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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Succession_to_Muhammad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession_to_Muhammad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Succession to Muhammad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession_to_Muhammad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rashidun_caliphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rashidun_caliphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Rashidun caliphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rashidun_caliphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ali's_caliphate,_Hasan_and_the_rise_of_the_Umayyad_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ali's_caliphate,_Hasan_and_the_rise_of_the_Umayyad_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyad dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ali's_caliphate,_Hasan_and_the_rise_of_the_Umayyad_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abbasid_caliphs_at_Baghdad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_caliphs_at_Baghdad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_caliphs_at_Baghdad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_the_Mamluk_Sultanate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_the_Mamluk_Sultanate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261–1517)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_the_Mamluk_Sultanate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parallel_regional_caliphates_in_the_later_Abbasid_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parallel_regional_caliphates_in_the_later_Abbasid_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Parallel regional caliphates in the later Abbasid era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parallel_regional_caliphates_in_the_later_Abbasid_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba_(929–1031)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba_(929–1031)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3.1</span> <span>Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba_(929–1031)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almohad_Caliphate_(1147–1269)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almohad_Caliphate_(1147–1269)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3.2</span> <span>Almohad Caliphate (1147–1269)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almohad_Caliphate_(1147–1269)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatimid_Caliphate_(909–1171)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatimid_Caliphate_(909–1171)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatimid_Caliphate_(909–1171)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517–1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517–1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517–1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Caliphate_(1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_the_Caliphate_(1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Abolition of the Caliphate (1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_the_Caliphate_(1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parallel_regional_caliphates_to_the_Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parallel_regional_caliphates_to_the_Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Parallel regional caliphates to the Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parallel_regional_caliphates_to_the_Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.1</span> <span>Indian subcontinent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bornu_Caliphate_(1472–1893)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bornu_Caliphate_(1472–1893)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.2</span> <span>Bornu Caliphate (1472–1893)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bornu_Caliphate_(1472–1893)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yogyakarta_Caliphate_(1755–2015)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yogyakarta_Caliphate_(1755–2015)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.3</span> <span>Yogyakarta Caliphate (1755–2015)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yogyakarta_Caliphate_(1755–2015)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sokoto_Caliphate_(1804–1903)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sokoto_Caliphate_(1804–1903)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.4</span> <span>Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sokoto_Caliphate_(1804–1903)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toucouleur_Empire_(1848–1893)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toucouleur_Empire_(1848–1893)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.5</span> <span>Toucouleur Empire (1848–1893)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toucouleur_Empire_(1848–1893)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khilafat_Movement_(1919–1924)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khilafat_Movement_(1919–1924)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.6</span> <span>Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khilafat_Movement_(1919–1924)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sharifian_Caliphate_(1924–1931)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sharifian_Caliphate_(1924–1931)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Sharifian Caliphate (1924–1931)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sharifian_Caliphate_(1924–1931)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-political_caliphates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-political_caliphates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Non-political caliphates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-political_caliphates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sufi_caliphates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sufi_caliphates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.1</span> <span>Sufi caliphates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sufi_caliphates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ahmadiyya_Caliphate_(1908–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahmadiyya_Caliphate_(1908–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7.2</span> <span>Ahmadiyya Caliphate (1908–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahmadiyya_Caliphate_(1908–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Period_of_dormancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Period_of_dormancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Period of dormancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Period_of_dormancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abu_Issa_caliphate_(1993_–_c._2014)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abu_Issa_caliphate_(1993_–_c._2014)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Abu Issa caliphate (1993 – c. 2014)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abu_Issa_caliphate_(1993_–_c._2014)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_State_(2014–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_State_(2014–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span>Islamic State (2014–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_State_(2014–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ahmadiyya_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ahmadiyya_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.3</span> <span>Ahmadiyya view</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ahmadiyya_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamist_call" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamist_call"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.4</span> <span>Islamist call</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamist_call-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Al-Qaeda's_Caliphate_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Qaeda's_Caliphate_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.5</span> <span>Al-Qaeda's Caliphate goals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Qaeda's_Caliphate_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.6</span> <span>Opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_basis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_basis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religious basis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_basis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious basis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_basis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qur'an" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qur'an"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Qur'an</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qur'an-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hadith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hadith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>Hadith</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hadith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prophesied_caliphate_of_the_Mahdi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prophesied_caliphate_of_the_Mahdi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Prophesied caliphate of the Mahdi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prophesied_caliphate_of_the_Mahdi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Sahaba_of_Muhammad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Sahaba_of_Muhammad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The <i>Sahaba</i> of Muhammad</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Sahaba_of_Muhammad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_of_Islamic_theologians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_of_Islamic_theologians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Views of Islamic theologians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_of_Islamic_theologians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electing_or_appointing_a_caliph" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electing_or_appointing_a_caliph"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Electing or appointing a caliph</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electing_or_appointing_a_caliph-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunni_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunni_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Sunni belief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunni_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shi'a_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shi'a_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Shi'a belief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shi'a_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Majlis_al-Shura" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Majlis_al-Shura"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span><i>Majlis al-Shura</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Majlis_al-Shura-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accountability_of_rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accountability_of_rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Accountability of rulers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accountability_of_rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Rule of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_caliphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_caliphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notable caliphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_caliphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Caliphate</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 88 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-88" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">88 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaat" title="Kalifaat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="خلافة إسلامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خلافة إسلامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califatu" title="Califatu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Califatu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xilaf%C9%99t" title="Xilafət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xilafət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خیلافت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="خیلافت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%A4" title="খিলাফত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খিলাফত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifah-kok" title="Khalifah-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khalifah-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Хәлифәлек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хәлифәлек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халіфат – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Халіфат" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalipato" title="Kalipato – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kalipato" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халифат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Халифат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilafet" title="Hilafet – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hilafet" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifiezh" title="Kalifiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kalifiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat" title="Califat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Califat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chal%C3%ADf%C3%A1t" title="Chalífát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chalífát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaat" title="Kalifaat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%86%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF" title="Χαλιφάτο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χαλιφάτο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato" title="Califato – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Califato" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliflando" title="Kaliflando – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kaliflando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifa-herri" title="Kalifa-herri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kalifa-herri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خلافت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خلافت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat" title="Califat – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Califat" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A8ileafaid" title="Cèileafaid – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cèileafaid" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato" title="Califato – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Califato" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8C%8C%EA%B5%AD" title="칼리파국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="칼리파국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifofi" title="Khalifofi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Khalifofi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խալիֆայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խալիֆայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%A4" title="ख़िलाफ़त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ख़िलाफ़त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifio" title="Kalifio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kalifio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khilafah" title="Khilafah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Khilafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C3%ADfad%C3%A6mi" title="Kalífadæmi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kalífadæmi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califfato" title="Califfato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Califfato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%27%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ח'ליפות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ח'ליפות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifah" title="Khalifah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Khalifah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халифат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Халифат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xel%C3%AEfet%C3%AE" title="Xelîfetî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xelîfetî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халифат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Халифат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatus" title="Caliphatus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Caliphatus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalif%C4%81ts" title="Kalifāts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kalifāts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifatas" title="Kalifatas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalifatas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifata" title="Kalifata – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kalifata" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="ഖിലാഫത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഖിലാഫത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%A4" title="खिलाफत – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="खिलाफत" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="خلافه اسلاميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="خلافه اسلاميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khilafah" title="Khilafah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Khilafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%96%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%81%8A_%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BA" title="ကလီဖား၊ ကလစ်ဖ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကလီဖား၊ ကလစ်ဖ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaat" title="Kalifaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="イスラム帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスラム帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халифат – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Халифат" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat" title="Califat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Califat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xalifalik" title="Xalifalik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xalifalik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A4" title="ਖ਼ਿਲਾਫ਼ਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖ਼ਿਲਾਫ਼ਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خلافت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خلافت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خلافت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="خلافت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califado" title="Califado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Califado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat" title="Califat – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Califat" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халифат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Халифат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilafeti" title="Hilafeti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hilafeti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califfatu" title="Califfatu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Califfatu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خلافت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="خلافت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalif%C3%A1t" title="Kalifát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kalifát" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khilaafada_Islaamka" title="Khilaafada Islaamka – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Khilaafada Islaamka" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%95%D8%AA" title="خەلافەت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەلافەت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Калифат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Калифат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaatti" title="Kalifaatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kalifaatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat" title="Kalifat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalipato" title="Kalipato – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalipato" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கலீபகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலீபகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%8C" title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Хилофат – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хилофат" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hil%C3%A2fet" title="Hilâfet – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hilâfet" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Халіфат – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Халіфат" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="خلافت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خلافت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifah" title="Khalifah – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khalifah" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E9%87%8C%E5%8F%91%E5%9B%BD" title="哈里发国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哈里发国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98" title="כאליפאט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כאליפאט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E9%87%8C%E7%99%BC%E5%9C%8B" title="哈里發國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="哈里發國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xilafet" title="Xilafet – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Xilafet" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/250px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/375px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/500px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Main caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Parallel caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Cordoba Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a></i>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir"><i>Tafsir</i> (exegesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah"><i>Aqidah</i> (creed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya"><i>Qisas al-Anbiya</i> ("Stories of the Prophets")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a> (Poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><i>Fiqh</i> (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia"><i>Sharia</i> (law)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Proselytizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jihadism" title="Jihadism">Jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_jihadism" title="Deobandi jihadism">Deobandi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.5em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam" title="Template:Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam" title="Template talk:Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;">Basic forms of <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <p><a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">List of forms of government</a> </p> <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government" title="List of countries by system of government">List of countries by system of government</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Source of power</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> <span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Polyarchy" title="Polyarchy">rule by many</a>)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Demarchy">Demarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_democracy" title="Socialist democracy">Socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_democracy" title="Types of democracy">Others</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <span class="nobold">(rule by few)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anocracy" title="Anocracy">Anocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kritarchy" title="Kritarchy">Kritarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noocracy" title="Noocracy">Noocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particracy" title="Particracy">Particracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratocracy" title="Stratocracy">Stratocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a> <span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Monocracy" title="Monocracy">rule by one</a>)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">Military dictatorship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a> <span class="nobold">(rule by none)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_(Marxism_and_anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free association (Marxism and anarchism)">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">Stateless</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Power ideology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republic</a></li></ul></div> <span class="nobold">(socio-political ideologies)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_republic" title="Semi-presidential republic">Semi-presidential</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li></ul></div> <span class="nobold">(socio-economic ideologies)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">Tribalism</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>Religious</li><li>Secular</li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">Secular state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">Local</a></li></ul></div> <span class="nobold">(geo-cultural ideologies)</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organisation">Intergovernmental organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">National government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Power structure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">Principality</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">Client state</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associated_state" title="Associated state">Associated state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">Dominion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">Puppet state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puppet_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet monarch">Puppet monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">Satellite state</a></li> <li><a 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noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Basic_forms_of_government" title="Template:Basic forms of government"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Basic_forms_of_government" title="Template talk:Basic forms of government"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Basic_forms_of_government" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Basic forms of government"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>caliphate</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خِلَافَةْ</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khilāfah</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[xi'laːfah]</a></span>) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with <a href="/wiki/Khalifa" title="Khalifa">the title</a> of <b>caliph</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>-/</a></span></span>; <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خَلِيفَةْ</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khalīfa</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[xæ'liːfæh]</a></span>, <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/67\/Ar-khalifa.ogg\/Ar-khalifa.