrial society.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History of electromagnetic theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_electricity" title="Etymology of electricity">Etymology of electricity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A bust of a bearded man with dishevelled hair" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Thales.jpg/170px-Thales.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Thales.jpg/255px-Thales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Thales.jpg/340px-Thales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>, the earliest known researcher into electricity</figcaption></figure> Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from <a href="/wiki/Electric_fish" title="Electric fish">electric fish</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> texts dating from <a href="/wiki/28th_century_BC" title="28th century BC">2750 BCE</a> described them as the "protectors" of all other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic naturalists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">physicians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Several ancient writers, such as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scribonius_Largus" title="Scribonius Largus">Scribonius Largus</a>, attested to the numbing effect of <a href="/wiki/Electric_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric shock">electric shocks</a> delivered by <a href="/wiki/Electric_catfish" title="Electric catfish">electric catfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray" title="Electric ray">electric rays</a>, and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects.<a href="#cite_note-Electroreception-3">[3]</a> Patients with ailments such as <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a> or <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a> were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them.<a href="#cite_note-morris-4">[4]</a> Ancient cultures around the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> knew that certain objects, such as rods of <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> made a series of observations on <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> around 600 BCE, from which he believed that friction rendered amber <a href="/wiki/Magnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic">magnetic</a>, in contrast to minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>, which needed no rubbing.<a href="#cite_note-stewart-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> may have had knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a>, based on the 1936 discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Battery" title="Baghdad Battery">Baghdad Battery</a>, which resembles a <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic cell</a>, though it is uncertain whether the artefact was electrical in nature.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A half-length portrait of a bald, somewhat portly man in a three-piece suit." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg/170px-Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg/255px-Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg/340px-Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2129" data-file-height="2866" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.</figcaption></figure> Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/De_Magnete" title="De Magnete">De Magnete</a>, in which he made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the <a href="/wiki/Lodestone" title="Lodestone">lodestone</a> effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber.<a href="#cite_note-stewart-5">[5]</a> He coined the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον, elektron, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pseudodoxia_Epidemica" title="Pseudodoxia Epidemica">Pseudodoxia Epidemica</a> of 1646.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> made early investigations into electricity,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> with an idea of his written down in his book <a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a> arguably the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">field theory</a> of the electric force.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Further work was conducted in the 17th and early 18th centuries by <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke" title="Otto von Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gray_(scientist)" title="Stephen Gray (scientist)">Stephen Gray</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._F._du_Fay" class="mw-redirect" title="C. F. du Fay">C. F. du Fay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-14">[14]</a> Later in the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and <a href="/wiki/Kite_experiment#Franklin's_kite_experiment" title="Kite experiment">flown the kite in a storm-threatened sky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> was indeed electrical in nature.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar" title="Leyden jar">Leyden jar</a> as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges.<a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-14">[14]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Half-length portrait oil painting of a man in a dark suit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg/170px-M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg/255px-M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg/340px-M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="1437" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>'s discoveries formed the foundation of electric motor technology.</figcaption></figure> In 1775, Hugh Williamson reported a series of experiments to the Royal Society on the shocks delivered by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_eel" title="Electric eel">electric eel</a>;<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> that same year the surgeon and anatomist <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a> described the structure of the fish's <a href="/wiki/Electric_organ_(fish)" title="Electric organ (fish)">electric organs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards_2021-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter_1775-20">[20]</a> In 1791, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> published his discovery of <a href="/wiki/Bioelectromagnetics" title="Bioelectromagnetics">bioelectromagnetics</a>, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> passed signals to the muscles.<a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-2-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-kirby-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>'s battery, or <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic machine">electrostatic machines</a> previously used.<a href="#cite_note-guarnieri_7-2-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-kirby-22">[22]</a> The recognition of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> in 1819–1820. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a> in 1821, and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827.<a href="#cite_note-kirby-22">[22]</a> Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, in particular in his "<a href="/wiki/On_Physical_Lines_of_Force" title="On Physical Lines of Force">On Physical Lines of Force</a>" in 1861 and 1862.<a href="#cite_note-berkson-23">[23]</a>: 148  While the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science, the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>. Through such people as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ott%C3%B3_Bl%C3%A1thy" title="Ottó Bláthy">Ottó Bláthy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Ferraris" title="Galileo Ferraris">Galileo Ferraris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81nyos_Jedlik" title="Ányos Jedlik">Ányos Jedlik</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Charles Algernon Parsons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Swan" title="Joseph Swan">Joseph Swan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a>, electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In 1887, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a><a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 843–44 <a href="#cite_note-Hertz1887-26">[26]</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrodes</a> illuminated with ultraviolet light create <a href="/wiki/Electric_spark" title="Electric spark">electric sparks</a> more easily. In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> published a paper that explained experimental data from the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a> as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets, energising electrons. This discovery led to the <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a> revolution. Einstein was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The photoelectric effect is also employed in <a href="/wiki/Photocell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocell">photocells</a> such as can be found in <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state device</a> was the "<a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">cat's-whisker detector</a>" first used in the 1900s in radio receivers. A whisker-like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal (such as a <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> crystal) to detect a <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> signal by the contact junction effect.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In a solid-state component, the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it. Current flow can be understood in two forms: as negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, and as positively charged electron deficiencies called <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a>. These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics. The building material is most often a crystalline <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">Solid-state electronics</a> came into its own with the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> technology. The first working transistor, a <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, was invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1947,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_charge">Electric charge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electroscope.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A clear glass dome has an external electrode that connects through the glass to a pair of gold leaves. A charged rod touches the external electrode and makes the leaves repel." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Electroscope.svg/170px-Electroscope.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Electroscope.svg/255px-Electroscope.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Electroscope.svg/340px-Electroscope.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="811" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption>Charge on a <a href="/wiki/Gold-leaf_electroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold-leaf electroscope">gold-leaf electroscope</a> causes the leaves to visibly repel each other</figcaption></figure> By modern convention, the charge carried by <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> is defined as negative, and that by <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> is positive.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Before these particles were discovered, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> had defined a positive charge as being the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed with a silk cloth.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> A proton by definition carries a charge of exactly 1.602176634×10−19 coulombs. This value is also defined as the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a>. No object can have a charge smaller than the elementary charge, and any amount of charge an object may carry is a multiple of the elementary charge. An electron has an equal negative charge, i.e. −1.602176634×10−19 coulombs. Charge is possessed not just by <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, but also by <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>, each <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force: charges exert a <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> on each other, an effect that was known, though not understood, in antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 457  A lightweight ball suspended by a fine thread can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth. If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod, it is found to repel the first: the charge acts to force the two balls apart. Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other. However, if one ball is charged by the glass rod, and the other by an amber rod, the two balls are found to attract each other. These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by <a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a>, who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms. This discovery led to the well-known axiom: like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a> The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a>, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse-square">inverse-square</a> relation to the distance between them.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 35  The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> but unlike that force it operates over all distances.<a href="#cite_note-Umashankar-39">[39]</a> In comparison with the much weaker <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational force">gravitational force</a>, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitational</a> attraction pulling them together.<a href="#cite_note-hawking-40">[40]</a> Charge originates from certain types of <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, the most familiar carriers of which are the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a>, one of the four <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental force">fundamental forces</a> of nature. Experiment has shown charge to be a <a href="/wiki/Conserved_quantity" title="Conserved quantity">conserved quantity</a>, that is, the net charge within an electrically isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire.<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 2–5  The informal term <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other. Charge can be measured by a number of means, an early instrument being the <a href="/wiki/Gold-leaf_electroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold-leaf electroscope">gold-leaf electroscope</a>, which although still in use for classroom demonstrations, has been superseded by the electronic <a href="/wiki/Electrometer" title="Electrometer">electrometer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 2–5  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_current">Electric current</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a></div> The movement of electric charge is known as an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>, the intensity of which is usually measured in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>. Current can consist of any moving charged particles; most commonly these are electrons, but any charge in motion constitutes a current. Electric current can flow through some things, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductors</a>, but will not flow through an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulator">electrical insulator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part. Current defined in this manner is called <a href="/wiki/Conventional_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional current">conventional current</a>. The motion of negatively charged electrons around an <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">electric circuit</a>, one of the most familiar forms of current, is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> However, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particles</a> in either direction or even in both directions at once. The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two metal wires form an inverted V shape. A blindingly bright orange-white electric arc flows between their tips." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg/220px-Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg/330px-Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg/440px-Lichtbogen_3000_Volt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> provides an energetic demonstration of electric current.</figcaption></figure> The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">electrical conduction</a>, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a> such as metal, and <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> (charged <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>) flow through liquids, or through <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a> such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average <a href="/wiki/Drift_velocity" title="Drift velocity">drift velocity</a> only fractions of a millimetre per second,<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 17  the <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> that drives them itself propagates at close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Current causes several observable effects, which historically were the means of recognising its presence. That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by <a href="/wiki/William_Nicholson_(chemist)" title="William Nicholson (chemist)">Nicholson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Carlisle" title="Anthony Carlisle">Carlisle</a> in 1800, a process now known as <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>. Their work was greatly expanded upon by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> in 1833. Current through a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">resistance</a> causes localised heating, an effect <a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> studied mathematically in 1840.<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 23–24  One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> in 1820, when, while preparing a lecture, he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass.<a href="#cite_note-berkson-23">[23]</a>: 370 <a href="#cite_note-45">[a]</a> He had discovered <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics. The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arcing</a> is high enough to produce <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference" title="Electromagnetic interference">electromagnetic interference</a>, which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> In engineering or household applications, current is often described as being either <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) or <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC). These terms refer to how the current varies in time. Direct current, as produced by example from a <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a> and required by most <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> devices, is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative.<a href="#cite_note-bird-47">[46]</a>: 11  If, as is most common, this flow is carried by electrons, they will be travelling in the opposite direction. Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly; almost always this takes the form of a <a href="/wiki/Sine_wave" title="Sine wave">sine wave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bird-47">[46]</a>: 206–07  Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time. The time-averaged value of an alternating current is zero, but it delivers energy in first one direction, and then the reverse. Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a> direct current, such as <a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">inductance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bird-47">[46]</a>: 223–25  These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to <a href="/wiki/Transient_response" title="Transient response">transients</a>, such as when first energised. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_field">Electric field</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></div> The concept of the electric <a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">field</a> was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">masses</a>, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance.<a href="#cite_note-Umashankar-39">[39]</a> However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.<a href="#cite_note-hawking-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg/220px-VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg/330px-VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg/440px-VFPt_image_charge_plane_horizontal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Field lines emanating from a positive charge above a plane conductor</figcaption></figure> An electric field generally varies in space,<a href="#cite_note-48">[b]</a> and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 469–70  The conceptual charge, termed a '<a href="/wiki/Test_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Test charge">test charge</a>', must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>. As the electric field is defined in terms of <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>, and force is a <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vector</a>, having both <a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(mathematics)" title="Magnitude (mathematics)">magnitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direction_(geometry)" title="Direction (geometry)">direction</a>, it follows that an electric field is a <a href="/wiki/Vector_field" title="Vector field">vector field</a>.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 469–70  The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a>. The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field. This concept was introduced by Faraday,<a href="#cite_note-elec_princ_p73-49">[47]</a> whose term '<a href="/wiki/Line_of_force" title="Line of force">lines of force</a>' still sometimes sees use. The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it was forced to move within the field; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence, and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines.<a href="#cite_note-elec_princ_p73-49">[47]</a> Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties: first, they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges; second, they must enter any good conductor at right angles, and third, they may never cross nor close in on themselves.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 479  A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface. The field is therefore 0 at all places inside the body.<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 88  This is the operating principle of the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_cage" title="Faraday cage">Faraday cage</a>, a conducting metal shell that isolates its interior from outside electrical effects. The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of <a href="/wiki/High_voltage" title="High voltage">high-voltage</a> equipment. There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium. Beyond this point, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_breakdown" title="Electrical breakdown">electrical breakdown</a> occurs and an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> causes flashover between the charged parts. Air, for example, tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre. Over larger gaps, its breakdown strength is weaker, perhaps 1 kV per centimetre.<a href="#cite_note-hv_eng-50">[48]</a>: 2  The most visible natural occurrence of this is <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>, caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air, and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand. The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh.<a href="#cite_note-hv_eng-50">[48]</a>: 201–02  The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects, and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects. This principle is exploited in the <a href="/wiki/Lightning_conductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning conductor">lightning conductor</a>, the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning strike to develop there, rather than to the building it serves to protect.<a href="#cite_note-Nahin2002-51">[49]</a>: 155  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_potential">Electric potential</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panasonic-oxyride.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two AA batteries each have a plus sign marked at one end." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Panasonic-oxyride.jpg/220px-Panasonic-oxyride.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Panasonic-oxyride.jpg/330px-Panasonic-oxyride.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Panasonic-oxyride.jpg/440px-Panasonic-oxyride.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A pair of <a href="/wiki/AA_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="AA cell">AA cells</a>. The + sign indicates the polarity of the potential difference between the battery terminals.</figcaption></figure> The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires <a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">work</a>. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>, and one volt is the potential for which one <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a> of work must be expended to bring a charge of one <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> from infinity.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 494–98  This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_difference" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric potential difference">electric potential difference</a>, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. The electric field is <a href="/wiki/Conservative_force" title="Conservative force">conservative</a>, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 494–98  The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> sees greater everyday usage. For practical purposes, defining a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared is useful. While this could be at infinity, a much more useful reference is the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> itself, which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere. This reference point naturally takes the name <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">earth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ground_(electricity)" title="Ground (electricity)">ground</a>. Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge and is therefore electrically uncharged—and unchargeable.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> Electric potential is a <a href="/wiki/Scalar_(physics)" title="Scalar (physics)">scalar quantity</a>. That is, it has only magnitude and not direction. It may be viewed as analogous to <a href="/wiki/Height" title="Height">height</a>: just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field, so a charge will 'fall' across the voltage caused by an electric field.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> As relief maps show <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a> marking points of equal height, a set of lines marking points of equal potential (known as <a href="/wiki/Equipotential" title="Equipotential">equipotentials</a>) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object. The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles. They must also lie parallel to a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a>'s surface, since otherwise there would be a force along the surface of the conductor that would move the charge carriers to even the potential across the surface. The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge, but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition: the electric field is the local <a href="/wiki/Gradient" title="Gradient">gradient</a> of the electric potential. Usually expressed in volts per metre, the vector direction of the field is the line of greatest slope of potential, and where the equipotentials lie closest together.<a href="#cite_note-Duffin-37">[37]</a>: 60  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromagnets">Electromagnets</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electromagnets" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnets">Electromagnets</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electromagnetism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wire carries a current towards the reader. Concentric circles representing the magnetic field circle anticlockwise around the wire, as viewed by the reader." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Electromagnetism.svg/220px-Electromagnetism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Electromagnetism.svg/330px-Electromagnetism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Electromagnetism.svg/440px-Electromagnetism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Magnetic field circles around a current</figcaption></figure> Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. Moreover, the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two forces of nature then known. The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles to it.<a href="#cite_note-berkson-23">[23]</a>: 370  Ørsted's words were that "the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner." The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was reversed, then the force did too.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">Ampère</a>, who discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart.<a href="#cite_note-elec_princ_92-93-55">[53]</a> The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international <a href="/wiki/Ampere#Definition" title="Ampere">definition of the ampere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-elec_princ_92-93-55">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electric_motor_cycle_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cut-away diagram of a small electric motor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_motor_cycle_3.png/220px-Electric_motor_cycle_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_motor_cycle_3.png/330px-Electric_motor_cycle_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Electric_motor_cycle_3.png/440px-Electric_motor_cycle_3.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The electric motor exploits an important effect of electromagnetism: a current through a magnetic field experiences a force at right angles to both the field and current.</figcaption></figure> This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a> in 1821. Faraday's <a href="/wiki/Homopolar_motor" title="Homopolar motor">homopolar motor</a> consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_magnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent magnet">permanent magnet</a> sitting in a pool of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained.<a href="#cite_note-iet_faraday-56">[54]</a> Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends. Further analysis of this process, known as <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a>, enabled him to state the principle, now known as <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday's law of induction</a>, that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">magnetic flux</a> through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">electrical generator</a> in 1831, in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy.<a href="#cite_note-iet_faraday-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday's disc">Faraday's disc</a> was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_circuits">Electric circuits</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">Electric circuit</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="refer to caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg/220px-Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg/330px-Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg/440px-Ohms_law_voltage_source.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="209" /></a><figcaption>A basic <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">electric circuit</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Voltage_source" title="Voltage source">voltage source</a> V on the left drives a <a href="/wiki/Current_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (electricity)">current</a> I around the circuit, delivering <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistor</a> R. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit.</figcaption></figure> An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">Electronic circuits</a> contain <a href="/wiki/Active_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Active device">active components</a>, usually <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, and typically exhibit <a href="/wiki/Non-linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear">non-linear</a> behaviour, requiring complex analysis. The simplest electric components are those that are termed <a href="/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)" title="Passivity (engineering)">passive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear">linear</a>: while they may temporarily store energy, they contain no sources of it, and exhibit linear responses to stimuli.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-59">[57]</a>: 15–16  The <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistor</a> is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements: as its name suggests, it <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">resists</a> the current through it, dissipating its energy as heat. The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor: in metals, for example, resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions. <a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm's law</a> is a basic law of <a href="/wiki/Circuit_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit theory">circuit theory</a>, stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents; materials under these conditions are known as 'ohmic'. The <a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>, the unit of resistance, was named in honour of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a>, and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω. 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-59">[57]</a>: 30–35  The <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a> is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field. It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulating</a> <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitance</a>. The unit of capacitance is the <a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, and given the symbol F: one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb. A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero. A capacitor will therefore not permit a <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a> current, but instead blocks it.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-59">[57]</a>: 216–20  The <a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductor</a> is a conductor, usually a coil of wire, that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it. When the current changes, the magnetic field does too, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">inducing</a> a voltage between the ends of the conductor. The induced voltage is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Time_derivative" title="Time derivative">time rate of change</a> of the current. The constant of proportionality is termed the <a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">inductance</a>. The unit of inductance is the <a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>, named after <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a>, a contemporary of Faraday. One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second. The inductor's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor: it will freely allow an unchanging current but opposes a rapidly changing one.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-59">[57]</a>: 226–29  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_power">Electric power</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a></div> Electric power is the rate at which <a href="/wiki/Electric_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric energy">electric energy</a> is transferred by an <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">electric circuit</a>. The <a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">SI</a> unit of <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">power</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Watt_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt (unit)">watt</a>, one <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a> per <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">second</a>. Electric power, like <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">mechanical power</a>, is the rate of doing <a href="/wiki/Work_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Work (electrical)">work</a>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a>, and represented by the letter P. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean "electric power in watts." The electric power in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a> produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potential</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>) difference of V is <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P={\text{work done per unit time}}={\frac {QV}{t}}=IV\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>work done per unit time</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>Q</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P={\text{work done per unit time}}={\frac {QV}{t}}=IV\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/53a84ac821c54d1255c69e9a140f728a54fb8158" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:42.824ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P={\text{work done per unit time}}={\frac {QV}{t}}=IV\,}"></dd></dl> where <dl><dd>Q is electric charge in <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulombs</a></dd> <dd>t is time in seconds</dd> <dd>I is electric current in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a></dd> <dd>V is electric potential or voltage in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a></dd></dl> Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_industry" title="Electric power industry">electric power industry</a>. Electricity is usually sold by the <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt_hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt hour">kilowatt hour</a> (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using <a href="/wiki/Electricity_meter" title="Electricity meter">electricity meters</a>, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>, electricity is a low <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronics">Electronics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/220px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/330px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/440px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Surface-mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface-mount">Surface-mount</a> electronic components</figcaption></figure> Electronics deals with <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuit">electrical circuits</a> that involve active electrical components such as <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, and associated passive interconnection technologies.<a href="#cite_note-HH2015-61">[59]</a>: 1–5, 71  The <a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonlinear element">nonlinear</a> behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes digital <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switching</a> possible,<a href="#cite_note-HH2015-61">[59]</a>: 75  and electronics is widely used in <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">information processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>. Interconnection technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">circuit boards</a>, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a>. Today, most electronic devices use <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> components to perform electron control. The underlying principles that explain how semiconductors work are studied in <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> whereas the design and construction of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuits</a> to solve practical problems are part of <a href="/wiki/Electronics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics engineering">electronics engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromagnetic_wave">Electromagnetic wave</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">Electromagnetic wave</a></div> Faraday's and Ampère's work showed that a time-varying magnetic field created an electric field, and a time-varying electric field created a magnetic field. Thus, when either field is changing in time, a field of the other is always induced.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 696–700  These variations are an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic wave</a>. Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> in 1864. Maxwell developed a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field, magnetic field, electric charge, and electric current. He could moreover prove that in a vacuum such a wave would travel at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation. <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>, which unify light, fields, and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics.<a href="#cite_note-uniphysics-25">[25]</a>: 696–700  The work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">high frequency</a> oscillating currents and, via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production,_storage_and_uses">Production, storage and uses</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generation_and_transmission">Generation and transmission</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">Electricity generation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">Mains electricity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorskii_04414u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gorskii_04414u.jpg/300px-Gorskii_04414u.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gorskii_04414u.jpg/450px-Gorskii_04414u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gorskii_04414u.jpg/600px-Gorskii_04414u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3329" data-file-height="3010" /></a><figcaption>Early 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Alternator" title="Alternator">alternator</a> made in <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, in the power generating hall of a <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> station (photograph by <a href="/wiki/Prokudin-Gorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokudin-Gorsky">Prokudin-Gorsky</a>, 1905–1915).</figcaption></figure> In the 6th century BC the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> experimented with amber rods: these were the first studies into the production of electricity. While this method, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">triboelectric effect</a>, can lift light objects and generate sparks, it is extremely inefficient.<a href="#cite_note-batteries-65">[63]</a> It was not until the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a> in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available. The voltaic pile, and its modern descendant, the <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">electrical battery</a>, store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electricity.<a href="#cite_note-batteries-65">[63]</a> Electrical power is usually generated by electro-mechanical <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">generators</a>. These can be driven by <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> produced from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> combustion or the heat released from nuclear reactions, but also more directly from the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of wind or flowing water. The <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Sir Charles Parsons</a> in 1884 is still used to convert the thermal energy of steam into a rotary motion that can be used by electro-mechanical generators. Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday's homopolar disc generator of 1831, but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> Electricity generated by <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a> rely on a different mechanism: <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar radiation</a> is converted directly into electricity using the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wind farm of about a dozen three-bladed white wind turbines." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg/220px-Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg/330px-Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg/440px-Parque_e%C3%B3lico_La_Muela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> is of increasing importance in many countries.</figcaption></figure> Demand for electricity grows with great rapidity as a nation modernises and its economy develops.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The United States showed a 12% increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century,<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_concerns_with_electricity_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental concerns with electricity generation">Environmental concerns with electricity generation</a>, in specific the contribution of fossil fuel burning to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, have led to an increased focus on generation from <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable sources</a>. In the power sector, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_PV" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar PV">solar</a> have become cost effective, speeding up an <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">energy transition</a> away from fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission_and_storage">Transmission and storage</h3></div> The invention in the late nineteenth century of the <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformer</a> meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current. Efficient <a href="/wiki/Electrical_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical transmission">electrical transmission</a> meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power stations</a>, where it benefited from <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>, and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed.<a href="#cite_note-Patterson_p44-48-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> Normally, demand for electricity must match the supply, as storage of electricity is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Patterson_p44-48-73">[71]</a> A certain amount of generation must always be held in <a href="/wiki/Operating_reserve" title="Operating reserve">reserve</a> to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> With increasing levels of <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable renewable energy</a> (wind and solar energy) in the grid, it has become more challenging to match supply and demand. Storage plays an increasing role in bridging that gap. There are four types of energy storage technologies, each in varying states of <a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">technology readiness</a>: <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">batteries</a> (electrochemical storage), chemical storage such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, thermal or mechanical (such as <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped hydropower</a>).<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications">Applications</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a photo of a light bulb" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png/170px-Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png/255px-Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png/340px-Gluehlampe_01_KMJ.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a>, an early application of electricity, operates by <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a>: the passage of <a href="/wiki/Current_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Current (electricity)">current</a> through <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">resistance</a> generating heat.</figcaption></figure> Electricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy, and it has been adapted to a huge, and growing, number of uses.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The invention of a practical <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a> in the 1870s led to <a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">lighting</a> becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power. Although electrification brought with it its own dangers, replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting. In the late 20th century and in modern times, the trend has started to flow in the direction of deregulation in the electrical power sector.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> The resistive <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a> effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in <a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">electric heating</a>. While this is versatile and controllable, it can be seen as wasteful, since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> A number of countries, such as Denmark, have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>/<a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pumps</a> representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling, the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> Electrification is expected to play a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Decarbonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decarbonisation">decarbonisation</a> of sectors that rely on direct fossil fuel burning, such as transport (using <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric vehicles">electric vehicles</a>) and heating (using <a href="/wiki/Heat_pumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat pumps">heat pumps</a>).<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a>, which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power. A stationary motor such as a <a href="/wiki/Winch" title="Winch">winch</a> is easily provided with a supply of power, but a motor that moves with its application, such as an <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a>, is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a <a href="/wiki/Pantograph_(rail)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantograph (rail)">pantograph</a>. Electrically powered vehicles are used in public transportation, such as electric buses and trains,<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> and an increasing number of battery-powered <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a> in private ownership. Electricity is used within <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, and indeed the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a>, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">Cooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Wheatstone</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> was one of its earliest applications. With the construction of first <a href="/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="First Transcontinental Telegraph">transcontinental</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic</a>, telegraph systems in the 1860s, electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe. <a href="/wiki/Optical_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical fibre">Optical fibre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">satellite communication</a> have taken a share of the market for communications systems, but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process. Electronic devices make use of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century,<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry. A modern <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> may contain many billions of miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electricity_and_the_natural_world">Electricity and the natural world</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiological_effects">Physiological effects</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrical_injury" title="Electrical injury">Electrical injury</a></div> A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the greater the current.<a href="#cite_note-tleis-91">[89]</a> The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current, but is about 0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency electricity, though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an <a href="/wiki/Electrovibration" title="Electrovibration">electrovibration</a> effect under certain conditions.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> If the current is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle contraction, <a href="/wiki/Fibrillation" title="Fibrillation">fibrillation</a> of the heart, and <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">tissue burns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tleis-91">[89]</a> The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Death caused by an electric shock—<a href="/wiki/Electrocution" title="Electrocution">electrocution</a>—is still used for <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">judicial execution</a> in some US states, though its use had become very rare by the end of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_phenomena_in_nature">Electrical phenomena in nature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrical_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical phenomena">Electrical phenomena</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electric-eel2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Electric-eel2.jpg/220px-Electric-eel2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Electric-eel2.jpg/330px-Electric-eel2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Electric-eel2.jpg/440px-Electric-eel2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Electric_eel" title="Electric eel">electric eel</a>, Electrophorus electricus</figcaption></figure> Electricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in nature, notably <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>. Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level, such as <a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">touch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a>, are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale. The <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> is due to the <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">natural dynamo</a> of circulating currents in the planet's core.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Certain crystals, such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, generate a potential difference across their faces when pressed.<a href="#cite_note-crystallography-96">[94]</a> This phenomenon is known as <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">piezoelectricity</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> piezein (πιέζειν), meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Curie" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques Curie">Jacques Curie</a>. The effect is reciprocal: when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field it changes size slightly.