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"pronunciation"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ar-khalifa.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Ar-khalifa.ogg/Ar-khalifa.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">pronunciation</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ar-khalifa.ogg" title="File:Ar-khalifa.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and a leader of the entire <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the caliphates were <a href="/wiki/Polities" class="mw-redirect" title="Polities">polities</a> based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> (632–661), the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> (661–750), and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman caliphate was formally <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">abolished</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_reforms" title="Atatürk's reforms">1924 secularisation of Turkey</a>. An attempt to preserve the title was tried, with the <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a>, but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Nejd" title="Sultanate of Nejd">Sultanate of Nejd</a> (current <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>), leaving the claim in <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Period_of_dormancy">dormancy</a>. Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchies</a>, have claimed to be caliphates. </p><p>Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shiites</a>, however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a> (the "Household of the Prophet"). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shiites, like the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">war on terror</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title <span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Malik" title="Malik">malik</a></i></span> 'king', or another from the same <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>caliph</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) derives from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word <span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Khal%C4%ABfah" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalīfah">khalīfah</a></i></span> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خَليفة</span></span>, <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/67\/Ar-khalifa.ogg\/Ar-khalifa.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"pronunciation"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ar-khalifa.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Ar-khalifa.ogg/Ar-khalifa.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">pronunciation</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ar-khalifa.ogg" title="File:Ar-khalifa.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy'—and has traditionally been considered a shortening of <span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Khalīfah rasūl Allāh</i></span> 'successor of the messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashidun_Caliphate_(632–661)"><span id="Rashidun_Caliphate_.28632.E2.80.93661.29"></span>Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Succession_to_Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saqifah" class="mw-redirect" title="Saqifah">Saqifah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></div> <p>In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the <a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a> (natives of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>) took place in the <i>Saqifah</i> (courtyard) of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Sa%27ida" title="Banu Sa'ida">Banu Sa'ida</a> clan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrickWalker20143_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrickWalker20143-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Muslim community</a> among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Muhajirun" title="Muhajirun">Muhajirun</a> (migrants from <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>), though this has later become the subject of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ubaidah_ibn_al-Jarrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah">Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah</a>, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.<sup id="cite_ref-MandelungP32_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MandelungP32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>, initially refused to acknowledge his authority.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theologian <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nakha%27i" title="Ibrahim al-Nakha'i">Ibrahim al-Nakha'i</a> stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Umar_at_Fatimah%27s_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar at Fatimah's house">an altercation</a> which may have involved violence.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rashidun_caliphs">Rashidun caliphs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/220px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/330px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/440px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent under Uthman</figcaption></figure> <p>Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian slave called <a href="/wiki/Abu_Lu%27lu%27a_Firuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz">Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz</a>. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors (<a href="/wiki/Majlis" title="Majlis">majlis</a>). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Abd-al-Rahman_ibn_Muljam" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam">Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Khawarij" class="mw-redirect" title="Khawarij">Khawarij</a>. Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">Fitna</a>, or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali.<sup id="cite_ref-econ1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-econ1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect. </p><p>Under the Rāshidun, each region (<a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultanate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilayah" title="Wilayah">Wilayah</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">Emirate</a>) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, <a href="/wiki/Vali_(governor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vali (governor)">Wāli</a> or <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emir</a>). <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muāwiyah</a>, a relative of Uthman and governor (<i>wali</i>) of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">hereditary</a> office, thus founding the Umayyad <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a>. </p><p>In areas which were previously under <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> or <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Byzantine–Persian warfare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ali's_caliphate,_Hasan_and_the_rise_of_the_Umayyad_dynasty"><span id="Ali.27s_caliphate.2C_Hasan_and_the_rise_of_the_Umayyad_dynasty"></span>Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyad dynasty</h4></div> <p>Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Companions of Muhammad">companions</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin" title="Battle of Siffin">Battle of Siffin</a>. The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a>, to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahrawan" title="Battle of Nahrawan">Battle of Nahrawan</a>, Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan</a> was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the Umayyad dynasty,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, <a href="/wiki/Umayya_ibn_Abd_Shams" title="Umayya ibn Abd Shams">Umayya ibn Abd Shams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate_(661–750)"><span id="Umayyad_Caliphate_.28661.E2.80.93750.29"></span>Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/400px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/600px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/800px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The caliphate, 622–750 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a1584e; color:white;"> </span> Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ef9070; color:black;"> </span> Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632–661</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fad07d; color:black;"> </span> Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and most of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) into the Muslim world.<sup id="cite_ref-:024_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:024-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km<sup>2</sup>), making it the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire</a> the world had yet seen and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Empires_at_their_greatest_extent" title="List of largest empires">seventh largest ever to exist</a> in history.<sup id="cite_ref-Blankinship_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blankinship-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by <a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shura</a> and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some supported prominent early Muslims like <a href="/wiki/Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam" title="Zubayr ibn al-Awwam">Zubayr ibn al-Awwam</a>; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a>, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between <a href="/wiki/Qays_and_Yaman_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qays and Yaman tribes">Yaman and Qays</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan killed Ali's son <a href="/wiki/Hussein_ibn_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussein ibn Ali">Hussein</a> and his family at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a> in 680, solidifying the <a href="/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations" title="Shia–Sunni relations">Shia-Sunni split</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-econ1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-econ1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the <i>Shi‘at ‘Alī</i>, "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a> took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, <a href="/wiki/%E2%80%98Abbas_ibn_%E2%80%98Abd_al-Muttalib" class="mw-redirect" title="‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib">‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib</a> and not from Ali.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid_Caliphate_(750–1517)"><span id="Abbasid_Caliphate_.28750.E2.80.931517.29"></span>Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abbasid_caliphs_at_Baghdad">Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/170px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/255px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg/340px-Mustansiriya_University_CPT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_Madrasah" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya Madrasah</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Meccan</a> origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their major city and capital <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">sack of Baghdad</a> by the Mongols under <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a>. The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 945, the loss of power became official when the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyids</a> conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the ninth century, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a> created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until <a href="/wiki/Ar-Radi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ar-Radi">Ar-Radi</a> (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ra%27iq" title="Muhammad ibn Ra'iq">Muhammad ibn Ra'iq</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Under_the_Mamluk_Sultanate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)"><span id="Under_the_Mamluk_Sultanate_of_Cairo_.281261.E2.80.931517.29"></span>Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261–1517)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></div> <p>In 1261, following the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Baghdad" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Baghdad">Mongol conquest of Baghdad</a>, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">Al-Mustansir</a> (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">Al-Mutawakkil III</a>, who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">Al-Mustamsik</a>, but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parallel_regional_caliphates_in_the_later_Abbasid_era">Parallel regional caliphates in the later Abbasid era</h4></div> <p>The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century. </p><p>The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Umayyad_Caliphate_of_Córdoba_(929–1031)"><span id="Umayyad_Caliphate_of_C.C3.B3rdoba_.28929.E2.80.931031.29"></span>Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/220px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/330px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg/440px-Califato_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_-_1000-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Umayyad dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a> became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. </p><p>Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a> was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">Al-Mu'tadid</a>, Abd al-Rahman III claimed the title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into various <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a> in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of the buildings of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> were constructed in this period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Almohad_Caliphate_(1147–1269)"><span id="Almohad_Caliphate_.281147.E2.80.931269.29"></span>Almohad Caliphate (1147–1269)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_almohade.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/220px-Empire_almohade.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/330px-Empire_almohade.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/440px-Empire_almohade.PNG 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>The Almohad empire at its greatest extent, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1180–1212</figcaption></figure> <p>The Almohad Caliphate (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a>: <i lang="ber">Imweḥḥden</i>, from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الموحدون</span></span> <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Muwaḥḥidun</i></span></i>, "<a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">the Monotheists</a>" or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> movement founded in the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-brit1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brit1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Almohad movement was started by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumart" title="Ibn Tumart">Ibn Tumart</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Masmuda" title="Masmuda">Masmuda</a> tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established a Berber state in <a href="/wiki/Tinmel" title="Tinmel">Tinmel</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a> in roughly 1120.<sup id="cite_ref-brit1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brit1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a> in governing Morocco by 1147, when <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Mu%27min" title="Abd al-Mu'min">Abd al-Mu'min</a> (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Nasir" title="Muhammad al-Nasir">Muhammad al-Nasir</a> (1199–1214) was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosa" title="Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa">Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Morena" title="Sierra Morena">Sierra Morena</a> by an alliance of the Christian princes of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Nearly all of the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively. </p><p>The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the <a href="/wiki/Marinid_dynasty" title="Marinid dynasty">Marinid dynasty</a>, in 1215.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The last representative of the line, <a href="/wiki/Idris_al-Wathiq" title="Idris al-Wathiq">Idris al-Wathiq</a>, was reduced to the possession of <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatimid_Caliphate_(909–1171)"><span id="Fatimid_Caliphate_.28909.E2.80.931171.29"></span>Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fatimid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fatimid.jpg/220px-Fatimid.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fatimid.jpg/330px-Fatimid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Fatimid.jpg/440px-Fatimid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3466" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Fatimid Caliphate at its largest extent in the early eleventh century</figcaption></figure> <p>The Fatimid Caliphate was an <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ili Shi'i</a> caliphate, originally based in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, that extended its rule across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean coast</a> of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, Sicily, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>. </p><p>The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of <a href="/wiki/Mahdia,_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdia, Tunisia">Mahdia</a> and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building the city of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar <a href="/wiki/Louis_Massignon" title="Louis Massignon">Louis Massignon</a> dubbed the fourth century AH /tenth century CE as the "<a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Ismaili</a> century in the history of Islam".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>Fatimite</i> is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Ismaili_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Ismaili doctrine)">Ismaili imams</a> and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wife <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fatima</a>) and the caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> himself. </p><p>The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_people" title="Maltese people">Maltese Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Copts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Shiʻa <a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_al-Mahdi_Billah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah">Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a>, who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171 and was overtaken by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Baer_1983_xxiii_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baer_1983_xxiii-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Caliphate_(1517–1924)"><span id="Ottoman_Caliphate_.281517.E2.80.931924.29"></span>Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpireMain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/220px-OttomanEmpireMain.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/330px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/OttomanEmpireMain.png/440px-OttomanEmpireMain.png 2x" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="2581" /></a><figcaption>The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1683, under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg/220px-Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg/330px-Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg/440px-Halife_Abd%C3%BClmecid_Efendi_ve_k%C4%B1z%C4%B1_D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid II</a>, the last caliph of Sunni Islam from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a>, with his daughter <a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCrr%C3%BC%C5%9Fehvar_Sultan" title="Dürrüşehvar Sultan">Dürrüşehvar Sultan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The caliphate was claimed by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">sultans of the Ottoman Empire</a> beginning with <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> (reigned 1362 to 1389),<sup id="cite_ref-Lambton_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambton-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>. In 1453, after <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquest of Constantinople</a>, the seat of the Ottomans moved to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire.<sup id="cite_ref-BritCal_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritCal-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sourdel_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sourdel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the <i>de facto</i> leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However, the earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage.<sup id="cite_ref-Sourdel_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sourdel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Karpat_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karpat-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-osmansdream_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osmansdream-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The outcome of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774</a> was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, were lost to the Russian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-osmansdream_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osmansdream-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Ottomans under <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_I" title="Abdul Hamid I">Abdul Hamid I</a> claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became the official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory.<sup id="cite_ref-osmansdream_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osmansdream-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in 1774, when the Empire retained <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a> on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-osmansdream_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osmansdream-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> would tactfully affirm the Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a> to comply with the British government.<sup id="cite_ref-Qureshi1999_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qureshi1999-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> and Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid I">Abdulmejid I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Qureshi1999_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qureshi1999-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1880, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims of <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1899, <a href="/wiki/John_Hay" title="John Hay">John Hay</a>, U.S. Secretary of State, asked the American ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Straus_(politician)" title="Oscar Straus (politician)">Oscar Straus</a>, to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the <a href="/wiki/Taus%C5%ABg_people" title="Tausūg people">Tausūg people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> in the Philippines to submit to American <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty."<sup id="cite_ref-Karpat2001_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karpat2001-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yegar2002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yegar2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abolition_of_the_Caliphate_(1924)"><span id="Abolition_of_the_Caliphate_.281924.29"></span>Abolition of the Caliphate (1924)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">Abolition of the Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_reforms" title="Atatürk's reforms">Atatürk's reforms</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Caliphate" title="Special:EditPage/Caliphate">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Caliphate%22">"Caliphate"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Caliphate%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Caliphate%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Caliphate%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Caliphate%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Caliphate%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/260px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/390px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/520px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Official portrait of <a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid II</a> as caliph</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks collapsible" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;font-size:88%; line-height:200%"><span style="font-size:115%;"><span class="nobold">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islamism" title="Category:Islamism">a series</a> on</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:230%;"><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamism" title="History of Islamism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism" class="mw-redirect" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism">International propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism_by_region" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region">Salafism by country/region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_movement" title="Deobandi movement">Deobandi movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_jihadism" title="Deobandi jihadism">Deobandi jihadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Principlism_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Principlism in Iran">Shia Islamism</a><br /></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism" title="Islamic fundamentalism">Islamic fundamentalism</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy in Islam</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Takfir" title="Takfir">Takfir</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_governance" title="Islamic governance">Islamic governance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic democracy">Islamic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Islamic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_monarchy" title="Islamic monarchy">Islamic monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_knowledge" title="Islamization of knowledge">of knowledge</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihadism" title="Jihadism">Jihadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Islam" title="Political Islam">Political Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">aspects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shura</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-nation_theory" title="Two-nation theory">Two-nation theory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Influences</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revival</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"><b>Scholastic</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawat-e-Islami" title="Dawat-e-Islami">Dawat-e-Islami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madkhalism" title="Madkhalism">Madkhalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_movement" title="Nur movement">Nurcu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahwa_movement" title="Sahwa movement">Sahwa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism" class="mw-redirect" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism">International propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism_by_region" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region">by country/region</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Political</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hizb_ut-Tahrir" title="Hizb ut-Tahrir">Hizb ut-Tahrir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami" title="Jamaat-e-Islami">Jamaat-e-Islami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafist_Call" title="Salafist Call">Salafist Call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafist_Front" title="Salafist Front">Salafist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill%C3%AE_G%C3%B6r%C3%BC%C5%9F" title="Millî Görüş">Millî Görüş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehreek-e-Labbaik_Pakistan" title="Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan">Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_political_parties" title="List of Islamic political parties">List of Islamic political parties</a></li></ul> <p><b>Militant</b> </p> <ul><li>Militant Islamism based in <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Militant_Islamism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Template:Militant Islamism in the Middle East">MENA region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Militant_Islamism_in_South_Asia" title="Template:Militant Islamism in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Militant_Islamism_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Template:Militant Islamism in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Militant_Islamism_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Template:Militant Islamism in Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Key texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Caliphate_or_the_Supreme_Imamate_(book)" title="The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate (book)">The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Rashid_Rida" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Rashid Rida">Rashīd Rīďha 1922</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Reconstruction_of_Religious_Thought_in_Islam" title="The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam">Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal 1930s</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_State_and_Government_in_Islam" title="The Principles of State and Government in Islam">Principles of State and Government</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Asad" title="Muhammad Asad">Asad 1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milestones_(book)" title="Milestones (book)"><i>Ma'alim fi al-Tariq</i> ("Milestones")</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb 1965</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Government:_Governance_of_the_Jurist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist"><i>Islamic Government: <br />Governance of the Jurist</i> ("Velayat-e faqih")</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini 1970</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Heads of state</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir" title="Omar al-Bashir">Omar al-Bashir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan" title="Recep Tayyip Erdoğan">Recep Tayyip Erdoğan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Morsi" title="Mohamed Morsi">Mohamed Morsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zia_ul-Haq" class="mw-redirect" title="Zia ul-Haq">Zia ul-Haq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mohammed Omar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">House of Saud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Thani" title="House of Thani">House of Thani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibatullah_Akhundzada" title="Hibatullah Akhundzada">Hibatullah Akhundzada</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Key ideologues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hamza_al-Masri" title="Abu Hamza al-Masri">Abu Hamza al-Masri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Afgh%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī">Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Hussain_Ahmad" title="Qazi Hussain Ahmad">Qazi Hussain Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Nasiruddin_al-Albani" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani">Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Asad" title="Muhammad Asad">Muhammad Asad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna" title="Hassan al-Banna">Hassan al-Banna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rached_Ghannouchi" title="Rached Ghannouchi">Rached Ghannouchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safwat_Hegazi" title="Safwat Hegazi">Safwat Hegazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necip_Faz%C4%B1l_K%C4%B1sak%C3%BCrek" title="Necip Fazıl Kısakürek">Necip Fazıl Kısakürek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_A%27la_Maududi" title="Abul A'la Maududi">Abul A'la Maududi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Hasan_Nadwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Hasan Nadwi">Abul Hasan Nadwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_al-Nabhani" title="Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani">Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Qaradawi" title="Yusuf al-Qaradawi">Yusuf al-Qaradawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Sayyid Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Ramadan" title="Tariq Ramadan">Tariq Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_Abu_Rashta" title="Ata Abu Rashta">Ata Abu Rashta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navvab_Safavi" title="Navvab Safavi">Navvab Safavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Ali Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Shariatullah" title="Haji Shariatullah">Haji Shariatullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Al-Turabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan Al-Turabi">Hassan Al-Turabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Yassin" title="Ahmed Yassin">Ahmed Yassin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Criticism of Islamism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism of Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberal and reform movements within Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_and_progressive_Islam_in_Europe" title="Liberal and progressive Islam in Europe">in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_and_progressive_Islam_in_North_America" title="Liberal and progressive Islam in North America">in North America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Abu_al-Fadl" class="mw-redirect" title="Khaled Abu al-Fadl">Khaled Abu al-Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farag_Foda" title="Farag Foda">Farag Foda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdelwahab_Meddeb" title="Abdelwahab Meddeb">Abdelwahab Meddeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryam_Namazie" title="Maryam Namazie">Maryam Namazie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maajid_Nawaaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Maajid Nawaaz">Maajid Nawaaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Harris_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam Harris (author)">Sam Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivier_Roy_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivier Roy (professor)">Olivier Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassam_Tibi" title="Bassam Tibi">Bassam Tibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Sa%27id_al-Ashmawi" title="Muhammad Sa'id al-Ashmawi">Muhammad Sa'id al-Ashmawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Kepel" title="Gilles Kepel">Gilles Kepel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiraz_Maher" title="Shiraz Maher">Shiraz Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Ranstorp" title="Magnus Ranstorp">Magnus Ranstorp</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#CEF2CE;;background:#E6FFE6;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_modernity" title="Islam and modernity">Islam and modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Modernism">Modernism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Islam and other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamism_sidebar" title="Template:Islamism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Islamism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros" title="Armistice of Mudros">Armistice of Mudros</a> of October 1918 with the military <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Constantinople">occupation of Constantinople</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a> (August 1920) which imposed the <a href="/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire">partitioning of the Ottoman Empire</a> and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922. </p><p>On 3 March 1924, the first <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Turkey" title="List of presidents of Turkey">president of the Turkish Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a>, as part of <a href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atatürk's Reforms">his reforms</a>, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-BritCal_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritCal-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atatürk offered the caliphate to <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Sharif_as-Senussi" title="Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi">Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi</a>, on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for <a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖzoğlu20115;_Özoğlu_quotes_867.00/1801:_[[Mark_Lambert_Bristol]]_on_19_August_1924_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖzoğlu20115;_Özoğlu_quotes_867.00/1801:_[[Mark_Lambert_Bristol]]_on_19_August_1924-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title was then <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">claimed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_Sharif_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca">Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Saud" title="Ibn Saud">ibn Saud</a> in 1925. </p><p>Egyptian scholar <a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdel_Raziq" title="Ali Abdel Raziq">Ali Abdel Raziq</a> published his 1925 book <i>Islam and the Foundations of Governance</i>. The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-sage2011_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sage2011-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A summit was convened at <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title <i>Ameer al-Mumineen</i> was adopted by the King of Morocco and by <a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mohammed Omar</a>, former head of the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include <a href="/wiki/Hizb_ut-Tahrir" title="Hizb ut-Tahrir">Hizb ut-Tahrir</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Justice_and_Development_Party_(Turkey)" title="Justice and Development Party (Turkey)">AKP</a> government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adopted <a href="/wiki/Neo-Ottomanism" title="Neo-Ottomanism">Neo-Ottomanist</a> policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore the caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parallel_regional_caliphates_to_the_Ottomans">Parallel regional caliphates to the Ottomans</h4></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_rulers_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg/260px-Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Hafiz Muhiuddin <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>, unlike his predecessors, was considered to be a caliph of India.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_campaigns_in_India" title="Umayyad campaigns in India">Umayyad campaigns in India</a> and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by the <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a>. The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> was already observing the caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as the <i>Dar-ul-khilafat</i> ("abode of the caliphate") since the time of the third emperor <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a> like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "great <i>sultan</i>, the exalted <i>khalifah</i>". Although the Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honor them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter to <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fifth emperor <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a> also laid claim to the Caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received support from the <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman sultans</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire">Suleiman II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a>. As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> in South Asia via his <a href="/wiki/Fatawa_%27Alamgiri" title="Fatawa 'Alamgiri">Fatawa 'Alamgiri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He re-introduced <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included the sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph, <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar bin Khattab</a>, and Kurdish conqueror <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Alam_II" title="Shah Alam II">Shah Alam II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other notable rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Bakhtiyar_Khalji" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji">Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Khilji" class="mw-redirect" title="Alauddin Khilji">Alauddin Khilji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firuz_Shah_Tughlaq" title="Firuz Shah Tughlaq">Firuz Shah Tughlaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamsuddin_Ilyas_Shah" title="Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah">Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sher_Shah_Suri" title="Sher Shah Suri">Sher Shah Suri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasir_I_of_Kalat" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir I of Kalat">Nasir I of Kalat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nawabs_of_Bengal" title="Nawabs of Bengal">Nawabs of Bengal</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Salimullah" title="Khwaja Salimullah">Khwaja Salimullah</a> were popularly given the term <i>khalifa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bornu_Caliphate_(1472–1893)"><span id="Bornu_Caliphate_.281472.E2.80.931893.29"></span>Bornu Caliphate (1472–1893)</h5></div> <p>The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger <a href="/wiki/Kanem-Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem-Bornu Empire">Kanem-Bornu Empire</a>, its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Nigeria">Colony of Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Cameroon" class="mw-redirect" title="British Cameroon">Northern Cameroons Protectorate</a>. The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became the 'emirs of Bornu', another step down. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Yogyakarta_Caliphate_(1755–2015)"><span id="Yogyakarta_Caliphate_.281755.E2.80.932015.29"></span>Yogyakarta Caliphate (1755–2015)</h5></div> <p>The Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">sultan of Yogyakarta</a> historically used <i>Khalifatullah</i> (Caliph of God) as one of his many titles. In 2015 sultan <a href="/wiki/Hamengkubuwono_X" title="Hamengkubuwono X">Hamengkubuwono X</a> renounced any claim to the caliphate to facilitate his <a href="/wiki/Princess_Mangkubumi" title="Princess Mangkubumi">daughter's</a> inheritance of the throne, as the theological opinion of the time was that a woman may hold the secular office of sultan but not the spiritual office of caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sokoto_Caliphate_(1804–1903)"><span id="Sokoto_Caliphate_.281804.E2.80.931903.29"></span>Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> was an Islamic state in what is now <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Usman dan Fodio</a>. Founded during the <a href="/wiki/Fulani_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulani War">Fulani War</a> in the early nineteenth century, it controlled one of the most powerful empires in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> prior to European conquest and colonisation culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Wars" title="Adamawa Wars">Adamawa Wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kano" title="Battle of Kano">Battle of Kano</a>. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The current head of the Sokoto Caliphate is <a href="/wiki/Sa%27adu_Abubakar" title="Sa'adu Abubakar">Sa'adu Abubakar</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Toucouleur_Empire_(1848–1893)"><span id="Toucouleur_Empire_.281848.E2.80.931893.29"></span>Toucouleur Empire (1848–1893)</h5></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Toucouleur_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Toucouleur Empire">Toucouleur Empire</a>, also known as the Tukular Empire, was one of the Fulani jihad states in sub-saharan Africa. It was eventually pacified and annexed by the <a href="/wiki/French_Colonial_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="French Colonial Empire">French Republic</a>, being incorporated into <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Khilafat_Movement_(1919–1924)"><span id="Khilafat_Movement_.281919.E2.80.931924.29"></span>Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Khilafat_Movement" title="Khilafat Movement">Khilafat Movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Khilafat_Movement" title="Khilafat Movement">Khilafat Movement</a> was launched by Muslims in <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a> in 1920 to defend the Ottoman Caliphate <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">at the end of the First World War</a> and it spread throughout the British colonial territories. It was strong in British India where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Jouhar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Ali Jouhar">Mohammad Ali Jouhar</a>, his brother Shawkat Ali and <a href="/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mukhtar_Ahmed_Ansari" title="Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari">Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari</a>, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it was supported by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi</a>, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the movement lost its momentum after the abolition of the caliphate in 1924. After further arrests and flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organisation, the Movement eventually died down and disbanded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sharifian_Caliphate_(1924–1931)"><span id="Sharifian_Caliphate_.281924.E2.80.931931.29"></span>Sharifian Caliphate (1924–1931)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hejaz-English.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hejaz-English.jpg/220px-Hejaz-English.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hejaz-English.jpg/330px-Hejaz-English.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hejaz-English.jpg/440px-Hejaz-English.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Map with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Kingdom of Hejaz</a> (that became the <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a>) in green and the current region in red.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Sharifian Caliphate</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خلافة شريفية</span>) was an Arab caliphate proclaimed by the <a href="/wiki/Sharif_of_Mecca" title="Sharif of Mecca">Sharifian rulers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a> in 1924 previously known as <a href="/wiki/Hejaz_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hejaz Vilayet">Vilayet Hejaz</a>, declaring independence from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>. The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate had been floating around since at least the fifteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, it represented the culmination of a long struggle to reclaim the caliphate from Ottoman hands. The first Arab revolts challenging the validity of the Ottoman caliphate and demanding that an Arab <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a> be chosen as caliph can be traced back to 1883 when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seized <a href="/wiki/Sanaa" title="Sanaa">Sanaa</a> and called for the caliphate as a Sayyid.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">end of the Ottoman caliphate</a>, abolished by the <a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalists</a>, that Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed caliph in March 1924. His stance towards the Ottoman caliphate was ambiguous, and while he was hostile to it,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he preferred to wait for its official abolition before assuming the title, so as not to break the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> by creating a second caliph alongside the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman caliph</a>. He also supported financially the late Ottoman dynasty in exile, to avoid them being ruined.<sup id="cite_ref-:25_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His caliphate was opposed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he received support from a large part of the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim population</a> at the time,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:222_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:222-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as from <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:122_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:122-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he lost the Hejaz and was exiled, then imprisoned by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> on <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hussein continued to use the title until his death in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-political_caliphates">Non-political caliphates</h3></div> <p>Though non-political, some <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">orders</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khalifatul_Masih" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalifatul Masih">Ahmadiyya movement</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to as <i>khalifas</i> (caliphs). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sufi_caliphates">Sufi caliphates</h4></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">tariqas</a> (orders) are led by spiritual leaders (<i>khilafah ruhaniyyah</i>), the main khalifas, who nominate local khalifas to organise <a href="/wiki/Zaouia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaouia">zaouias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sufi caliphates are not necessarily hereditary. Khalifas are aimed to serve the <i>silsilah</i> in relation to spiritual responsibilities and to propagate the teachings of the tariqa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ahmadiyya_Caliphate_(1908–present)"><span id="Ahmadiyya_Caliphate_.281908.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Ahmadiyya Caliphate (1908–present)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Caliphate" title="Ahmadiyya Caliphate">Ahmadiyya Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg/300px-Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg/450px-Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg/600px-Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya_1-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Black_Standard#Ahmadiyya_flag" title="Black Standard">Ahmadiyya flag</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS"><span title="The anchor (Ahmadiyya flag) has been deleted. (2024-08-03)">broken anchor</span></a></i>]</sup>, first designed in 1939, during the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Basheer-ud-Din_Mahmood_Ahmad" title="Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad">Second Caliph</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is a self-proclaimed Islamic revivalist movement founded in 1889 by <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qadian" title="Qadian">Qadian</a>, India, who claimed to be the promised <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Messiah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a>, awaited by Muslims. He also claimed to be a follower-<a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a> subordinate to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The group are traditionally shunned by the majority of Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Ahmad's death in 1908, his first successor, <a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Noor-ud-Din" title="Hakeem Noor-ud-Din">Hakeem Noor-ud-Din</a>, became the caliph of the community and assumed the title of <i>Khalifatul Masih</i> (Successor or Caliph of the Messiah).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After Hakeem Noor-ud-Din, the first caliph, the title of the Ahmadiyya caliph continued under <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Basheer-ud-Din_Mahmood_Ahmad" title="Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad">Mirza Mahmud Ahmad</a>, who led the community for over 50 years. Following him were <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Nasir_Ahmad" title="Mirza Nasir Ahmad">Mirza Nasir Ahmad</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Tahir_Ahmad" title="Mirza Tahir Ahmad">Mirza Tahir Ahmad</a> who were the third and fourth caliphs respectively.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The current caliph is <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Masroor_Ahmad" title="Mirza Masroor Ahmad">Mirza Masroor Ahmad</a>, who lives in London.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Period_of_dormancy">Period of dormancy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revival</a></div> <p>Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry among Muslim rulers, the caliphate lay dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the majority of Muslims, the caliph, as leader of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>, "is cherished both as memory and ideal"<sup id="cite_ref-reun_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reun-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> is reported to have prophesied: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Prophethood will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain, then Allah will raise it up whenever he wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood remaining with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, He will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a reign of violently oppressive rule and it will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, there will be a reign of tyrannical rule and it will remain for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, Allah will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Then, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>As-Silsilah As-Sahihah, vol. 1, no. 5</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abu_Issa_caliphate_(1993_–_c._2014)"><span id="Abu_Issa_caliphate_.281993_.E2.80.93_c._2014.29"></span>Abu Issa caliphate (1993 – c. 2014)</h4></div> <p>A contemporary effort to re-establish the caliphate by supporters of armed jihad that predates <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi">Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> and was much less successful, was "the forgotten caliphate" of Muhammad bin ʿIssa bin Musa al Rifaʿi ("known to his followers as Abu ʿIssa").<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "microcaliphate" was founded on 3 April 1993 on the Pakistan–Afghanistan border, when Abu Issa's small number of "<a href="/wiki/Afghan_Arabs" title="Afghan Arabs">Afghan Arabs</a>" followers swore loyalty (<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">bay'ah</a></i></span>) to him.<sup id="cite_ref-wood-153_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wood-153-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abu Issa, was born in the city of <a href="/wiki/Zarqa" title="Zarqa">Zarqa</a>, Jordan and like his followers had come to Afghanistan to wage jihad against the Soviets. Unlike them he had ancestors in the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>, a traditional requirement for a caliph. The caliphate was ostensibly an attempt to unite the many other jihadis who were not his followers and who were quarrelling among each other. It was not successful.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abu Issa's efforts to compel them to unite under his command were met "with mockery and then force". Local Afghans also despised him and his followers. Like the later Islamic State he tried to abolish infidel currency and rejected nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-wood-153_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wood-153-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to scholar Kevin Jackson, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Abu ʿIssa issued 'sad and funny' fatwas, as Abu al-Walid puts it, notably sanctioning the use of drugs. A nexus had been forged between [Abu Issa's group] and local drug smugglers. (The fatwa led one jihadist author to dismiss Abu Issa as the 'caliph of the Muslims among drug traffickers and takfir') Abu ʿIssa also prohibited the use of paper currency and ordered his men to burn their passports.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The territory under his control "did not extend beyond a few small towns" in Afghanistan's <a href="/wiki/Kunar_Province" title="Kunar Province">Kunar</a> province. Eventually he did not even control this area after the Taliban took it over in the late 1990s. The caliphate then moved to London, where they "preach[ed] to a mostly skeptical jihadi intelligentsia about the obligation of establishing a caliphate".<sup id="cite_ref-wood-155_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wood-155-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They succeeded in attracting some jihadis (<a href="/wiki/Yahya_al-Bahrumi" title="Yahya al-Bahrumi">Yahya al-Bahrumi</a>, Abu Umar al Kuwaiti) who later joined the Islamic State. Abu Issa died in 2014, "after spending most of his final years in prison in London".<sup id="cite_ref-wood-155_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wood-155-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abu Umar al Kuwaiti became a judge for the Islamic state but was later executed for extremism after he "took <a href="/wiki/Takfir" title="Takfir">takfir</a> to new levels ... pronouncing death sentences for apostasy on those who were ignorant of scripture – and then pronouncing takfir on those too reluctant to pronounce takfir."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_State_(2014–present)"><span id="Islamic_State_.282014.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Islamic State (2014–present)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Islamic_State" title="List of leaders of the Islamic State">List of leaders of the Islamic State</a></div><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png/210px-Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png/315px-Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png/420px-Territoires_de_l%27Etat_islamique_juin_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="4501" data-file-height="3439" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">ISIL</a>'s territory, in grey, at the time of its greatest territorial extent in May 2015</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Libyan_Civil_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Libyan_Civil_War.png/210px-Libyan_Civil_War.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Libyan_Civil_War.png/315px-Libyan_Civil_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Libyan_Civil_War.png/420px-Libyan_Civil_War.png 2x" data-file-width="1597" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption>Military situation in Libya in early 2016:<br /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_dot_grey.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Location_dot_grey.svg/11px-Location_dot_grey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Location_dot_grey.svg/17px-Location_dot_grey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Location_dot_grey.svg/22px-Location_dot_grey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ansar_al-Sharia_(Libya)" title="Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)">Ansar al-Sharia</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Location_dot_black.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Location_dot_black.svg/11px-Location_dot_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Location_dot_black.svg/17px-Location_dot_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Location_dot_black.svg/22px-Location_dot_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The group <a href="/wiki/Tanzim_Qaidat_al-Jihad_fi_Bilad_al-Rafidayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn">Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn (Al-Qaeda in Iraq)</a> formed as an affiliate of <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a> network of <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> militants during the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a>. The group eventually expanded into <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and rose to prominence as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>. In the summer of 2014, the group launched the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Iraq_offensive_(June_2014)" title="Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)">Northern Iraq offensive</a>, seizing the city of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The group declared itself a caliphate under <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi">Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</a> on 29 June 2014 and renamed itself as the "Islamic State".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ISIL's claim to be the highest authority of Muslims has been widely rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No prominent Muslim scholar has supported its declaration of caliphate; even <a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi-jihadist</a> preachers accused the group of engaging in political showmanship and bringing disrepute to the notion of Islamic state.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ISIL has been at war with armed forces including the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Army">Iraqi Army</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">Free Syrian Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Nusra_Front" title="Al-Nusra Front">Al-Nusra Front</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">Peshmerga</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Protection_Units" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Protection Units">People's Protection Units</a> (YPG) along with a 60 nation coalition in its efforts to establish a <i>de facto</i> state on Iraqi and Syrian territory.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its height in 2014, the Islamic State held "about a third of Syria and 40 percent of Iraq". By December 2017 it had lost 95% of that territory, including <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, Iraq's second largest city, and the northern Syrian city of <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, its "capital".<sup id="cite_ref-Timeline-WC-2019_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timeline-WC-2019-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its caliph, Al-Baghdadi, was killed in a raid by U.S. forces on 26 October 2019, its "last holdout", the town of <a href="/wiki/Al-Baghuz_Fawqani" title="Al-Baghuz Fawqani">Al-Baghuz Fawqani</a>, fell to <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a> on 23 March 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-Timeline-WC-2019_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timeline-WC-2019-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ahmadiyya_view">Ahmadiyya view</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Caliphate" title="Ahmadiyya Caliphate">Ahmadiyya Caliphate</a></div> <p>The members of the <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya community</a> believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate (Arabic: <i>Khilāfah</i>) is the continuation of the Islamic caliphate, first being the <i>Rāshidūn</i> (rightly guided) Caliphate (of Righteous Caliphs). This is believed to have been suspended with Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and re-established with the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a> (1835–1908, the founder of the movement) whom Ahmadis identify as the Promised Messiah and <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a>. </p><p>Ahmadis maintain that in accordance with Quranic verses (such as <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/24?startingVerse=55">24:55</a></span>) and numerous ahadith on the issue, <i>Khilāfah</i> can only be established by God Himself and is a divine blessing given to <i>those who believe and work righteousness</i> and uphold the unity of God, therefore any movement to establish the <i>Khilāfah</i> centered on human endeavours alone is bound to fail, particularly when the condition of the people diverges from the ‘precepts of prophethood’ and they are as a result disunited, their inability to establish a <i>Khilāfah</i> caused fundamentally by the lack of righteousness in them. Although the khalifa is elected it is believed that God himself directs the hearts of believers towards an individual. Thus the khalifa is designated neither necessarily by right (i.e. the rightful or competent one in the eyes of the people at that time) nor merely by election but primarily by God.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Ahmadiyya thought, a khalifa need not be the head of a state; rather the Ahmadiyya community emphasises the spiritual and organisational significance of the Khilāfah. It is primarily a religious/spiritual office, with the purpose of upholding, strengthening and spreading Islam and of maintaining the high spiritual and moral standards within the global community established by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> – who was not merely a political leader but primarily a religious leader. If a khalifa does happen to bear governmental authority as a head of state, it is incidental and subsidiary in relation to his overall function as khalifa which is applicable to believers transnationally and not limited to one particular state.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ahmadi Muslims believe that God has assured them that this caliphate will endure to the end of time, depending on their righteousness and faith in God. The Khalifa provides unity, security, moral direction and progress for the community. It is required that the Khalifa carry out his duties through consultation and taking into consideration the views of the members of the <i>Shura</i> (consultative body). However, it is not incumbent upon him to always accept the views and recommendations of the members. The Khalifatul Masih has overall authority for all religious and organisational matters and is bound to decide and act in accordance with the Qur'an and sunnah. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamist_call">Islamist call</h4></div> <p>A number of Islamist political parties and <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">mujahideen</a> called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through political action (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hizb_ut-Tahrir" title="Hizb ut-Tahrir">Hizb ut-Tahrir</a>), or through force (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various Islamist movements gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a caliphate. In 2014, ISIL/ISIS made a claim to re-establishing the caliphate. Those advocating the re-establishment of a caliphate differed in their methodology and approach. Some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2010)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> were locally oriented, mainstream political parties that had no apparent transnational objectives.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Abul_A%27la_Maududi" title="Abul A'la Maududi">Abul A'la Maududi</a> believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man's representation of God's authority on Earth: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Khilafa</i> means representative. Man, according to Islam is the representative of "people", His (God's) viceregent; that is to say, by virtue of the powers delegated to him, and within the limits prescribed by the Qu'ran and the teaching of the prophet, the caliph is required to exercise Divine authority.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> advocates <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamic</a> unity and the implementation of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a>. Founder <a href="/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna" title="Hassan al-Banna">Hassan al-Banna</a> wrote about the restoration of the caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One transnational group whose ideology was based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state is <a href="/wiki/Hizb_ut-Tahrir" title="Hizb ut-Tahrir">Hizb ut-Tahrir</a> (literally, "Party of Liberation"). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe and is growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the Qur'an is the word of God.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hizb ut-Tahrir's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle. </p><p>In Southeast Asia, groups such as <a href="/wiki/Jemaah_Islamiyah" title="Jemaah Islamiyah">Jemaah Islamiyah</a> aimed to establish a Caliphate across <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Al-Qaeda's_Caliphate_goals"><span id="Al-Qaeda.27s_Caliphate_goals"></span>Al-Qaeda's Caliphate goals</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a> has as one of its clearly stated goals the re-establishment of a caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its former leader, Osama bin Laden, called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma".<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">Al-Qaeda</a> chiefs released a statement in 2005, under which, in what they call "phase five" there will be "an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a>, or caliphate".<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Qaeda has named its Internet newscast from <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> "The Voice of the Caliphate".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to author and Egyptian native <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Wright" title="Lawrence Wright">Lawrence Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri" title="Ayman al-Zawahiri">Ayman al-Zawahiri</a>, bin Laden's mentor and al-Qaeda's second-in-command until 2011, once "sought to restore the caliphate... which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century." Zawahiri believes that once the caliphate is re-established, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading the <i>jihad</i> against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing", Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world's Jewish government".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opposition">Opposition</h4></div> <p>Scholar <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Roy_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivier Roy (professor)">Olivier Roy</a> writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate ... with that of the <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emir</a>." There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>) ... moreover, caliphs ruled societies that the Islamists do not consider to have been Islamic (the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>)."