<a href="#cite_note-crystallography-96">[94]</a> Some organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as <a href="/wiki/Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">electroreception</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Biodynamics-97">[95]</a> while others, termed <a href="/wiki/Electrogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrogenic">electrogenic</a>, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon; these are <a href="/wiki/Electric_fish" title="Electric fish">electric fish</a> in different orders.<a href="#cite_note-Electroreception-3">[3]</a> The order <a href="/wiki/Gymnotiformes" title="Gymnotiformes">Gymnotiformes</a>, of which the best-known example is the <a href="/wiki/Electric_eel" title="Electric eel">electric eel</a>, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called <a href="/wiki/Electrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocytes">electrocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Electroreception-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-morris-4">[4]</a> All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a>, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-neural_science-98">[96]</a> An electric shock stimulates this system and causes muscles to contract.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants.<a href="#cite_note-neural_science-98">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_perception">Cultural perception</h2></div> It is said that in the 1850s, British politician <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> asked the scientist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> why electricity was valuable. Faraday answered, "One day sir, you may tax it."<a href="#cite_note-The_Conversation-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> However, according to Snopes.com "the anecdote should be considered apocryphal because it isn't mentioned in any accounts by Faraday or his contemporaries (letters, newspapers, or biographies) and only popped up well after Faraday's death."<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people, even in the industrialised <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> of the time accordingly often depicted it as a mysterious, quasi-magical force that can slay the living, revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 69  This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of <a href="/wiki/Galvanism" title="Galvanism">animal electricity</a>. "Revitalization" or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani's work. These results were known to <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a> when she authored <a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a> (1819), although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster. The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films. As public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> grew, its wielders were more often cast in a positive light,<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  such as the workers who "finger death at their gloves' end as they piece and repiece the living wires" in <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s 1907 poem <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Martha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sons of Martha">Sons of Martha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tom_Swift" title="Tom Swift">Tom Swift</a> books.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  The masters of electricity, whether fictional or real—including scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Steinmetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Steinmetz">Charles Steinmetz</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>—were popularly conceived of as having wizard-like powers.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century, it acquired particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing,<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  an event that usually signals disaster.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  The people who keep it flowing, such as the nameless hero of <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Webb" title="Jimmy Webb">Jimmy Webb</a>'s song "<a href="/wiki/Wichita_Lineman" title="Wichita Lineman">Wichita Lineman</a>" (1968),<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  are still often cast as heroic, wizard-like figures.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Riper-104">[102]</a>: 71  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère's circuital law</a>, connects the direction of an electric current and its associated magnetic currents.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a>, the potential energy of a system of charges</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_market" title="Electricity market">Electricity market</a>, the sale of electrical energy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_electricity" title="Etymology of electricity">Etymology of electricity</a>, the origin of the word electricity and its current different usages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_analogy" title="Hydraulic analogy">Hydraulic analogy</a>, an analogy between the flow of water and electric current</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_bioelectricity" title="Developmental bioelectricity">Developmental bioelectricity</a> – Electric current produced in living cells</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Accounts differ as to whether this was before, during, or after a lecture. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Almost all electric fields vary in space. An exception is the electric field surrounding a planar conductor of infinite extent, the field of which is uniform. </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJones1991" class="citation cs2">Jones, D.A. (1991), "Electrical engineering: the backbone of society", IEE Proceedings A - Science, Measurement and Technology, 138 (1): 1–10, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fip-a-3.1991.0001">10.1049/ip-a-3.1991.0001</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEE+Proceedings+A+-+Science%2C+Measurement+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Electrical+engineering%3A+the+backbone+of+society&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fip-a-3.1991.0001&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMollerKramer1991" class="citation cs2">Moller, Peter; Kramer, Bernd (December 1991), "Review: Electric Fish", BioScience, 41 (11), <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Biological_Sciences" title="American Institute of Biological Sciences">American Institute of Biological Sciences</a>: 794–96 [794], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1311732">10.2307/1311732</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311732">1311732</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Electric+Fish&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=794-96+794&rft.date=1991-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1311732&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1311732%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Moller&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Kramer%2C+Bernd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Electroreception-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Electroreception_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Electroreception_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Electroreception_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBullock2005" class="citation cs2">Bullock, Theodore H. (2005), Electroreception, Springer, pp. 5–7, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23192-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23192-1"><bdi>978-0-387-23192-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electroreception&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-387-23192-1&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=Theodore+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-morris-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-morris_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-morris_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2003" class="citation cs2">Morris, Simon C. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifessolutionine01conw/page/182">Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe</a>, Cambridge University Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifessolutionine01conw/page/182">182–85</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82704-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82704-3"><bdi>0-521-82704-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%27s+Solution%3A+Inevitable+Humans+in+a+Lonely+Universe&rft.pages=182-85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-82704-3&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Simon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifessolutionine01conw%2Fpage%2F182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stewart-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stewart_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stewart_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2001" class="citation cs2">Stewart, Joseph (2001), Intermediate Electromagnetic Theory, World Scientific, p. 50, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-4471-1" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-4471-1"><bdi>981-02-4471-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intermediate+Electromagnetic+Theory&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=981-02-4471-1&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2003" class="citation cs2">Simpson, Brian (2003), Electrical Stimulation and the Relief of Pain, Elsevier Health Sciences, pp. 6–7, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-51258-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-51258-6"><bdi>0-444-51258-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrical+Stimulation+and+the+Relief+of+Pain&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-444-51258-6&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiogenes_Laertius" class="citation cs2">Diogenes Laertius, R.D. Hicks (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.1">"Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 1 Chapter 1 [24]"</a>, Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730093513/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0004.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.1">archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022, retrieved 5 February 2017, <q>Aristotle and Hippias affirm that, arguing from the magnet and from amber, he attributed a soul or life even to inanimate objects.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perseus+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Lives+of+Eminent+Philosophers%2C+Book+1+Chapter+1+%5B24%5D&rft.au=Diogenes+Laertius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.perseus.org%2Fcitations%2Furn%3Acts%3AgreekLit%3Atlg0004.tlg001.perseus-eng1%3A1.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation cs2">Aristotle, Daniel C. Stevenson (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.1.i.html#244">"De Animus (On the Soul) Book 1 Part 2 (B4 verso)"</a>, The Internet Classics Archive, translated by J.A. Smith, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226025346/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.1.i.html#244">archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2017, retrieved 5 February 2017, <q>Thales, too, to judge from what is recorded about him, seems to have held soul to be a motive force, since he said that the magnet has a soul in it because it moves the iron.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Classics+Archive&rft.atitle=De+Animus+%28On+the+Soul%29+Book+1+Part+2+%28B4+verso%29&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fsoul.1.i.html%23244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrood2003" class="citation cs2">Frood, Arran (27 February 2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2804257.stm">Riddle of 'Baghdad's batteries'</a>, BBC, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170903033419/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2804257.stm">archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2017, retrieved 16 February 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riddle+of+%27Baghdad%27s+batteries%27&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2003-02-27&rft.aulast=Frood&rft.aufirst=Arran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F2804257.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation cs2">Baigrie, Brian (2007), Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective, Greenwood Press, pp. 7–8, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33358-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+Magnetism%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33358-3&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalmers1937" class="citation cs2">Chalmers, Gordon (1937), "The Lodestone and the Understanding of Matter in Seventeenth Century England", Philosophy of Science, 4 (1): 75–95, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F286445">10.1086/286445</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121067746">121067746</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Lodestone+and+the+Understanding+of+Matter+in+Seventeenth+Century+England&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F286445&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121067746%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanford1921" class="citation journal cs2">Sanford, Fernando (1921), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/6312">"Some Early Theories Regarding Electrical Forces – The Electric Emanation Theory"</a>, The Scientific Monthly, 12 (6): 544–550, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1921SciMo..12..544S">1921SciMo..12..544S</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3771">0096-3771</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=Some+Early+Theories+Regarding+Electrical+Forces+%E2%80%93+The+Electric+Emanation+Theory&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E544-%3C%2Fspan%3E550&rft.date=1921&rft.issn=0096-3771&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1921SciMo..12..544S&rft.aulast=Sanford&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F6312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlands2017" class="citation book cs2">Rowlands, Peter (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0NBDwAAQBAJ&dq=Isaac+Newton+field+theory+electricity+dispersion&pg=PA109">Newton - Innovation And Controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="World Scientific Publishing">World Scientific Publishing</a>, p. 109, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786344045" title="Special:BookSources/9781786344045"><bdi>9781786344045</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+-+Innovation+And+Controversy&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781786344045&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du0NBDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DIsaac%2BNewton%2Bfield%2Btheory%2Belectricity%2Bdispersion%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-guarnieri_7-1-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-1_14-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarnieri2014" class="citation cs2">Guarnieri, M. (2014), "Electricity in the age of Enlightenment", IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, 8 (3): 60–63, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2335431">10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34246664">34246664</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Industrial+Electronics+Magazine&rft.atitle=Electricity+in+the+age+of+Enlightenment&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2335431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34246664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guarnieri&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrodes2002" class="citation cs2">Srodes, James (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklinessentia0000srod/page/92">Franklin: The Essential Founding Father</a>, Regnery Publishing, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklinessentia0000srod/page/92">92–94</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-163-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-163-4"><bdi>0-89526-163-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin%3A+The+Essential+Founding+Father&rft.pages=92-94&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-89526-163-4&rft.aulast=Srodes&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranklinessentia0000srod%2Fpage%2F92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988">. It is uncertain if Franklin personally carried out this experiment, but it is popularly attributed to him. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUman1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Martin_A._Uman" title="Martin A. Uman">Uman, Martin</a> (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allaboutlightnin0000uman">All About Lightning</a> (PDF), Dover Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-25237-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-25237-X"><bdi>0-486-25237-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+About+Lightning&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-486-25237-X&rft.aulast=Uman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallaboutlightnin0000uman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiskin1998" class="citation cs2">Riskin, Jessica (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/poorrichard.pdf">Poor Richard's Leyden Jar: Electricity and economy in Franklinist France</a> (PDF), p. 327, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140512220545/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/poorrichard.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2014, retrieved 11 May 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poor+Richard%27s+Leyden+Jar%3A+Electricity+and+economy+in+Franklinist+France&rft.pages=327&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Riskin&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2FHPS%2Fpoorrichard.