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not the view of the majority of Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood and Hizb ut-Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_basis">Religious basis</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_the_world_in_Islam" title="Divisions of the world in Islam">Divisions of the world in Islam</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qur'an"><span id="Qur.27an"></span>Qur'an</h3></div><p> The <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> uses the term <i>khalifa</i> twice. First, in <a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">Surah</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Baqara" title="Al-Baqara">Al-Baqara</a> <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=30">2:30</a></span>, it refers to <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a> creating humanity as his <i>khalifa</i> on Earth. Second, in Surah <a href="/wiki/Sad_(sura)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sad (sura)">Sad</a> <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/38?startingVerse=26">38:26</a></span>, it addresses King <a href="/wiki/David_in_Islam" title="David in Islam">David</a> as God's <i>khalifa </i>and reminds him of his obligation to rule with justice.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"></p><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:lavender;;background:none;font-size:130%;white-space:nowrap;padding-bottom:0;"><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Quran" title="History of the Quran">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B8%A5y" title="Waḥy">Waḥy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_first_revelation" title="Muhammad's first revelation">First revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbab_al-Nuzul" title="Asbab al-Nuzul">Asbab al-Nuzul</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Quran" title="Historical reliability of the Quran">Historicity</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Manuscripts</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samarkand_Kufic_Quran" title="Samarkand Kufic Quran">Samarkand Kufic Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanaa_manuscript" title="Sanaa manuscript">Sanaa manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topkapi_manuscript" title="Topkapi manuscript">Topkapi manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript" title="Birmingham Quran manuscript">Birmingham manuscript</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Divisions</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">Surah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chapters_in_the_Quran" title="List of chapters in the Quran">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meccan_surah" title="Meccan surah">Meccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medinan_surah" title="Medinan surah">Medinan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80yah" title="Āyah">Āyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juz%27" title="Juz'">Juz'</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muqatta%CA%BFat" title="Muqattaʿat">Muqatta'at</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Content</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Baqara_256" title="Al-Baqara 256">No compulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Quran" title="Women in the Quran">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam#Qur'an" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_and_Quranic_narratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical and Quranic narratives">Legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_parables" title="Quranic parables">Parables</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science#Science_and_the_Quran" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Quran_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran reading">Reading</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81ri%CA%BE" title="Qāriʾ">Qāriʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">Hifz</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarteel" title="Tarteel">Tarteel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahruf" title="Ahruf">Ahruf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qira%27at" title="Qira'at">Qira'at</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Quran_translations" title="Quran translations">Translations</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_the_Quran" title="List of translations of the Quran">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_translations_of_the_Quran" title="English translations of the Quran">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_translations_of_the_Quran" title="Ahmadiyya translations of the Quran">Ahmadiyya</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Exegesis</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tafsir_works" title="List of tafsir works">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_hermeneutics" title="Quranic hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_interpretation_of_the_Quran" title="Esoteric interpretation of the Quran">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(tafsir)" title="Naskh (tafsir)">Abrogation</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_and_Quranic_narratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical and Quranic narratives">Biblical parallels</a></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_related_to_Quranic_verses" title="List of people related to Quranic verses">Related persons</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_characters_and_names_mentioned_in_the_Quran" title="List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran">Mentioned by name</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Characteristics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">I'jaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_inerrancy" title="Quranic inerrancy">Inerrancy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding-top:0.15em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.4em 0.1em 0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_imitations_of_the_Quran" title="Attempted imitations of the Quran">Attempted imitations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith_of_the_Quran_and_Sunnah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith of the Quran and Sunnah">Quran and Sunnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_view_of_the_Quran" title="Shia view of the Quran">Shi’a view</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Quran" title="Category:Quran">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Quran" title="Template:Quran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quran" title="Template talk:Quran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In addition, the following excerpt from the Quran, known as the 'Istikhlaf Verse', is used by some to argue for a Quranic basis for a caliphate: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Allah has promised those of you who believe and do good that He will certainly make them <i>successors</i> in the land, as He did with those before them; and will surely establish for them their faith which He has chosen for them; and will indeed change their fear into security—˹provided that˺ they worship Me, associating nothing with Me. But whoever disbelieves after this ˹promise˺, it is they who will be the rebellious.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/An-Nur" title="An-Nur">Surah An-Nur</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/24?startingVerse=55">24:55</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Several schools of jurisprudence and thought within Sunni Islam argue that to govern a state by <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> is, by definition, to rule via the caliphate and use the following verses to sustain their claim. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And judge between them ˹O Prophet˺ by what Allah has revealed, and do not follow their desires. And beware, so they do not lure you away from some of what Allah has revealed to you. If they turn away ˹from Allah's judgment˺, then know that it is Allah's Will to repay them for some of their sins, and that many people are indeed rebellious.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27idah" title="Al-Ma'idah">Surah Al-Ma'idah</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=49">5:49</a></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>O believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. Should you disagree on anything, then refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if you ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is the best and fairest resolution.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/An-Nisa" title="An-Nisa">Surah An-Nisa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=59">4:59</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hadith"><i>Hadith</i></h3></div> <p>The following <i><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a></i> from <a href="/wiki/Musnad_Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> can be understood to prophesy two eras of the caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Hadhrat Huzaifa narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: Prophethood will remain among you as long as Allah wills. Then Caliphate (Khilafah) on the lines of Prophethood shall commence, and remain as long as Allah wills. Then corrupt/erosive monarchy would take place, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. After that, despotic kingship would emerge, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. Then, the Caliphate (Khilafah) shall come once again based on the precept of <a href="/wiki/Prophethood" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophethood">Prophethood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the above, the first era of the caliphate is commonly accepted by Muslims to be that of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> Caliphate. </p><p>Nafi'a reported saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It has been reported on the authority of Nafi, that 'Abdullah b. Umar paid a visit to Abdullah b. Muti' in the days (when atrocities were perpetrated on the People Of Medina) at Harra in the time of Yazid b. Mu'awiya. Ibn Muti' said: Place a pillow for Abu 'Abd al-Rahman (family name of 'Abdullah b. 'Umar). But the latter said: I have not come to sit with you. I have come to you to tell you a tradition I heard from the Messenger of Allah. I heard him say: One who withdraws his band from obedience (to the Amir) will find no argument (in his defence) when he stands before Allah on the Day of Judgment, and one who dies without having bound himself by an oath of allegiance (to an Amir) will die the death of one belonging to the days of Jahiliyyah.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Sahih Muslim <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sunnah.com/muslim:1851a">1851a</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Urwah" title="Hisham ibn Urwah">Hisham ibn Urwah</a> reported on the authority of Abu Saleh on the authority of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hurairah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hurairah">Abu Hurairah</a> that Muhammad said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam). If they act rightly it is for your credit, and if they acted wrongly it is counted for you and against them.</p></blockquote> <p>It has been narrated on the authority of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hurayra" title="Abu Hurayra">Abu Huraira</a> that the Prophet of Allah said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A Imam is a shield for them. They fight behind him and they are protected by (him from tyrants and aggressors). If he enjoins fear of God, the Exalted and Glorious, and dispenses justice, there will be a (great) reward for him; and if he enjoins otherwise, it redounds on him.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Sahih Muslim <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sunnah.com/muslim:1841">1841</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Narrated Abu Huraira: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Prophet said, "The <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelis</a> used to be ruled and guided by prophets: Whenever a prophet died, another would take over his place. There will be no prophet after me, but there will be Caliphs who will increase in number." The people asked, "O Allah's Messenger! What do you order us (to do)?" He said, "Obey the one who will be given the pledge of allegiance first. Fulfil their (i.e. the Caliphs) rights, for Allah will ask them about (any shortcoming) in ruling those Allah has put under their guardianship."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Sahih al-Bukhari <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3455">3455</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prophesied_caliphate_of_the_Mahdi">Prophesied caliphate of the Mahdi</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology#Major_figures" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic eschatology § Major figures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming#Islam" title="Second Coming">Second Coming § Islam</a></div> <p>Many Islamic texts, including several <a href="/wiki/Ahadith" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahadith">ahadith</a>, state that the Mahdi will be elected caliph and rule over a caliphate.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of Islamic figures titled themselves both "caliph" and "al-Mahdi", including the first Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">As-Saffah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EI2_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EI2-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sahaba_of_Muhammad">The <i>Sahaba</i> of Muhammad</h3></div><p> Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the <a href="/wiki/Saqifah" class="mw-redirect" title="Saqifah">thaqifa</a> hall) of Bani Sa’ida: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Let there be one Amir from us and one Amir from you (meaning one from the Ansar and one from the Mohajireen).</p></blockquote><p> Upon this Abu Bakr replied: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs (rulers)...</p></blockquote> <p>Then he got up and addressed the Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p> It has additionally been reported<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al-Saqifa: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out among them. The <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> would then be abandoned, the <a href="/wiki/Bid%E2%80%98ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bid‘ah">bida'a</a> (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one's interests.</p></blockquote> <p>The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr the <a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">Bay'ah</a>. This indicates an Ijma as-Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this. </p><p> Imam Ali whom the Shia revere said:<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>People must have an Amir...where the believer works under his Imara (rule) and under which the unbeliever would also benefit, until his rule ended by the end of his life (<i>ajal</i>), the booty (<i>fay’i</i>) would be gathered, the enemy would be fought, the routes would be made safe, the strong one will return what he took from the weak till the tyrant would be contained, and not bother anyone.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_of_Islamic_theologians">Views of Islamic theologians</h3></div> <p>Scholars like <a href="/wiki/Al-Mawardi" title="Al-Mawardi">Al-Mawardi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Qalqashandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmad al-Qalqashandi">Ahmad al-Qalqashandi</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Sha%60rani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sha`rani">Al-Sha`rani</a><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated that the global Muslim community can have only one leader at any given time. <a href="/wiki/Al-Nawawi" title="Al-Nawawi">Al-Nawawi</a><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Jabbar_ibn_Ahmad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad">Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad</a><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> declared it impermissible to give oaths of loyalty to more than one leader. </p> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Joziri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Joziri (page does not exist)">Al-Joziri</a> said:<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Imams (scholars of the four schools of thought)- may Allah have mercy on them- agree that the Caliphate is an obligation, and that the Muslims must appoint a leader who would implement the injunctions of the religion, and give the oppressed justice against the oppressors. It is forbidden for Muslims to have two leaders in the world whether in agreement or discord.</p></blockquote> <p>Shia scholars have expressed similar opinions.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Shia school of thought states that the <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shia)">leader</a> must not be appointed by the Islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Qurtubi" title="Al-Qurtubi">Al-Qurtubi</a> said that the caliph is the "pillar upon which other pillars rest", and said of the Quranic verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph":<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This Ayah is a source in the selection of an Imaam, and a Khaleef, he is listened to and he is obeyed, for the word is united through him, and the Ahkam (laws) of the Caliph are implemented through him, and there is no difference regarding the obligation of that between the Ummah ...</p></blockquote><p> An-Nawawi said:<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>(The scholars) consented that it is an obligation upon the Muslims to select a Khalif</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> when writing of the potential consequences of losing the caliphate said:<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The judges will be suspended, the Wilayaat (provinces) will be nullified, ... the decrees of those in authority will not be executed and all the people will be on the verge of Haraam</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> said<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is obligatory to know that the office in charge of commanding over the people (ie: the post of the Khaleefah) is one of the greatest obligations of the <a href="/wiki/Deen_(Arabic_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deen (Arabic term)">Deen</a>. In fact, there is no establishment of the Deen except by it....this is the opinion of the <a href="/wiki/Salaf" title="Salaf">salaf</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Fu%E1%B8%8Dayl_ibn_%E2%80%98Iy%C4%81%E1%B8%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ">Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> and others</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electing_or_appointing_a_caliph">Electing or appointing a caliph</h3></div> <p>In his book <i>The Early Islamic Conquests</i> (1981), <a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Fred Donner</a> argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from among themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this <a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">shura</a>, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. Since the Umayyads, all caliphates have been dynastic. </p><p>Traditionally, Sunni Muslim <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhabs</a> all agreed that a caliph must be a descendant of the Quraysh.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Baqillani" title="Al-Baqillani">Al-Baqillani</a> has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunni_belief">Sunni belief</h3></div> <p>Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at <a href="/wiki/Saqifah" class="mw-redirect" title="Saqifah">Saqifah</a>. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (Sharia). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad#Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid" title="Ijtihad">mujtahids</a>, legal specialists collectively called the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a>. Many Muslims call the first four caliphs the Rashidun, meaning the "Rightly Guided", because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> (example) of Muhammad.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shi'a_belief"><span id="Shi.27a_belief"></span>Shi'a belief</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate in Shia doctrine</a></div> <p>With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaidis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Frncis1984_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frncis1984-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shi'ites believe in the <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shia_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shia doctrine)">Imamate</a>, a principle by which rulers are imams who are divinely chosen, infallible and sinless and must come from the <i>Ahl al-Bayt</i> regardless of majority opinion, <a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">shura</a> or election. They claim that before his death, Muhammad had given many indications, in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith_of_the_pond_of_Khumm" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith of the pond of Khumm">hadith of the pond of Khumm</a> in particular, that he considered <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. For the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelvers</a>, Ali and his eleven descendants, the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a>, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God. Shia Muslims believe that all the Muslim caliphs following Muhammad's death to be illegitimate due to their unjust rule and that Muslims have no obligation to follow them, as the only guidance that was left behind, as ordained in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hadith_of_the_two_weighty_things" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith of the two weighty things">two weighty things</a>, was the Islamic holy book, the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Muhammad's family</a> and offspring, who are believed to be <a href="/wiki/Infallibility" title="Infallibility">infallible</a>, therefore able to lead society and the Muslim community with complete justice and equity.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1x_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1x-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Prophet's own grandson, and third Shia imam, <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Hussain ibn Ali</a> led an uprising against injustice and the oppressive rule of the Muslim caliph at the time at the Battle of Karbala. Shia <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> emphasise that values of <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a>, and speaking out against <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> and tyranny are not merely moral values, but values essential to a person's religiosity.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1x_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1x-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Government:_Governance_of_the_Jurist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist">Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist</a></div> <p>After these Twelve Imams, the potential caliphs, had passed, and in the absence of the possibility of a government headed by their imams, some Twelvers believe it was necessary that a system of Shi'i Islamic government based on the <a href="/wiki/Guardianship_of_the_Islamic_Jurist" title="Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist">Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist</a> be developed, due to the need for some form of government, where an Islamic jurist or <a href="/wiki/Faqih" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqih">faqih</a> rules Muslims, suffices. However, this idea, developed by the <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marja'</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a> and established in Iran, is not universally accepted among the Shia. </p><p>Ismailis believe in the Imamate principle mentioned above, but they need not be secular rulers as well. </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Nizari" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizari">Nizari</a> continue to have a living imam; the current imam is the <a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan" title="Aga Khan">Aga Khan</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Taiyabi_Ismaili" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiyabi Ismaili">Taiyabi Ismaili</a> have, since the year 1130, followed the imam's chief officer, the <a href="/wiki/Dai_al-Mutlaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Dai al-Mutlaq">Dai al-Mutlaq</a>, as they believe the imams are in a state of hiding.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Majlis_al-Shura"><i>Majlis al-Shura</i></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Majlis-ash-Shura" class="mw-redirect" title="Majlis-ash-Shura">Majlis-ash-Shura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shura</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Majlis" title="Majlis">Majlis</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Majlis-ash-Shura" class="mw-redirect" title="Majlis-ash-Shura">Majlis al-Shura</a> (literally "consultative assembly") was a representation of the idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an: </p> <ul><li>"...who respond to their Lord, establish prayer, conduct their affairs by mutual consultation"(<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/42?startingVerse=38">42:38</a></span>)</li> <li>"...and consult with them in ˹conducting˺ matters. Once you make a decision, put your trust in Allah."(<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/3?startingVerse=159">3:159</a></span>)</li></ul> <p>The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph.<sup id="cite_ref-2muslims_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2muslims-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one and have sufficient wisdom and judgement to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis and select a list of candidates for caliph; then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates.<sup id="cite_ref-2muslims_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2muslims-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Islamist interpretations of the role of the Majlis al-Shura are the following: In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Islamist author <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Sayyid Qutb</a> argues that Islam only requires the ruler to consult with some of the representatives of the ruled and govern within the context of the Sharia. <a href="/wiki/Taqiuddin_al-Nabhani" class="mw-redirect" title="Taqiuddin al-Nabhani">Taqiuddin al-Nabhani</a>, the founder of a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the caliphate, writes that although the Shura is an important part of "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate, "(it is) not one of its pillars", meaning that its neglect would not make a caliph's rule un-Islamic such as to justify a rebellion. However, the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest Islamic movement in Egypt, has toned down these Islamist views by accepting in principle that in the modern age the Majlis al-Shura is democracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accountability_of_rulers">Accountability of rulers</h3></div> <p>Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public the people must obey their laws, but a caliph or ruler who becomes either unjust or severely ineffective must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. <a href="/wiki/Al-Juwayni" title="Al-Juwayni">Al-Juwayni</a> argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler who deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a> by a caliph is sufficient grounds for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hajar_al-Asqalani" title="Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani">Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani</a> stated that the people have an obligation to rebel if the caliph begins to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is <i><a href="/wiki/Haraam" class="mw-redirect" title="Haraam">haraam</a></i> and those who cannot revolt from inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two <a href="/wiki/Ayah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayah">ayahs</a> from the Qur'an to justify this: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And they (the sinners on <a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_the_Last_Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic view of the Last Judgment">qiyama</a>) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and elite, but they led us astray from the ˹Right˺ Way. Our Lord! Give them double ˹our˺ punishment, and condemn them tremendously."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Al-A%E1%B8%A5z%C4%81b" title="Al-Aḥzāb">Surah Al-Ahzab</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/33?startingVerse=67">33:67–68</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down after being impeached through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority is in agreement they have the option to launch a revolution. Many noted that this option is to be exercised only after factoring in the potential cost of life.<sup id="cite_ref-2muslims_159-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2muslims-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_law">Rule of law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></div> <p>The following <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> establishes the principle of <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> in relation to <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">nepotism</a> and accountability<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (July 2017)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Narrated ‘<a href="/wiki/Aisha" title="Aisha">Aisha</a>: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from <a href="/wiki/Banu_Makhzum" title="Banu Makhzum">Bani Makhzum</a> who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle; Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fatima</a>, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."</p></blockquote> <p>Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun Empire">Rashidun caliphate</a>, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Islamic jurists</a> later formulated the concept that all classes were subject to the law of the land, and no person is above the law; officials and private citizens alike have a <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a> to obey the same law. Furthermore, a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> (Islamic judge) was not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">colour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a>. In a number of cases, caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to render their verdict.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, the system of legal scholars and jurists responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codification</a> of Sharia by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the early nineteenth century:<sup id="cite_ref-Feldman_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feldman-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History of Islamic economics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Capitalism_and_Islam" title="Capitalism and Islam">Capitalism and Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Agricultural Revolution">Muslim Agricultural Revolution</a>, the caliphate understood that real <a href="/wiki/Incentive" title="Incentive">incentives</a> were needed to increase <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> and wealth and thus enhance <a href="/wiki/Tax_revenue" title="Tax revenue">tax revenues</a>. A social transformation took place as a result of changing land <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a><sup id="cite_ref-Idrisi_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Idrisi-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving individuals of any <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic">ethnic</a> or religious background the right to buy, sell, <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">mortgage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inherit</a> land for farming or any other purpose. Signatures were required on contracts for every major <a href="/wiki/Financial_transaction" title="Financial transaction">financial transaction</a> concerning agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial sector">industry</a>, commerce and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved.<sup id="cite_ref-Idrisi_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Idrisi-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early forms of proto-<a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free markets</a> were present in the caliphate,<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since an early <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> and early form of <a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">merchant capitalism</a> developed between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A vigorous <a href="/wiki/Monetary_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary economy">monetary economy</a> developed based on the <a href="/wiki/List_of_circulating_currencies" title="List of circulating currencies">circulation</a> of a stable high-value currency (the <a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">dinar</a>) and the integration of previously independent <a href="/wiki/Monetary" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary">monetary</a> areas. Business techniques and forms of <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">business organisation</a> employed during this time included early contracts, <a href="/wiki/Bills_of_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Bills of exchange">bills of exchange</a>, long-distance <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, early forms of partnership (<i>mufawada</i>) such as <a href="/wiki/Limited_partnership" title="Limited partnership">limited partnerships</a> (<i>mudaraba</i>) and early forms of <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">debt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Profit_(accounting)" title="Profit (accounting)">profit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Income_statement" title="Income statement">loss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> (<i>al-mal</i>), <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> (<i>nama al-mal</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Circulating_capital" title="Circulating capital">circulating capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_expenditure" title="Capital expenditure">capital expenditure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue">revenue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">cheques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promissory_note" title="Promissory note">promissory notes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts">trusts</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Startup_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Startup companies">startup companies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Savings_account" title="Savings account">savings accounts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transactional_account" class="mw-redirect" title="Transactional account">transactional accounts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pawnshop" class="mw-redirect" title="Pawnshop">pawning</a>, loaning, <a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate" title="Exchange rate">exchange rates</a>, bankers, <a href="/wiki/Money_changer" title="Money changer">money changers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ledger" title="Ledger">ledgers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deposit_account" title="Deposit account">deposits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">assignments</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double-entry bookkeeping system</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these concepts were adopted and further advanced in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a> from the thirteenth century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Banaji_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banaji-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> included collection of <i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i> (charity), one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a>, since the time of the first Islamic State, established by Muhammad at Medina. The taxes (including <i>Zakat</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></i>) collected in the <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a></i>) of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">needy</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">elderly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">orphans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">widows</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabled</a>. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, a number of the Arab tribes, who had accepted Islam at the hand of The Prophet Muhammad, rebelled and refused to continue to pay the Zakat, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a>. <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> added to the duties of the state an allowance, paid on behalf of every man woman and child, starting at birth, creating the world's first state run social welfare program. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maya_Shatzmiller" title="Maya Shatzmiller">Maya Shatzmiller</a> states that the <a href="/wiki/Demographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographic">demographic</a> behaviour of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant respects from other agricultural societies. Nomadic groups within places like the deserts of Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> maintained high birth rates compared to rural and urban populations, though periods of extremely high nomadic birth rates seem to have occurred in occasional <a href="/wiki/Baby_boom" title="Baby boom">"surges"</a> rather than on a continuous basis. Individuals living in large cities had much lower birth rates, possibly due to the use of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> methods and political or economic instability. This led to population declines in some regions.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While several studies have shown that <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Islamic scholars</a> enjoyed a life expectancy of 59–75 years between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries,<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ahmad_2007_246–248_246_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmad_2007_246–248_246-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the overall life expectancy of men in the same societies was lower.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factoring in <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a>, Lawrence Conrad estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population, compared to around 40 years for the population of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a><sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 31 years for the population of thirteenth-century England.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">classical Athens</a> in the fourth century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later, China after the introduction of printing from the tenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidise educational services until the introduction of state funding under <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a> in the eleventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China,<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society; thus <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>) from an <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">oral</a> to <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribal</a> culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to <a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">typographic</a> culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Qur%27an)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz (Qur'an)">and memorisation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, flourishing <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economics in the world">commercial activity</a> and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">Maktab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Madrasah">Madrasah</a> educational institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_caliphs">Notable caliphs</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_caliphs" title="List of caliphs">List of caliphs</a>.</div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></i> ("Righteously Guided") <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, first Rashidun caliph. Subdued rebel tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridda wars">Ridda wars</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> (Umar ibn al-Khattab), second Rashidun caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem and Persia.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, (Uthman ibn Affan) third Rashidun caliph, When Caliph Umar died in office aged 59/60 years, Uthman, aged 64/65 years, succeeded him and was the second oldest to rule as caliph. Under Uthman's leadership, the Islamic empire expanded into Fars (present-day Iran) in 650, and some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651. The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> (Ali ibn Abu Talib), fourth Rashidun caliph. Considered by Shi'a Muslims, however, to be the first imam. His reign was fraught with internal conflict, with Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (Muawiyah I) and <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> controlling the Levant and Egypt regions independently of Ali.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a>, fifth caliph. Considered as "rightly guided" by several historians. He abdicated his right to the caliphate in favour of Muawiyah I to end the potential for ruinous civil war.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiyah I</a>, the first caliph of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>. Muawiyah instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a> as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a> was the fifth Umayyad caliph, ruling from April 685 until his death in 705. A member of the first generation of born Muslims, his early life in Medina was occupied with pious pursuits. He held administrative and military posts under Caliph Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680) and his own father, Caliph <a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan I</a> (r. 684–685).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a> was the sixth Umayyad caliph, ruling from October 705 until his death. He was the eldest son of his predecessor Caliph Abd al-Malik.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> (Umar II), Umayyad caliph who is considered one of the finest rulers in Muslim history. He is also considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be among the "rightly guided" caliphs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II</a> was the ninth Umayyad caliph, ruling from February 720 until his death in 724.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham</a> was the tenth Umayyad caliph who ruled from 724 until his death in 743. Hisham was a great patron of the arts, and he again encouraged arts in the empire. He also encouraged the growth of education by building more schools, and perhaps most importantly, by overseeing the translation of numerous literary and scientific masterpieces into Arabic. He returned to a stricter interpretation of the Sharia as <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar</a> had, and enforced it, even upon his own family.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">Al-Walid II</a> was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 743 until his death in the year 744.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III</a> was the twelfth Umayyad caliph. He reigned for six months, from 15 April to 3 or 4 October 744, and died in that office.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> was the fourteenth and last Umayyad caliph, ruling from 744 until his death in 750.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">As-Saffah</a> was the first caliph of the Abbasid caliphate, one of the longest and most important caliphates (Islamic dynasties) in Islamic history.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a> was the second Abbasid caliph reigning from 136 AH to 158 AH (754–775) and succeeding his brother al-Saffah. Al-Mansur is generally regarded as the greatest caliph of the Abbasid dynasty. He is also known for founding the 'round city' of <a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Madinat al-Salam</a> which was to become the core of imperial <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Al-Mahdi</a> was the third Abbasid caliph who reigned from 775 to his death in 785.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a>, Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's prominent centre of trade, learning and culture. Harun is the subject of many stories in the famous <i><a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>, a great Abbasid patron of Islamic philosophy and science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">Al-Mu'tasim</a> was the eighth Abbasid caliph, ruling from 833 until his death in 842. The younger son of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. He is also known for founding the city of <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">Al-Mutawakkil</a> was the tenth Abbasid caliph who reigned from 847 until 861. He was the son of al-Mu'tasim. He is considered an influential Abbasid caliph.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">Al-Mu'tadid</a> was the caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 892 until his death in 902.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ar-Radi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ar-Radi">Ar-Radi</a> was the twentieth Abbasid caliph, reigning from 934 to his death. He died on 23 December 940 at the age of 31. He is considered the last caliph of <i>early Abbasid</i> period.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">Al-Qadir</a>, famous caliph of later Abbasid period, 991–1031.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">Al-Muqtafi</a>, famous caliph of later Abbasid period, who reigned 1136–1160.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">Al-Nasir</a> was the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad from 1180 until his death in 1225. According to the historian, Angelika Hartmann, Al-Nasir was the last effective later Abbasid caliph.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a> was the 37th and last Abbasid caliph to rule from Baghdad. He ruled from 1242 until his death in 1258.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>, the 9th <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a>, the 1st caliph and maiden title holder of "<a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Under his reign, the Empire grew by seventy per cent.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>, the 2nd Ottoman caliph, during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_I" title="Ahmed I">Ahmed I</a>, the 8th Ottoman caliph, who is well known for his construction of the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Ahmed Mosque">Blue Mosque</a>, one of the most famous mosques and tourist attraction in Turkey.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a>, the 25th and the last Ottoman caliph to rule with independent, absolute power</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_V" title="Mehmed V">Mehmed V</a>, the 26th Ottoman caliph, who made the Ottoman Empire enter into <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1914, which would ultimately lead to the Empire's end.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid II</a>, the 28th and the last caliph of the Ottoman dynasty. Nominally the 37th Head of the Ottoman dynasty. In 1924, <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Grand National Assembly of Turkey</a> <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">abolished the Ottoman Caliphate</a> and sent Mejid in exile.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a>" <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali</a>, in an attempt to preserve the title proclaimed himself caliph. He preferred to wait for the official abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a> before assuming the title, so as not to break the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> by creating a second caliph alongside the Ottoman caliph. However his caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Nejd" title="Sultanate of Nejd">Sultanate of Nejd</a> (current <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>), leaving the title in dormancy.