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1775" class="citation cs2">Williamson, Hugh (1775), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rstl.1775.0011">"Experiments and observations on the Gymnotus electricus, or electric eel"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>, 65 (65): 94–101, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1775.0011">10.1098/rstl.1775.0011</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186211272">186211272</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730093501/https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rstl.1775.0011">archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022, retrieved 16 July 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Experiments+and+observations+on+the+Gymnotus+electricus%2C+or+electric+eel&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.date=1775&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1775.0011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186211272%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2Fepdf%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1775.0011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards_2021-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_2021_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2021" class="citation cs2">Edwards, Paul (10 November 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document">A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré</a>, HAL open-access archive</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Correction+to+the+Record+of+Early+Electrophysiology+Research+on+the+250th+Anniversary+of+a+Historic+Expedition+to+%C3%8Ele+de+R%C3%A9&rft.pub=HAL+open-access+archive&rft.date=2021-11-10&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-03423498%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter_1775-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Hunter_1775_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1775" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">Hunter, John</a> (1775), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philtrans01229060">"An account of the Gymnotus electricus"</a>, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (65): 395–407</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=An+account+of+the+Gymnotus+electricus&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E395-%3C%2Fspan%3E407&rft.date=1775&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphiltrans01229060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-guarnieri_7-2-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-2_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guarnieri_7-2_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarnieri2014" class="citation cs2">Guarnieri, M. (2014), "The Big Jump from the Legs of a Frog", IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, 8 (4): 59–61, 69, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2361237">10.1109/MIE.2014.2361237</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39105914">39105914</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Industrial+Electronics+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Big+Jump+from+the+Legs+of+a+Frog&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E61%2C+69&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2361237&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39105914%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guarnieri&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kirby-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kirby_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kirby_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kirby_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby1990" class="citation cs2">Kirby, Richard S. (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/engineeringinhis0000unse/page/331">Engineering in History</a>, Courier Dover Publications, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/engineeringinhis0000unse/page/331">331–33</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26412-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-26412-2"><bdi>0-486-26412-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+in+History&rft.pages=331-33&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-486-26412-2&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fengineeringinhis0000unse%2Fpage%2F331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-berkson-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-berkson_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-berkson_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-berkson_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkson1974" class="citation cs2">Berkson, William (1974), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fieldsofforcedev0000berk/page/370">Fields of Force: The Development of a World View from Faraday to Einstein</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-7626-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-7626-6"><bdi>0-7100-7626-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fields+of+Force%3A+The+Development+of+a+World+View+from+Faraday+to+Einstein&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-7100-7626-6&rft.aulast=Berkson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffieldsofforcedev0000berk%2Fpage%2F370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNigel_MasonN.J._MasonPeter_HughesRandall_McMullan2001" class="citation book cs2">Nigel Mason; N.J. Mason; Peter Hughes; Randall McMullan (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m02DqlNQxqAC&pg=PA130">Introduction to Environmental Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, p. 130, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7484-0765-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7484-0765-1"><bdi>978-0-7484-0765-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Environmental+Physics&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7484-0765-1&rft.au=Nigel+Mason&rft.au=N.J.+Mason&rft.au=Peter+Hughes&rft.au=Randall+McMullan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm02DqlNQxqAC%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-uniphysics-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-uniphysics_25-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSears1982" class="citation cs2">Sears, Francis; et al. (1982), University Physics, Sixth Edition, Addison Wesley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-07199-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-07199-1"><bdi>0-201-07199-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=University+Physics%2C+Sixth+Edition&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-201-07199-1&rft.aulast=Sears&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hertz1887-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Hertz1887_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHertz1887" class="citation cs2">Hertz, Heinrich (1887), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1423827">"Ueber den Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a>, 267 (8): S. 983–1000, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1887AnP...267..983H">1887AnP...267..983H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18872670827">10.1002/andp.18872670827</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200611081356/https://zenodo.org/record/1423827">archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2020, retrieved 25 August 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Ueber+den+Einfluss+des+ultravioletten+Lichtes+auf+die+electrische+Entladung&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=S.+983-1000&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18872670827&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1887AnP...267..983H&rft.aulast=Hertz&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1423827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921"</a>, Nobel Foundation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081017151250/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html">archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2008, retrieved 16 March 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1921&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1921%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721043608/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/solid+state">"Solid state"</a>, The Free Dictionary, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/solid+state">the original</a> on 21 July 2018</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Solid+state&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com%2Fsolid%2Bstate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakemore1985" class="citation cs2">Blakemore, John Sydney (1985), Solid state physics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–3</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+state+physics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Blakemore&rft.aufirst=John+Sydney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaegerBlalock2003" class="citation cs2">Jaeger, Richard C.; Blalock, Travis N. (2003), Microelectronic circuit design, McGraw-Hill Professional, pp. 46–47, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-250503-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-250503-6"><bdi>0-07-250503-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microelectronic+circuit+design&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-07-250503-6&rft.aulast=Jaeger&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft.au=Blalock%2C+Travis+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/">"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210930151529/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/">archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2021, retrieved 10 August 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1947%3A+Invention+of+the+Point-Contact+Transistor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Finvention-of-the-point-contact-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/conception-of-the-junction-transistor/">"1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor"</a>, The Silicon Engine, <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200730232353/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/conception-of-the-junction-transistor/">archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2020, retrieved 8 October 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Silicon+Engine&rft.atitle=1948%3A+Conception+of+the+Junction+Transistor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fconception-of-the-junction-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> International Electrotechnical Commission, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=113-02-13">IEV ref 113-02-13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Lawrence S. Lerner (1997). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Volume 2, p. 636 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClose2007" class="citation cs2">Close, Frank (2007), The New Cosmic Onion: Quarks and the Nature of the Universe, CRC Press, p. 51, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-798-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-798-0"><bdi>978-1-58488-798-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cosmic+Onion%3A+Quarks+and+the+Nature+of+the+Universe&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58488-798-0&rft.aulast=Close&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulomb1785" class="citation cs2">Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de (1785), Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris, <q>The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+l%27Academie+Royal+des+Sciences&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1785&rft.aulast=Coulomb&rft.aufirst=Charles-Augustin+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duffin-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffin_37-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffin1980" class="citation cs2">Duffin, W.J. (1980), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricitymagn00duff">Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd edition</a>, McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-084111-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-084111-X"><bdi>0-07-084111-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+Magnetism%2C+3rd+edition&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-07-084111-X&rft.aulast=Duffin&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectricitymagn00duff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council1998" class="citation cs2">National Research Council (1998), Physics Through the 1990s, National Academies Press, pp. 215–16, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-03576-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-03576-7"><bdi>0-309-03576-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+Through+the+1990s&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-309-03576-7&rft.au=National+Research+Council&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Umashankar-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Umashankar_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Umashankar_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmashankar1989" class="citation cs2">Umashankar, Korada (1989), Introduction to Engineering Electromagnetic Fields, World Scientific, pp. 77–79, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-5-0921-0" title="Special:BookSources/9971-5-0921-0"><bdi>9971-5-0921-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Engineering+Electromagnetic+Fields&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9971-5-0921-0&rft.aulast=Umashankar&rft.aufirst=Korada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hawking-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hawking_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hawking_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawking1988" class="citation cs2">Hawking, Stephen (1988), A Brief History of Time, Bantam Press, p. 77, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-17521-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-17521-1"><bdi>0-553-17521-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Time&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Bantam+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-553-17521-1&rft.aulast=Hawking&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefil2003" class="citation cs2">Trefil, James (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofsciencea00tref/page/74">The Nature of Science: An A–Z Guide to the Laws and Principles Governing Our Universe</a>, Houghton Mifflin Books, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofsciencea00tref/page/74">74</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-31938-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-31938-7"><bdi>0-618-31938-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Science%3A+An+A%E2%80%93Z+Guide+to+the+Laws+and+Principles+Governing+Our+Universe&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-618-31938-7&rft.aulast=Trefil&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureofsciencea00tref%2Fpage%2F74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Khalili" class="citation cs2">Al-Khalili, Jim, "Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity", BBC Horizon</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+Horizon&rft.atitle=Shock+and+Awe%3A+The+Story+of+Electricity&rft.aulast=Al-Khalili&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard1960" class="citation cs2">Ward, Robert (1960), Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, p. 18</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Electrical+Engineering&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolymar1984" class="citation cs2">Solymar, L. (1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesonelectr0000soly_w5c6/page/140">Lectures on electromagnetic theory</a>, Oxford University Press, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesonelectr0000soly_w5c6/page/140">140</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-856169-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-856169-5"><bdi>0-19-856169-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+electromagnetic+theory&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-19-856169-5&rft.aulast=Solymar&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flecturesonelectr0000soly_w5c6%2Fpage%2F140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcsuppressiontechnologies.com/arc-suppression-facts/lab-app-notes/">"Lab Note #105 EMI Reduction – Unsuppressed vs. Suppressed"</a>, Arc Suppression Technologies, April 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305123758/http://www.arcsuppressiontechnologies.com/arc-suppression-facts/lab-app-notes/">archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2016, retrieved 7 March 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lab+Note+%23105+EMI+Reduction+%E2%80%93+Unsuppressed+vs.+Suppressed&rft.pub=Arc+Suppression+Technologies&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcsuppressiontechnologies.com%2Farc-suppression-facts%2Flab-app-notes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bird-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bird_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bird_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bird_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2007" class="citation cs2">Bird, John (2007), Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, 3rd edition, Newnes, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4175-0543-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4175-0543-2"><bdi>978-1-4175-0543-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrical+and+Electronic+Principles+and+Technology%2C+3rd+edition&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4175-0543-2&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-elec_princ_p73-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elec_princ_p73_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-elec_princ_p73_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorely_&_Hughes1970" class="citation cs2">Morely & Hughes (1970), Principles of Electricity, Fifth edition, Longman, p. 73, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-42629-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-42629-4"><bdi>0-582-42629-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Electricity%2C+Fifth+edition&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-582-42629-4&rft.au=Morely+%26+Hughes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hv_eng-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hv_eng_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hv_eng_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaiduKamataru1982" class="citation cs2">Naidu, M.S.; Kamataru, V. (1982), High Voltage Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-451786-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-451786-4"><bdi>0-07-451786-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Voltage+Engineering&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-07-451786-4&rft.aulast=Naidu&rft.aufirst=M.S.&rft.au=Kamataru%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nahin2002-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Nahin2002_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_J._Nahin2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Nahin" title="Paul J. Nahin">Paul J. Nahin</a> (9 October 2002), Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age, JHU Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6909-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6909-9"><bdi>978-0-8018-6909-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Heaviside%3A+The+Life%2C+Work%2C+and+Times+of+an+Electrical+Genius+of+the+Victorian+Age&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2002-10-09&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6909-9&rft.au=Paul+J.+Nahin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerway2006" class="citation cs2">Serway, Raymond A. (2006), Serway's College Physics, Thomson Brooks, p. 500, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-99724-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-99724-4"><bdi>0-534-99724-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Serway%27s+College+Physics&rft.pages=500&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-534-99724-4&rft.aulast=Serway&rft.aufirst=Raymond+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaeliMacIsaac2007" class="citation cs2">Saeli, Sue; MacIsaac, Dan (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsed.buffalostate.edu/pubs/PHY690/Saeli2004GEModels/older/ElectricAnalogies1Nov.doc">"Using Gravitational Analogies To Introduce Elementary Electrical Field Theory Concepts"</a>, The Physics Teacher, 45 (2): 104, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhTea..45..104S">2007PhTea..45..104S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2432088">10.1119/1.2432088</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100859/http://physicsed.buffalostate.edu/pubs/PHY690/Saeli2004GEModels/older/ElectricAnalogies1Nov.doc">archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2008, retrieved 9 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Physics+Teacher&rft.atitle=Using+Gravitational+Analogies+To+Introduce+Elementary+Electrical+Field+Theory+Concepts&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=104&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2432088&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PhTea..45..104S&rft.aulast=Saeli&rft.aufirst=Sue&rft.au=MacIsaac%2C+Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsed.buffalostate.edu%2Fpubs%2FPHY690%2FSaeli2004GEModels%2Folder%2FElectricAnalogies1Nov.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2004" class="citation cs2">Thompson, Silvanus P. (2004), Michael Faraday: His Life and Work, Elibron Classics, p. 79, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4212-7387-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4212-7387-X"><bdi>1-4212-7387-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Michael+Faraday%3A+His+Life+and+Work&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Elibron+Classics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-4212-7387-X&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Silvanus+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-elec_princ_92-93-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elec_princ_92-93_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-elec_princ_92-93_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorely_&_Hughes" class="citation cs2">Morely & Hughes, Principles of Electricity, Fifth edition, pp. 92–93</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Electricity%2C+Fifth+edition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.au=Morely+%26+Hughes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iet_faraday-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iet_faraday_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iet_faraday_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">Institution of Engineering and Technology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703063432/http://www.iee.org/TheIEE/Research/Archives/Histories%26Biographies/Faraday.cfm">Michael Faraday: Biography</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iee.org/TheIEE/Research/Archives/Histories&Biographies/Faraday.cfm">the original</a> on 3 July 2007, retrieved 9 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Michael+Faraday%3A+Biography&rft.au=Institution+of+Engineering+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iee.org%2FTheIEE%2FResearch%2FArchives%2FHistories%26Biographies%2FFaraday.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLees2017" class="citation book cs2">Lees, James (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EV4wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT98">Physics in 50 Milestone Moments: A Timeline of Scientific Landmarks</a>, Quad Books, 1831: Michael Faraday creates the Faraday disc, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85762-762-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85762-762-9"><bdi>978-0-85762-762-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+in+50+Milestone+Moments%3A+A+Timeline+of+Scientific+Landmarks&rft.pages=1831%3A+Michael+Faraday+creates+the+Faraday+disc&rft.pub=Quad+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-85762-762-9&rft.aulast=Lees&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEV4wDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrone2023" class="citation book cs2">Urone, Paul Peter; et al. (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openstax.org/books/physics/pages/19-2-series-circuits">"19.2: Series Circuits"</a>, Physics, OpenStax, p. 612, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-951693-21-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-951693-21-3"><bdi>978-1-951693-21-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=19.2%3A+Series+Circuits&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=612&rft.pub=OpenStax&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-951693-21-3&rft.aulast=Urone&rft.aufirst=Paul+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenstax.org%2Fbooks%2Fphysics%2Fpages%2F19-2-series-circuits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_59-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderSadiku2006" class="citation cs2">Alexander, Charles; Sadiku, Matthew (2006), Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (3, revised ed.), McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-330115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-330115-0"><bdi>978-0-07-330115-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Electric+Circuits&rft.edition=3%2C+revised&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-07-330115-0&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Sadiku%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation cs2">Smith, Clare (2001), Environmental Physics</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Physics&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HH2015-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HH2015_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HH2015_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorowitzHill2015" class="citation book cs2">Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (2015), The Art of Electronics (3rd ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80926-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80926-9"><bdi>978-0-521-80926-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Electronics&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80926-9&rft.aulast=Horowitz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Hill%2C+Winfield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingleton2001" class="citation book cs2">Singleton, John (30 August 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9SLSBAAAQBAJ">Band Theory and Electronic Properties of Solids</a>, Oxford University Press, p. 49, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105746-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105746-5"><bdi>978-0-19-105746-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Band+Theory+and+Electronic+Properties+of+Solids&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001-08-30&rft.isbn=978-0-19-105746-5&rft.aulast=Singleton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9SLSBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwalLang2005" class="citation book cs2">Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey (1 July 2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGgP7FDEv3AC">Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits</a>, Elsevier, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-050681-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-050681-4"><bdi>978-0-08-050681-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Analog+and+Digital+Electronic+Circuits&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005-07-01&rft.isbn=978-0-08-050681-4&rft.aulast=Agarwal&rft.aufirst=Anant&rft.au=Lang%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGgP7FDEv3AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_LeGeyt_Fortescue1913" class="citation book cs2"><a href="/wiki/Charles_LeGeyt_Fortescue" title="Charles LeGeyt Fortescue">Charles LeGeyt Fortescue</a> (1913), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XCaOycMZ6_0C">Wireless Telegraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, p. 17, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107605909" title="Special:BookSources/9781107605909"><bdi>9781107605909</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wireless+Telegraphy&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=9781107605909&rft.au=Charles+LeGeyt+Fortescue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXCaOycMZ6_0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-batteries-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-batteries_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-batteries_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellRand2001" class="citation cs2">Dell, Ronald; Rand, David (2001), "Understanding Batteries", NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N, 86, Royal Society of Chemistry: 2–4, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985STIN...8619754M">1985STIN...8619754M</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85404-605-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85404-605-4"><bdi>0-85404-605-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NASA+Sti%2FRecon+Technical+Report+N&rft.atitle=Understanding+Batteries&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985STIN...8619754M&rft.isbn=0-85404-605-4&rft.aulast=Dell&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=Rand%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaren1984" class="citation cs2">McLaren, Peter G. (1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementaryelectr0000mcla/page/182">Elementary Electric Power and Machines</a>, Ellis Horwood, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementaryelectr0000mcla/page/182">182–83</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85312-269-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85312-269-5"><bdi>0-85312-269-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Electric+Power+and+Machines&rft.pages=182-83&rft.pub=Ellis+Horwood&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-85312-269-5&rft.aulast=McLaren&rft.aufirst=Peter+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementaryelectr0000mcla%2Fpage%2F182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/how-electricity-is-generated.php">"How electricity is generated"</a>, U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 9 November 2022, retrieved 19 February 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Energy+Information+Administration+%28EIA%29&rft.atitle=How+electricity+is+generated&rft.date=2022-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Fenergyexplained%2Felectricity%2Fhow-electricity-is-generated.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryce2020" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bryce_(writer)" title="Robert Bryce (writer)">Bryce, Robert</a> (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/robert-bryce/a-question-of-power/9781610397490/">A Question of Power: Electricity and the Wealth of Nations</a>, PublicAffairs, p. 352, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-749-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61039-749-0"><bdi>978-1-61039-749-0</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211107190916/https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/robert-bryce/a-question-of-power/9781610397490/">archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2021, retrieved 7 November 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Question+of+Power%3A+Electricity+and+the+Wealth+of+Nations&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-61039-749-0&rft.aulast=Bryce&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicaffairsbooks.com%2Ftitles%2Frobert-bryce%2Fa-question-of-power%2F9781610397490%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdison_Electric_Institute" class="citation cs2">Edison Electric Institute, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/chg_stru_update/appa.html">History of the U.S. Electric Power Industry, 1882–1991</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101206094624/http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/chg_stru_update/appa.html">archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2010, retrieved 8 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+U.S.+Electric+Power+Industry%2C+1882%E2%80%931991&rft.au=Edison+Electric+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.doe.gov%2Fcneaf%2Felectricity%2Fchg_stru_update%2Fappa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarbon_Sequestration_Leadership_Forum" class="citation cs2">Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071205080916/http://www.cslforum.org/india.htm">An Energy Summary of India</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cslforum.org/india.htm">the original</a> on 5 December 2007, retrieved 8 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Energy+Summary+of+India&rft.au=Carbon+Sequestration+Leadership+Forum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cslforum.org%2Findia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndexMundi" class="citation cs2">IndexMundi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indexmundi.com/china/electricity_consumption.html">China Electricity – consumption</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190617183052/https://www.indexmundi.com/china/electricity_consumption.html">archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2019, retrieved 8 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Electricity+%E2%80%93+consumption&rft.au=IndexMundi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indexmundi.com%2Fchina%2Felectricity_consumption.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKutscherMilfordKreith2019" class="citation book cs2">Kutscher, C.F.; Milford, J.B.; Kreith, F. (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhpDwAAQBAJ">Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems</a>, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Series (Third ed.), <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>, p. 5, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-93916-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-93916-7"><bdi>978-0-429-93916-7</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606195825/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhpDwAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Sustainable+Energy+Systems&rft.series=Mechanical+and+Aerospace+Engineering+Series&rft.pages=5&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-429-93916-7&rft.aulast=Kutscher&rft.aufirst=C.F.&rft.au=Milford%2C+J.B.&rft.au=Kreith%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwQhpDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Patterson_p44-48-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_p44-48_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patterson_p44-48_73-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1999" class="citation cs2">Patterson, Walter C. (1999), Transforming Electricity: The Coming Generation of Change, Earthscan, pp. 44–48, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85383-341-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-85383-341-X"><bdi>1-85383-341-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+Electricity%3A+The+Coming+Generation+of+Change&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E44-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-85383-341-X&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Walter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdison_Electric_Institute" class="citation cs2">Edison Electric Institute, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071113132557/http://www.eei.org/industry_issues/industry_overview_and_statistics/history">History of the Electric Power Industry</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eei.org/industry_issues/industry_overview_and_statistics/history">the original</a> on 13 November 2007, retrieved 8 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Electric+Power+Industry&rft.au=Edison+Electric+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eei.org%2Findustry_issues%2Findustry_overview_and_statistics%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastilloGayme2014" class="citation journal cs2">Castillo, Anya; <a href="/wiki/Dennice_Gayme" title="Dennice Gayme">Gayme, Dennice F.</a> (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890414007018">"Grid-scale energy storage applications in renewable energy integration: A survey"</a>, Energy Conversion and Management, 87: 885–894, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ECM....87..885C">2014ECM....87..885C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enconman.2014.07.063">10.1016/j.enconman.2014.07.063</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0196-8904">0196-8904</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Conversion+and+Management&rft.atitle=Grid-scale+energy+storage+applications+in+renewable+energy+integration%3A+A+survey&rft.volume=87&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E885-%3C%2Fspan%3E894&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0196-8904&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enconman.2014.07.063&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ECM....87..885C&rft.aulast=Castillo&rft.aufirst=Anya&rft.au=Gayme%2C+Dennice+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0196890414007018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://energy.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/The-Future-of-Energy-Storage.pdf">The Future of Energy Storage</a> (PDF), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2022, pp. xi–xvi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-578-29263-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-578-29263-2"><bdi>978-0-578-29263-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Energy+Storage&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exi-%3C%2Fspan%3Exvi&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-578-29263-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenergy.mit.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F05%2FThe-Future-of-Energy-Storage.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWald1990" class="citation cs2">Wald, Matthew (21 March 1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6DD1F3AF932A15750C0A966958260">"Growing Use of Electricity Raises Questions on Supply"</a>, New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080108022330/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6DD1F3AF932A15750C0A966958260">archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2008, retrieved 9 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Growing+Use+of+Electricity+Raises+Questions+on+Supply&rft.date=1990-03-21&rft.aulast=Wald&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C0CE6DD1F3AF932A15750C0A966958260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Alroy_Jones" class="citation cs2">d'Alroy Jones, Peter, The Consumer Society: A History of American Capitalism, Penguin Books, p. 211</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consumer+Society%3A+A+History+of+American+Capitalism&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.aulast=d%27Alroy+Jones&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.en-powered.com/blog/the-bumpy-road-to-energy-deregulation">"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation"</a>, EnPowered, 28 March 2016, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170407145323/https://www.en-powered.com/blog/the-bumpy-road-to-energy-deregulation">archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2017, retrieved 29 May 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Bumpy+Road+to+Energy+Deregulation&rft.pub=EnPowered&rft.date=2016-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.en-powered.com%2Fblog%2Fthe-bumpy-road-to-energy-deregulation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReVelle1992" class="citation cs2">ReVelle, Charles and Penelope (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalenvironmen0000reve/page/298">The Global Environment: Securing a Sustainable Future</a>, Jones & Bartlett, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalenvironmen0000reve/page/298">298</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86720-321-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-86720-321-8"><bdi>0-86720-321-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Environment%3A+Securing+a+Sustainable+Future&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-86720-321-8&rft.aulast=ReVelle&rft.aufirst=Charles+and+Penelope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglobalenvironmen0000reve%2Fpage%2F298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanish_Ministry_of_Environment_and_Energy" class="citation cs2">Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080108011443/http://glwww.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/1997/87-7810-983-3/html/annexf.htm">"F.2 The Heat Supply Act"</a>, Denmark's Second National Communication on Climate Change, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glwww.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/1997/87-7810-983-3/html/annexf.htm">the original</a> on 8 January 2008, retrieved 9 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Denmark%27s+Second+National+Communication+on+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=F.2+The+Heat+Supply+Act&rft.au=Danish+Ministry+of+Environment+and+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglwww.mst.dk%2Fudgiv%2FPublications%2F1997%2F87-7810-983-3%2Fhtml%2Fannexf.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2002" class="citation cs2">Brown, Charles E. (2002), Power resources, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-42634-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-42634-5"><bdi>3-540-42634-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+resources&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-540-42634-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHojjatiBattles" class="citation cs2">Hojjati, B.; Battles, S., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100857/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/efficiency/2005_USAEE.pdf">The Growth in Electricity Demand in U.S. Households, 1981–2001: Implications for Carbon Emissions</a> (PDF), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/efficiency/2005_USAEE.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 February 2008, retrieved 9 December 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+in+Electricity+Demand+in+U.S.+Households%2C+1981%E2%80%932001%3A+Implications+for+Carbon+Emissions&rft.aulast=Hojjati&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Battles%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.doe.gov%2Femeu%2Fefficiency%2F2005_USAEE.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/08/10/demand-for-air-conditioning-is-set-to-surge-by-2050">"Demand for air conditioning is set to surge by 2050"</a>, The Economist, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a>, retrieved 13 March 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Demand+for+air+conditioning+is+set+to+surge+by+2050&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fgraphic-detail%2F2021%2F08%2F10%2Fdemand-for-air-conditioning-is-set-to-surge-by-2050&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPathakSladeShuklaSkea2023" class="citation book cs2">Pathak, M.; Slade, R.; Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; et al. (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_TechnicalSummary.pdf">"Technical Summary"</a> (PDF), Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. 91, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157926.002">10.1017/9781009157926.002</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781009157926" title="Special:BookSources/9781009157926"><bdi>9781009157926</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technical+Summary&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2022%3A+Mitigation+of+Climate+Change.+Contribution+of+Working+Group+III+to+the+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pages=91&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009157926.002&rft.isbn=9781009157926&rft.aulast=Pathak&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Slade%2C+R.&rft.au=Shukla%2C+P.R.&rft.au=Skea%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg3%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGIII_TechnicalSummary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonCrawleyLomasBuswell2023" class="citation journal cs2">Watson, S.D.; Crawley, J.; Lomas, K.J.; Buswell, R.A. (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enbuild.2023.112917">"Predicting future GB heat pump electricity demand"</a>, Energy and Buildings, 286: 112917, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enbuild.2023.112917">10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.112917</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0378-7788">0378-7788</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257067540">257067540</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+and+Buildings&rft.atitle=Predicting+future+GB+heat+pump+electricity+demand&rft.volume=286&rft.pages=112917&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257067540%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0378-7788&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enbuild.2023.112917&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=S.D.&rft.au=Crawley%2C+J.&rft.au=Lomas%2C+K.J.&rft.au=Buswell%2C+R.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.enbuild.2023.112917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/transportation/public-transit/">"Public Transportation"</a>, Alternative Energy News, 10 March 2010, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204204748/http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/transportation/public-transit/">archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2010, retrieved 2 December 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alternative+Energy+News&rft.atitle=Public+Transportation&rft.date=2010-03-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alternative-energy-news.info%2Ftechnology%2Ftransportation%2Fpublic-transit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiffen2010" class="citation journal cs2">Liffen, John (July 2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/175812110X12714133353911">"The Introduction of the Electric Telegraph in Britain, a Reappraisal of the Work of Cooke and Wheatstone"</a>, The International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology, 80 (2): 268–299, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F175812110X12714133353911">10.1179/175812110X12714133353911</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1758-1206">1758-1206</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110320981">110320981</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+for+the+History+of+Engineering+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=The+Introduction+of+the+Electric+Telegraph+in+Britain%2C+a+Reappraisal+of+the+Work+of+Cooke+and+Wheatstone&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E268-%3C%2Fspan%3E299&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110320981%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1758-1206&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F175812110X12714133353911&rft.aulast=Liffen&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1179%2F175812110X12714133353911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrick2003" class="citation cs2">Herrick, Dennis F. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mediamanagementi0000herr">Media Management in the Age of Giants: Business Dynamics of Journalism</a>, Blackwell Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8138-1699-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8138-1699-8"><bdi>0-8138-1699-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Media+Management+in+the+Age+of+Giants%3A+Business+Dynamics+of+Journalism&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8138-1699-8&rft.aulast=Herrick&rft.aufirst=Dennis+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmediamanagementi0000herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDas2007" class="citation cs2">Das, Saswato R. (15 December 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-das15dec15,0,4782957.story?coll=la-opinion-rightrail">"The tiny, mighty transistor"</a>, Los Angeles Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081011191958/http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-das15dec15,0,4782957.story?coll=la-opinion-rightrail">archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2008, retrieved 12 January 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=The+tiny%2C+mighty+transistor&rft.date=2007-12-15&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Saswato+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fnews%2Fopinion%2Fla-oe-das15dec15%2C0%2C4782957.story%3Fcoll%3Dla-opinion-rightrail&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tleis-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tleis_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tleis_91-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTleis2008" class="citation cs2">Tleis, Nasser (2008), Power System Modelling and Fault Analysis, Elsevier, pp. 552–54, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8074-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-8074-5"><bdi>978-0-7506-8074-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+System+Modelling+and+Fault+Analysis&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E552-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-8074-5&rft.aulast=Tleis&rft.aufirst=Nasser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimnes2000" class="citation cs2">Grimnes, Sverre (2000), Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basic, Academic Press, pp. 301–09, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-303260-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-303260-1"><bdi>0-12-303260-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bioimpedance+and+Bioelectricity+Basic&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E301-%3C%2Fspan%3E09&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-12-303260-1&rft.aulast=Grimnes&rft.aufirst=Sverre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschultzHilt2002" class="citation cs2">Lipschultz, J.H.; Hilt, M.L.J.H. (2002), Crime and Local Television News, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 95, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-3620-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-3620-9"><bdi>0-8058-3620-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Local+Television+News&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8058-3620-9&rft.aulast=Lipschultz&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft.au=Hilt%2C+M.L.J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindersKansalShupeOakley2021" class="citation journal cs2">Linders, Annulla; Kansal, Shobha Pai; Shupe, Kyle; Oakley, Samuel (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0160597620932892">"The Promises and Perils of Technological Solutions to the Troubles with Capital Punishment"</a>, Humanity & Society, 45 (3): 384–413, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0160597620932892">10.1177/0160597620932892</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0160-5976">0160-5976</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225595301">225595301</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanity+%26+Society&rft.atitle=The+Promises+and+Perils+of+Technological+Solutions+to+the+Troubles+with+Capital+Punishment&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E384-%3C%2Fspan%3E413&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225595301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0160-5976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0160597620932892&rft.aulast=Linders&rft.aufirst=Annulla&rft.au=Kansal%2C+Shobha+Pai&rft.au=Shupe%2C+Kyle&rft.au=Oakley%2C+Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0160597620932892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncrenaz2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Encrenaz" title="Thérèse Encrenaz">Encrenaz, Thérèse</a> (2004), The Solar System, Springer, p. 217, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-00241-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-00241-3"><bdi>3-540-00241-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Solar+System&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-540-00241-3&rft.aulast=Encrenaz&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crystallography-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crystallography_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crystallography_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLima-de-FariaBuerger1990" class="citation cs2">Lima-de-Faria, José; Buerger, Martin J. (1990), "Historical Atlas of Crystallography", Zeitschrift für Kristallographie, 209 (12), Springer: 67, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ZK....209.1008P">1994ZK....209.1008P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fzkri.1994.209.12.1008a">10.1524/zkri.1994.209.12.1008a</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-0649-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-0649-X"><bdi>0-7923-0649-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Kristallographie&rft.atitle=Historical+Atlas+of+Crystallography&rft.volume=209&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=67&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fzkri.1994.209.12.1008a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994ZK....209.1008P&rft.isbn=0-7923-0649-X&rft.aulast=Lima-de-Faria&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Buerger%2C+Martin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biodynamics-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Biodynamics_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvancevic2005" class="citation cs2">Ivancevic, Vladimir & Tijana (2005), Natural Biodynamics, World Scientific, p. 602, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-256-534-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-256-534-5"><bdi>981-256-534-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Biodynamics&rft.pages=602&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=981-256-534-5&rft.aulast=Ivancevic&rft.aufirst=Vladimir+%26+Tijana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-neural_science-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-neural_science_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-neural_science_98-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessell2000" class="citation cs2">Kandel, E.; Schwartz, J.; Jessell, T. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011/page/27">Principles of Neural Science</a>, McGraw-Hill Professional, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011/page/27">27–28</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8385-7701-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8385-7701-6"><bdi>0-8385-7701-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8385-7701-6&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+J.&rft.au=Jessell%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838577011%2Fpage%2F27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidovits2007" class="citation cs2">Davidovits, Paul (2007), Physics in Biology and Medicine, Academic Press, pp. 204–05, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-369411-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-369411-9"><bdi>978-0-12-369411-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+in+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E204-%3C%2Fspan%3E05&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-12-369411-9&rft.aulast=Davidovits&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Conversation-100"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Conversation_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2013" class="citation cs2">Jackson, Mark (4 November 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/theoretical-physics-like-sex-but-with-no-need-to-experiment-19409">Theoretical physics – like sex, but with no need to experiment</a>, The Conversation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140404034009/http://theconversation.com/theoretical-physics-like-sex-but-with-no-need-to-experiment-19409">archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2014, retrieved 26 March 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+physics+%E2%80%93+like+sex%2C+but+with+no+need+to+experiment&rft.pub=The+Conversation&rft.date=2013-11-04&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Ftheoretical-physics-like-sex-but-with-no-need-to-experiment-19409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolymenis2010" class="citation journal cs2">Polymenis, Michael (December 2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F468634d">"Faraday on the fiscal benefits of science"</a>, Nature, 468 (7324): 634, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.468..634P">2010Natur.468..634P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F468634d">10.1038/468634d</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21124439">21124439</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4420175">4420175</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Faraday+on+the+fiscal+benefits+of+science&rft.volume=468&rft.issue=7324&rft.pages=634&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4420175%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.468..634P&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F468634d&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21124439&rft.aulast=Polymenis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F468634d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeuer2011" class="citation journal cs2">Heuer, Rolf (February 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/journal/CERNBulletin/2011/07/News%20Articles/1327614">"One Day, Sir, You May Tax It"</a>, CERN Bulletin (7–08/2011)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CERN+Bulletin&rft.atitle=One+Day%2C+Sir%2C+You+May+Tax+It&rft.issue=7%E2%80%9308%2F2011&rft.date=2011-02&rft.aulast=Heuer&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Fjournal%2FCERNBulletin%2F2011%2F07%2FNews%2520Articles%2F1327614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkelson2000" class="citation web cs2">Mikkelson, David (25 November 2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/long-ago-and-faraday/">"Michael Faraday 'Tax' Quote"</a>, Snopes</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Snopes&rft.atitle=Michael+Faraday+%27Tax%27+Quote&rft.date=2000-11-25&rft.aulast=Mikkelson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.snopes.com%2Ffact-check%2Flong-ago-and-faraday%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Riper-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Riper_104-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Riper2002" class="citation cs2">Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002), Science in popular culture: a reference guide, Westport: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31822-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31822-0"><bdi>0-313-31822-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+popular+culture%3A+a+reference+guide&rft.place=Westport&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-313-31822-0&rft.aulast=Van+Riper&rft.aufirst=A.+Bowdoin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin1898" class="citation cs2">Benjamin, Park (1898), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryelectri01benjgoog">A history of electricity: (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin</a>, New York: J. Wiley & Sons</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+electricity%3A+%28The+intellectual+rise+in+electricity%29+from+antiquity+to+the+days+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=J.+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Benjamin&rft.aufirst=Park&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahistoryelectri01benjgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1981" class="citation cs2">Hammond, Percy (1981), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electromagnetism0000hamm/page/4">"Electromagnetism for Engineers"</a>, Nature, 168 (4262), Pergamon: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electromagnetism0000hamm/page/4">4–5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1951Natur.168....4G">1951Natur.168....4G</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F168004b0">10.1038/168004b0</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-022104-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-022104-1"><bdi>0-08-022104-1</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27576009">27576009</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Electromagnetism+for+Engineers&rft.volume=168&rft.issue=4262&rft.pages=4-5&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F168004b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27576009%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1951Natur.168....4G&rft.isbn=0-08-022104-1&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Percy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectromagnetism0000hamm%2Fpage%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorelyHughes1994" class="citation cs2">Morely, A.; Hughes, E. (1994), Principles of Electricity (5th ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-22874-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-22874-3"><bdi>0-582-22874-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Electricity&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-582-22874-3&rft.aulast=Morely&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahviJoseph1965" class="citation cs2">Nahvi, Mahmood; Joseph, Edminister (1965), Electric Circuits, McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071422413" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071422413"><bdi>978-0071422413</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Circuits&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0071422413&rft.aulast=Nahvi&rft.aufirst=Mahmood&rft.au=Joseph%2C+Edminister&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaiduKamataru1982" class="citation cs2">Naidu, M.S.; Kamataru, V. (1982), High Voltage Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-451786-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-451786-4"><bdi>0-07-451786-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Voltage+Engineering&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-07-451786-4&rft.aulast=Naidu&rft.aufirst=M.S.&rft.au=Kamataru%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNilssonRiedel2007" class="citation cs2">Nilsson, James; Riedel, Susan (2007), Electric Circuits, Prentice Hall, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-198925-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-198925-2"><bdi>978-0-13-198925-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Circuits&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-13-198925-2&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Riedel%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1999" class="citation cs2">Patterson, Walter C. (1999), Transforming Electricity: The Coming Generation of Change, Earthscan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85383-341-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-85383-341-X"><bdi>1-85383-341-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+Electricity%3A+The+Coming+Generation+of+Change&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-85383-341-X&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Walter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectricity" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Electricity" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Electricity">Electricity</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/electricity" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/electricity">electricity</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Electricity" class="extiw" title="v:Electricity">Electricity</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electricity" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Electricity">Electricity</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/DC/DC_1.html">Basic Concepts of Electricity</a> chapter from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/DC/index.html">Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC</a> book and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/">series</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n-MDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA772">"One-Hundred Years of Electricity", May 1931, Popular Mechanics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldstandards.eu/electricity/plugs-and-sockets/">Socket and plug standards</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amasci.com/miscon/elect.html">Electricity Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151201064159/http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/diode/index.html">Electricity and Magnetism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://steverose.com/Articles/UnderstandingBasicElectri.html">Understanding Electricity and Electronics in about 10 Minutes</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polarization_states35" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polarization_states" title="Template:Polarization states"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polarization_states" title="Template talk:Polarization states"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polarization_states" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polarization states"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polarization_states35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polarization states</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraelectricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraelectricity">paraelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectricity" title="Ferroelectricity">ferroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiferroelectricity" title="Antiferroelectricity">antiferroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Helielectricity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helielectricity (page does not exist)">helielectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrielectricity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferrielectricity (page does not exist)">ferrielectricity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy707" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Energy_footer" title="Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Energy_footer" title="Template talk:Energy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Energy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Energy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Energy707" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_energy_articles" title="Index of energy articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_energy" title="Outline of energy">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Units_of_energy" title="Units of energy">Units</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_condition" title="Energy condition">Energy condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">Negative mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropic_force" title="Entropic force">Entropic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_entropy" title="Free entropy">Free entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_process" title="Irreversible process">Irreversible process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">Isolated system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">Laws of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negentropy" title="Negentropy">Negentropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">Thermal equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reservoir" title="Thermal reservoir">Thermal reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Thermodynamic free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">Thermodynamic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">Thermodynamic state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">Thermodynamic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_energy" title="Elastic energy">Elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">Binding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">Interatomic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">Magnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_energy" title="Negative energy">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">Quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_potential" title="Quantum potential">Quantum potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest energy">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_energy" title="Sound energy">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_energy" title="Surface energy">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">Energy carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">Mechanical wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">Sound wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">Natural uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a> components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle" title="Integrated gasification combined cycle">Integrated gasification combined cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy" title="Airborne wind energy">Airborne wind energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use and <a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">supply</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_agriculture" title="Energy efficiency in agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_usage_effectiveness" title="Power usage effectiveness">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">Energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">Energy security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Africa" title="Energy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Australia" title="Energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada" title="Energy policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Europe" title="Energy in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico" title="Energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_South_America" title="Energy in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jevons_paradox" title="Jevons paradox">Jevons paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy_plant" title="Waste-to-energy plant">Waste-to-energy plant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Energy" title="Category:Energy">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Energy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Energy">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Energy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Energy">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12725#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1477" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12725#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1477" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12725#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4151720-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85042065">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119761570">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119761570">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561317">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119908&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538291705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639437">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=18858">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricity&oldid=1276844178">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricity&oldid=1276844178</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electric_and_magnetic_fields_in_matter" title="Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter">Electric and magnetic fields in matter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electricity" title="Category:Electricity">Electricity</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_December_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from December 2022">Use dmy dates from December 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_December_2024" title="Category:Use British English from December 2024">Use British English from December 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 February 2025, at 02:35 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electricity&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Electricity</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 170 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-75fbfdcd46-qhklf","wgBackendResponseTime":130,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.767","walltime":"2.056","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17367,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":282011,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5703,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":34,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":427080,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1750.192 1 -total"," 39.59% 692.981 2 Template:Reflist"," 29.71% 520.065 83 Template:Citation"," 12.47% 218.203 39 Template:Rp"," 12.21% 213.755 40 Template:R/superscript"," 6.25% 109.434 1 Template:Annotated_link"," 6.21% 108.762 120 Template:R/where"," 4.82% 84.310 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.81% 84.156 1 Template:Electromagnetism"," 4.69% 82.069 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.132","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18733576,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","260","21.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","16.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","6.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","40","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::test","40","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","3.3"],["\u003CModule:Citation/CS1:814\u003E","40","3.3"],["gsub","20","1.6"],["[others]","300","24.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-679bf888dd-qfd6t","timestamp":"20250225123609","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Electricity","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electricity","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12725","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12725","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-28T23:03:03Z","dateModified":"2025-02-21T02:35:16Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/20\/London_MMB_%C2%BB1E6_Lightning.jpg","headline":"physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge"}</script> </body> </html>