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhajiroun" title="Al-Muhajiroun">Al-Muhajiroun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amir_al-Mu%27minin" title="Amir al-Mu'minin">Amir al-Mu'minin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_(TV_series)" title="Caliphate (TV series)"><i>Caliphate</i> (TV series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Caliphate_or_the_Supreme_Imamate_(book)" title="The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate (book)"><i>The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate</i> (book)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate" title="Khanate">Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Worldwide caliphate">Worldwide caliphate</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHassan2016" class="citation book cs1">Hassan, Mona (2016). "CONCEPTUALIZING THE CALIPHATE, 632–1517 CE". <i>Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 98–141. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrgm.9">j.ctt1q1xrgm.9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=CONCEPTUALIZING+THE+CALIPHATE%2C+632%E2%80%931517+CE&rft.btitle=Longing+for+the+Lost+Caliphate%3A+A+Transregional+History&rft.pages=98-141&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1q1xrgm.9%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Mona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarch2019" class="citation book cs1">March, Andrew F. (2019). <i>The Caliphate of Man: Popular Sovereignty in Modern Islamic Thought</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98783-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98783-8"><bdi>978-0-674-98783-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvp2n3ms">j.ctvp2n3ms</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204443322">204443322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate+of+Man%3A+Popular+Sovereignty+in+Modern+Islamic+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A204443322%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvp2n3ms%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98783-8&rft.aulast=March&rft.aufirst=Andrew+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri2021" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FTMiEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Abbasid Caliphate: A History</i></a>. Cambridge and New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 284–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18324-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18324-7"><bdi>978-1-107-18324-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abbasid+Caliphate%3A+A+History&rft.place=Cambridge+and+New+York&rft.pages=284-285&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-107-18324-7&rft.aulast=El-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Tayeb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFTMiEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoweringCroneMirza2013" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan (2013). "caliph, caliphate". <i>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13484-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13484-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caliph%2C+caliphate&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13484-0&rft.aulast=Bowering&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Crone%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Mirza%2C+Mahan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-RasheedKerstenShterin2012" class="citation book cs1">Al-Rasheed, Madawi; Kersten, Carool; Shterin, Marat (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EAMqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3"><i>Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932795-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932795-9"><bdi>978-0-19-932795-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demystifying+the+Caliphate%3A+Historical+Memory+and+Contemporary+Contexts&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-932795-9&rft.aulast=Al-Rasheed&rft.aufirst=Madawi&rft.au=Kersten%2C+Carool&rft.au=Shterin%2C+Marat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEAMqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingmar2020" class="citation book cs1">Ringmar, Erik (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.openedition.org/obp/9091">"4. The Muslim Caliphates"</a>. <i>History of International Relations</i>. OBP collection. Open Book Publishers. pp. 73–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-024-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-024-6"><bdi>978-1-78374-024-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407164823/https://books.openedition.org/obp/9091">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+The+Muslim+Caliphates&rft.btitle=History+of+International+Relations&rft.series=OBP+collection&rft.pages=73-100&rft.pub=Open+Book+Publishers&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-78374-024-6&rft.aulast=Ringmar&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.openedition.org%2Fobp%2F9091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_1601_1650/roots_of_democracy_in_islam.htm">"The Roots of Democracy in Islam"</a>. Irfi.org. 16 December 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200222023908/http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_1601_1650/roots_of_democracy_in_islam.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Democracy+in+Islam&rft.pub=Irfi.org&rft.date=2002-12-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irfi.org%2Farticles%2Farticles_1601_1650%2Froots_of_democracy_in_islam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/caliph">"caliph"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a></i> (Online). n.d<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caliph&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fcaliph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrickWalker20143-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzpatrickWalker20143_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrickWalker2014">Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1997" class="citation book cs1">Madelung, Wilferd (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung"><i>The Succession to Muhammad</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung/page/n50">31</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad&rft.pages=31&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MandelungP32-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MandelungP32_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung (1997</a>, p. 32)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrickWalker2014">Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014</a>, p. 3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valerie J. Hoffman, <i>The Essentials of Ibadi Islam</i> (2012), p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung1997">Madelung (1997</a>, pp. 32–33)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrickWalker2014">Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014</a>, p. 186)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzpatrickWalker2014">Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014</a>, p. 4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-econ1-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-econ1_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-econ1_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19">"What is the difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims?"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 28 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170725153328/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/05/economist-explains-19">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=What+is+the+difference+between+Sunni+and+Shia+Muslims%3F&rft.date=2013-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Feconomist-explains%2F2013%2F05%2Feconomist-explains-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">John Esposito</a> (1992)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. Cyril Glasse. pp. 39–41, 318–319, 353–354, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uthman was the son of <a href="/wiki/Affan_ibn_Abi_al-%27As" class="mw-redirect" title="Affan ibn Abi al-'As">`Affan</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-%27As_ibn_Umayyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-'As ibn Umayyah">Abu-l`As</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Umayya_ibn_Abd_Shams" title="Umayya ibn Abd Shams">Umayya ibn Abd Shams</a>. Mu'awiyah was the son of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Sufyan_ibn_Harb" title="Abu Sufyan ibn Harb">Abu Sufyan</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Harb_ibn_Umayya" title="Harb ibn Umayya">Harb</a>, the son of Umayya ibn Abd Shams.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish2010" class="citation book cs1">Cavendish, Marshall (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H_m14NlQQMYC&pg=PA129">"6"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761479260/page/129"><i>Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures</i></a>. Marshall Cavendish. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761479260/page/129">129</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761479260" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761479260"><bdi>978-0761479260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6&rft.btitle=Islamic+Beliefs%2C+Practices%2C+and+Cultures&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0761479260&rft.aulast=Cavendish&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH_m14NlQQMYC%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:024-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:024_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarari2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari" title="Yuval Noah Harari">Harari, Yuval Noah</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/910498369"><i>Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari" title="Yuval Noah Harari">Harari, Yuval Noah</a>; Purcell, John; <a href="/wiki/Haim_Watzman" title="Haim Watzman">Watzman, Haim</a>. London: Penguin Random House. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0099590088" title="Special:BookSources/978-0099590088"><bdi>978-0099590088</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/910498369">910498369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sapiens%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Humankind&rft.place=London&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910498369&rft.isbn=978-0099590088&rft.aulast=Harari&rft.aufirst=Yuval+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F910498369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blankinship-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blankinship_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankinship1994" class="citation cs2">Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994), <i>The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads</i>, <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>, p. 37, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791418277" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791418277"><bdi>978-0791418277</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Jihad+State%3A+The+Reign+of+Hisham+Ibn+%27Abd-al+Malik+and+the+collapse+of+the+Umayyads&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0791418277&rft.aulast=Blankinship&rft.aufirst=Khalid+Yahya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/chapter/history-4/">"40. History of Muhammad"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/front-matter/world-religions/"><i>World Religions</i></a>. Florida State College at Jacksonville. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231222190741/https://fscj.pressbooks.pub/worldreligions/front-matter/world-religions/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=40.+History+of+Muhammad&rft.btitle=World+Religions&rft.pub=Florida+State+College+at+Jacksonville&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffscj.pressbooks.pub%2Fworldreligions%2Fchapter%2Fhistory-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-umayyad-caliphate-661-750-ce">"The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231027180017/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-umayyad-caliphate-661-750-ce">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=The+Umayyad+Caliphate+%28661%E2%80%93750+CE%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fthe-umayyad-caliphate-661-750-ce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/islamiccivilizations/8025.html">"Qays/Mudar and Yaman"</a>. <i>www.brown.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231027175520/https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/islamiccivilizations/8025.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.brown.edu&rft.atitle=Qays%2FMudar+and+Yaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brown.edu%2FDepartments%2FJoukowsky_Institute%2Fcourses%2Fislamiccivilizations%2F8025.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abbasid-caliphate">"Abbasid caliphate | Achievements, Capital, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. 9 October 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815061941/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Abbasid-caliphate">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Abbasid+caliphate+%7C+Achievements%2C+Capital%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2023-10-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAbbasid-caliphate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16">"HIST 210 – Lecture 16 – The Splendor of the Abbasid Period | Open Yale Courses"</a>. <i>oyc.yale.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231028163238/https://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-210/lecture-16">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oyc.yale.edu&rft.atitle=HIST+210+%E2%80%93+Lecture+16+%E2%80%93+The+Splendor+of+the+Abbasid+Period+%7C+Open+Yale+Courses&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foyc.yale.edu%2Fhistory%2Fhist-210%2Flecture-16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYalmanKomaroff" class="citation web cs1">Yalman, Suzan; Komaroff, Linda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/abba/hd_abba.htm">"The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258)"</a>. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230705200631/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/abba/hd_abba.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Abbasid+Period+%28750%E2%80%931258%29&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.aulast=Yalman&rft.aufirst=Suzan&rft.au=Komaroff%2C+Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fabba%2Fhd_abba.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/61832/Early-period-the-Umayyad-and-Abbasid-dynasties">"Islamic arts"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527004608/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295642/Islamic-arts/61832/Early-period-the-Umayyad-and-Abbasid-dynasties">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+arts&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F295642%2FIslamic-arts%2F61832%2FEarly-period-the-Umayyad-and-Abbasid-dynasties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-Dynasty">"Abbasid Dynasty"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503054858/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-Dynasty">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbasid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F465%2FAbbasid-Dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon-series.org/military-info/organization/c_mameluks1.html">"The Georgian Mameluks in Egypt"</a>. <i>www.napoleon-series.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171026164635/http://www.napoleon-series.org/military/organization/c_mameluks1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.napoleon-series.org&rft.atitle=The+Georgian+Mameluks+in+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon-series.org%2Fmilitary-info%2Forganization%2Fc_mameluks1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://egyptian-history.com/blogs/history-of-egypt/mamluks">"The Mamlukes"</a>. <i>Egyptian History</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210621181523/https://egyptian-history.com/blogs/history-of-egypt/mamluks">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Egyptian+History&rft.atitle=The+Mamlukes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fegyptian-history.com%2Fblogs%2Fhistory-of-egypt%2Fmamluks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Kennedy, Hugh N.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-iu6u8GkvkC"><i>The Historiography of Islamic Egypt: (c. 950–1800)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004117945" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004117945"><bdi>978-9004117945</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-iu6u8GkvkC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historiography+of+Islamic+Egypt%3A+%28c.+950%E2%80%931800%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-9004117945&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY-iu6u8GkvkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lugan" title="Bernard Lugan">Bernard Lugan</a>, <i>Histoire du Maroc</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2262016445" title="Special:BookSources/2262016445">2262016445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamirez-Faria2007" class="citation book cs1">Ramirez-Faria, Carlos (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC"><i>Concise Encyclopedia Of World History</i></a>. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 23, 676. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8126907755" title="Special:BookSources/978-8126907755"><bdi>978-8126907755</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+Of+World+History&rft.pages=23%2C+676&rft.pub=Atlantic+Publishers+%26+Dist&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8126907755&rft.aulast=Ramirez-Faria&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgGKsS-9h4BYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brit1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brit1_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brit1_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16820/Almohads">"Almohads"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150516025233/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/16820/Almohads">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Almohads&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F16820%2FAlmohads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuresiEl_Aallaoui2012" class="citation book cs1">Buresi, Pascal; El Aallaoui, Hicham (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hl5_--mK8q4C"><i>Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate (1224–1269) : Critical Edition, Translation, and Study of Manuscript 4752 of the Hasaniyya Library in Rabat Containing 77 Taqādīm ('appointments')</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004233331" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004233331"><bdi>978-9004233331</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hl5_--mK8q4C">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governing+the+Empire%3A+Provincial+Administration+in+the+Almohad+Caliphate+%281224%E2%80%931269%29+%3A+Critical+Edition%2C+Translation%2C+and+Study+of+Manuscript+4752+of+the+Hasaniyya+Library+in+Rabat+Containing+77+Taq%C4%81d%C4%ABm+%28%27appointments%27%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004233331&rft.aulast=Buresi&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rft.au=El+Aallaoui%2C+Hicham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHl5_--mK8q4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis Massignon (1935). "<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Mutanabbi devant le siècle ismaëlien de l'Islam</span></span>". <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Mémoires de l'Institut Français de Damas</i></span></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWintle2003" class="citation book cs1">Wintle, Justin (2003). <i>History of Islam</i>. London: Rough Guides Ltd. pp. 136–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1843530183" title="Special:BookSources/978-1843530183"><bdi>978-1843530183</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islam&rft.place=London&rft.pages=136-137&rft.pub=Rough+Guides+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1843530183&rft.aulast=Wintle&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baer_1983_xxiii-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baer_1983_xxiii_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer1983" class="citation book cs1">Baer, Eva (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s__yi4pD-VEC"><i>Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. p. xxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791495575" title="Special:BookSources/9780791495575"><bdi>9780791495575</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131631/https://books.google.com/books?id=s__yi4pD-VEC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2020</span>. <q>In the course of the later eleventh and twelfth century, however, the Fatimid caliphate declined rapidly, and in 1171 the country was invaded by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a>. He restored Egypt as a political power, reincorporated it in the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphate">Abbasid caliphate</a> and established Ayyubid suzerainty not only over Egypt and Syria but, as mentioned above, temporarily over northern Mesopotamia as well.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metalwork+in+Medieval+Islamic+Art&rft.pages=xxiii&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780791495575&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds__yi4pD-VEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambton-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lambton_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambtonLewis1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Lambton" title="Ann Lambton">Lambton, Ann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C"><i>The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west</i></a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521223102" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521223102"><bdi>978-0521223102</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam%3A+The+Indian+sub-continent%2C+South-East+Asia%2C+Africa+and+the+Muslim+west&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0521223102&rft.aulast=Lambton&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4AuJvd2Tyt8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritCal-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritCal_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritCal_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89726/caliph">"caliph – Islamic title"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503145209/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89726/caliph">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=caliph+%E2%80%93+Islamic+title&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F89726%2Fcaliph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sourdel-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sourdel_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sourdel_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominique Sourdel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/k-h-ali-fa-COM_0486?s.num=7&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Caliphate">"The history of the institution of the caliphate"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141224094511/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/k-h-ali-fa-COM_0486?s.num=7&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Caliphate">Archived</a> 24 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1978)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karpat-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Karpat_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kemal_Karpat" title="Kemal Karpat">Karpat, Kemal H.</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=orEfAAAAIAAJ"><i>The Ottoman State and Its Place in World History: Introduction</i></a>. Brill. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004039452" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004039452"><bdi>978-9004039452</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+State+and+Its+Place+in+World+History%3A+Introduction&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-9004039452&rft.aulast=Karpat&rft.aufirst=Kemal+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DorEfAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osmansdream-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-osmansdream_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-osmansdream_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-osmansdream_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-osmansdream_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923</i>. New York: Basic Books. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465023967" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465023967"><bdi>978-0465023967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931923&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0465023967&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Qureshi1999-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Qureshi1999_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Qureshi1999_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQureshi1999" class="citation book cs1">Qureshi, M. Naeem (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C&pg=PA18"><i>Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924</i></a>. Brill. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004113718" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004113718"><bdi>978-9004113718</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pan-Islam+in+British+Indian+Politics%3A+A+Study+of+the+Khilafat+Movement%2C+1918%E2%80%931924&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-9004113718&rft.aulast=Qureshi&rft.aufirst=M.+Naeem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DczKYZPyoyx0C%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2000" class="citation book cs1">James, Lawrence (2000). <i>Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India</i>. St. Martin's Press. p. 444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312263829" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312263829"><bdi>978-0312263829</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Raj%3A+The+Making+and+Unmaking+of+British+India&rft.pages=444&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0312263829&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karpat2001-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Karpat2001_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpat2001" class="citation book cs1">Karpat, Kemal H. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PvVlS3ljx20C&pg=PA235"><i>The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195136180" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195136180"><bdi>978-0195136180</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131632/https://books.google.com/books?id=PvVlS3ljx20C&pg=PA235">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politicization+of+Islam%3A+Reconstructing+Identity%2C+State%2C+Faith%2C+and+Community+in+the+Late+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0195136180&rft.aulast=Karpat&rft.aufirst=Kemal+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPvVlS3ljx20C%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yegar2002-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yegar2002_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYegar2002" class="citation book cs1">Yegar, Moshe (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S5q7qxi5LBgC&pg=PA397"><i>Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 397. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739103562" title="Special:BookSources/978-0739103562"><bdi>978-0739103562</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Integration+and+Secession%3A+The+Muslim+Communities+of+the+Southern+Philippines%2C+Southern+Thailand%2C+and+Western+Burma%2FMyanmar&rft.pages=397&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0739103562&rft.aulast=Yegar&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS5q7qxi5LBgC%26pg%3DPA397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÖzoğlu20115;_Özoğlu_quotes_867.00/1801:_[[Mark_Lambert_Bristol]]_on_19_August_1924-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÖzoğlu20115;_Özoğlu_quotes_867.00/1801:_[[Mark_Lambert_Bristol]]_on_19_August_1924_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFÖzoğlu2011">Özoğlu 2011</a>, p. 5; Özoğlu quotes 867.00/1801: <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lambert_Bristol" title="Mark Lambert Bristol">Mark Lambert Bristol</a> on 19 August 1924.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab. <i>Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective</i>. Columbia University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231144896" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231144896">978-0231144896</a> p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sage2011-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sage2011_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino (eds). <i>International Encyclopedia of Political Science</i>, Volume 1. Sage, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412959636" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412959636">978-1412959636</a> p. 1350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kemal H. Karpat. "The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State". <i>Studies in Middle Eastern History</i>. Oxford University Press, 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195136180" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195136180">978-0195136180</a> pp. 242–243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jay Tolson, "Caliph Wanted: Why An Old Islamic Institution Resonates With Many Muslims Today", <i>U.S News & World Report</i> 144.1 (14 January 2008): 38–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirch2010" class="citation web cs1">Birch, Nicholas (3 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurasianet.org/turkey-could-a-caliphate-make-a-comeback">"Turkey: Could the Caliphate Make a Comeback?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Eurasianet" title="Eurasianet">Eurasianet</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240107002225/https://eurasianet.org/turkey-could-a-caliphate-make-a-comeback">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eurasianet&rft.atitle=Turkey%3A+Could+the+Caliphate+Make+a+Comeback%3F&rft.date=2010-12-03&rft.aulast=Birch&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurasianet.org%2Fturkey-could-a-caliphate-make-a-comeback&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuran2020" class="citation journal cs1">Duran, Burhanettin (4 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.setav.org/en/how-to-interpret-discussions-on-ataturk-and-the-caliphate/">"How to interpret discussions on Atatürk and the caliphate"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Political,_Economic_and_Social_Research" title="Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research">SETA</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240107002225/https://www.setav.org/en/how-to-interpret-discussions-on-ataturk-and-the-caliphate/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SETA&rft.atitle=How+to+interpret+discussions+on+Atat%C3%BCrk+and+the+caliphate&rft.date=2020-08-04&rft.aulast=Duran&rft.aufirst=Burhanettin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.setav.org%2Fen%2Fhow-to-interpret-discussions-on-ataturk-and-the-caliphate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Truths and Lies: Irony and Intrigue in the Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī", Soheila Amirsoleimani, <i>Iranian Studies</i>, Vol. 32, No. 2, The Uses of Guile: Literary and Historical Moments (Spring, 1999), 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1924" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Arnold, Thomas Walker</a> (1924). "The Mughal Emperors in India". <i>The Caliphate</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 159, 160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mughal+Emperors+in+India&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate&rft.pages=159%2C+160&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Walker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchimmel1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" title="Annemarie Schimmel">Schimmel, Annemarie</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA30">"The Historical Background"</a>. <i>Gabriel's Wing A Study Into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal</i>. Brill. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Background&rft.btitle=Gabriel%27s+Wing+A+Study+Into+the+Religious+Ideas+of+Sir+Muhammad+Iqbal&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Schimmel&rft.aufirst=Annemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgoE3AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2010" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Roy (2010). <i>Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1136950360" title="Special:BookSources/978-1136950360"><bdi>978-1136950360</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mawlana+Mawdudi+and+Political+Islam%3A+Authority+and+the+Islamic+State&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1136950360&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussein2002" class="citation book cs1">Hussein, S M (2002). <i>Structure of Politics Under Aurangzeb 1658–1707</i>. Kanishka Publishers Distributors. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8173914898" title="Special:BookSources/978-8173914898"><bdi>978-8173914898</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+of+Politics+Under+Aurangzeb+1658%E2%80%931707&rft.pub=Kanishka+Publishers+Distributors&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-8173914898&rft.aulast=Hussein&rft.aufirst=S+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dasgupta, K., 1975. How Learned Were the Mughals: Reflections on Muslim Libraries in India. The Journal of Library History, 10(3), pp. 241–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qadir, K.B.S.S.A., 1936. "The Cultural Influences of Islam in India". <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Arts</i>, pp. 228–241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1924" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Arnold, Thomas Walker</a> (1924). "The Mughal Emperors in India". <i>The Caliphate</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Khaljis%3A+Alauddin+Khalji&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+History+of+India%3A+The+Delhi+Sultanat+%28A.D.+1206%E2%80%931526%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+Indian+History+Congress+%2F+People%27s+Publishing+House&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31870180&rft.aulast=Saksena&rft.aufirst=Banarsi+Prasad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_9cmAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalindonesianvoices.com/20785/is-yogyakarta-ready-for-a-female-successor-to-sultan-hamengkubowono/">"Is Yogyakarta Ready for a Female Successor to Sultan Hamengkubowono?"</a>. 17 May 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222193722/http://www.globalindonesianvoices.com/20785/is-yogyakarta-ready-for-a-female-successor-to-sultan-hamengkubowono/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Yogyakarta+Ready+for+a+Female+Successor+to+Sultan+Hamengkubowono%3F&rft.date=2015-05-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalindonesianvoices.com%2F20785%2Fis-yogyakarta-ready-for-a-female-successor-to-sultan-hamengkubowono%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150428192813/http://www.indhistory.com/khilafat-movement.html">"The Khilafat Movement"</a>. Indhistory.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indhistory.com/khilafat-movement.html">the original</a> on 28 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Khilafat+Movement&rft.pub=Indhistory.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indhistory.com%2Fkhilafat-movement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070416001259/http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician6.htm">"The Statesman"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quaid.gov.pk/politician6.htm">the original</a> on 16 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Statesman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quaid.gov.pk%2Fpolitician6.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Tei01">Teitelbaum 2001 p. 42</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (March 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-392930355">"New Series Vol. 7 No. 6 (1 May 1917)"</a>. <i>Trove</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240525103934/https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-392930355/view">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Trove&rft.atitle=New+Series+Vol.+7+No.+6+%281+May+1917%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.obj-392930355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/#&">"Source Records of the Great War Sharif Hussein's Proclamation of Independence from Turkey, 27th June 1916"</a>. <i>archive.wikiwix.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214215112/https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https://sayyidamiruddin.com/2013/08/13/sharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916/#&">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.wikiwix.com&rft.atitle=Source+Records+of+the+Great+War+Sharif+Hussein%27s+Proclamation+of+Independence+from+Turkey%2C+27th+June+1916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.wikiwix.com%2Fcache%2Findex2.php%3Furl%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fsayyidamiruddin.com%2F2013%2F08%2F13%2Fsharif-husseins-proclamation-of-independence-from-turkey-27-june-1916%2F%23%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:25_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFekinci" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">ekinci, ekrem. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile-">"How Did the Ottoman Dynasty Survive in Exile?"</a>. <i>www.ekrembugraekinci.com</i> (in Turkish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231213104431/https://www.ekrembugraekinci.com/article/?ID=1395&how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile-">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ekrembugraekinci.com&rft.atitle=How+Did+the+Ottoman+Dynasty+Survive+in+Exile%3F&rft.aulast=ekinci&rft.aufirst=ekrem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ekrembugraekinci.com%2Farticle%2F%3FID%3D1395%26how-did-the-ottoman-dynasty-survive-in-exile-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Momani2014" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Momani, Nidal Daoud Mohammad (2014). "Al-Sharif, Al-Hussein Bin Ali between the Zionists and the Palestinians in 1924 A decisive year in the political history of Al-Hussein". <i>Journal of Human Sciences</i>. <b>2014</b> (2): 312–335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12785%2Fjhs%2F20140213">10.12785/jhs/20140213</a></span> (inactive 19 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Sciences&rft.atitle=Al-Sharif%2C+Al-Hussein+Bin+Ali+between+the+Zionists+and+the+Palestinians+in+1924+A+decisive+year+in+the+political+history+of+Al-Hussein&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=312-335&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12785%2Fjhs%2F20140213&rft.aulast=Al-Momani&rft.aufirst=Nidal+Daoud+Mohammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritish_Secret_Service1924" class="citation book cs1">British Secret Service (29 March 1924). <i>Jeddah Report 1-29 Mars 1924</i>. 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Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59740-468-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59740-468-3"><bdi>1-59740-468-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1113069713">1113069713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+assembled+the+advent+of+the+Muslim+Congresses&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1113069713&rft.isbn=1-59740-468-3&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFنضال_داود_المومني1996" class="citation book cs1">نضال داود المومني (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/Shareef_Hussain_Ali_Khilafah"><i>الشريف الحسين بن علي والخلافة</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%81+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9&rft.date=1996&rft.au=%D9%86%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%84+%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FShareef_Hussain_Ali_Khilafah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFالوطنwebmaster2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">الوطن, جريدة; webmaster (5 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"مملكة الحجاز".. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح"</a>. <i>جريدة الوطن</i> (in Arabic). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86&rft.atitle=%22%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%22..+%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD&rft.date=2020-05-05&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86&rft.aufirst=%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9&rft.au=webmaster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-watan.com%2Farticle%2F230610%2FNEWS%2F%25C2%25AB%25D9%2585%25D9%2585%25D9%2584%25D9%2583%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AC%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2%25C2%25BB-%25D9%2588%25D9%2582%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25B5%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2580%25D8%25BA%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25B2%25D9%2588-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D9%2580%25D8%25B3%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2584%25D9%2591%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25AD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:122-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:122_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Central File: Decimal File 867.9111, Internal Affairs Of States, Public Press., Newspapers., Turkey, Clippings And Items., March 22, 1924 – March 12, 1925". <i>Turkey: Records of the U.S. Department of State, 1802–1949</i>. 22 March 1924. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Gale_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale (identifier)">Gale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CC5111548903">C5111548903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Turkey%3A+Records+of+the+U.S.+Department+of+State%2C+1802%E2%80%931949&rft.atitle=Central+File%3A+Decimal+File+867.9111%2C+Internal+Affairs+Of+States%2C+Public+Press.%2C+Newspapers.%2C+Turkey%2C+Clippings+And+Items.%2C+March+22%2C+1924+%E2%80%93+March+12%2C+1925&rft.date=1924-03-22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrohmeier2019" class="citation journal cs1">Strohmeier, Martin (3 September 2019). "The exile of Husayn b. Ali, ex-sharif of Mecca and ex-king of the Hijaz, in Cyprus (1925–1930)". <i>Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>55</b> (5): 733–755. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263206.2019.1596895">10.1080/00263206.2019.1596895</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164473838">164473838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+exile+of+Husayn+b.+Ali%2C+ex-sharif+of+Mecca+and+ex-king+of+the+Hijaz%2C+in+Cyprus+%281925%E2%80%931930%29&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=733-755&rft.date=2019-09-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263206.2019.1596895&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164473838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Strohmeier&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSazonovEspakMölderSaumets2020" class="citation book cs1">Sazonov, Vladimir; Espak, Peeter; Mölder, Holger; Saumets, Andres (2020). <i>Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East: The Historical, Cultural and Political Legacy of Intercultural Dialogue and Conflict from the Ancient Near East to the Present Day</i>. University of Tartu Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9949-03-520-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9949-03-520-5"><bdi>978-9949-03-520-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Crossroads+in+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Historical%2C+Cultural+and+Political+Legacy+of+Intercultural+Dialogue+and+Conflict+from+the+Ancient+Near+East+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=University+of+Tartu+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-9949-03-520-5&rft.aulast=Sazonov&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft.au=Espak%2C+Peeter&rft.au=M%C3%B6lder%2C+Holger&rft.au=Saumets%2C+Andres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBar2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bar, Shmuel (January 2016). "The implications of the Caliphate". <i>Comparative Strategy</i>. <b>35</b> (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01495933.2016.1133994">10.1080/01495933.2016.1133994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157012525">157012525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Strategy&rft.atitle=The+implications+of+the+Caliphate&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01495933.2016.1133994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157012525%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bar&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaggart2014" class="citation news cs1">Taggart, Steve (10 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelondoneconomic.com/2014/07/10/islamic-caliph-condemns-isis-act-of-un-islamic-terror/">"Islamic Caliph condemns ISIS' act of 'Un-Islamic terror'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Economic" title="The London Economic">The London Economic</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141015181038/http://www.thelondoneconomic.com/2014/07/10/islamic-caliph-condemns-isis-act-of-un-islamic-terror/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Economic&rft.atitle=Islamic+Caliph+condemns+ISIS%27+act+of+%27Un-Islamic+terror%27&rft.date=2014-07-10&rft.aulast=Taggart&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelondoneconomic.com%2F2014%2F07%2F10%2Fislamic-caliph-condemns-isis-act-of-un-islamic-terror%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesplatSchulz2014" class="citation book cs1">Desplat, Patrick A.; Schulz, Dorothea E. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cW5EBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82"><i>Prayer in the City: The Making of Muslim Sacred Places and Urban Life</i></a>. Verlag. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3839419458" title="Special:BookSources/978-3839419458"><bdi>978-3839419458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prayer+in+the+City%3A+The+Making+of+Muslim+Sacred+Places+and+Urban+Life&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3839419458&rft.aulast=Desplat&rft.aufirst=Patrick+A.&rft.au=Schulz%2C+Dorothea+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcW5EBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199757268" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199757268"><bdi>978-0199757268</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131632/https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA11">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2019</span>. <q>Rejected by the majority of Muslims as heretical since it believes in ongoing prophethood after the death of Muhammad. Currently based in Pakistan, but forbidden to practice, preach, or propagate their faith as Islam or their places of worship as mosques.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0199757268&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE324pQEEQQcC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reviewofreligions.org/1772/editorial-68/">"Hadhrat Mirza Masroor Ahmad, Khalifatul Masih V"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Review_of_Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="The Review of Religions">The Review of Religions</a></i>. Islamic Publications. May 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6721">0034-6721</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727213542/http://www.reviewofreligions.org/1772/editorial-68/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Religions&rft.atitle=Hadhrat+Mirza+Masroor+Ahmad%2C+Khalifatul+Masih+V&rft.date=2008-05&rft.issn=0034-6721&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reviewofreligions.org%2F1772%2Feditorial-68%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinderman2017" class="citation news cs1">Linderman, Juliet (14 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nola.com/religion/index.ssf/2013/11/the_ahmadiyya_muslim_community.html">"The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community celebrates its new cultural outpost in Kenner"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NOLA.com" class="mw-redirect" title="NOLA.com">NOLA.com</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Advance_Local_Media_LLC" class="mw-redirect" title="Advance Local Media LLC">Advance Local Media LLC</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180617192640/https://www.nola.com/religion/index.ssf/2013/11/the_ahmadiyya_muslim_community.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NOLA.com&rft.atitle=The+Ahmadiyya+Muslim+Community+celebrates+its+new+cultural+outpost+in+Kenner&rft.date=2017-06-14&rft.aulast=Linderman&rft.aufirst=Juliet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nola.com%2Freligion%2Findex.ssf%2F2013%2F11%2Fthe_ahmadiyya_muslim_community.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reun-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reun_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Washington Post</i>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/13/AR2006011301816.html">Reunified Islam: Unlikely but Not Entirely Radical, Restoration of Caliphate resonates With Mainstream Muslims</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011081130/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/13/AR2006011301816.html">Archived</a> 11 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Hammond, (2006). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171115010934/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=18746">Islamic caliphate a dream, not reality</a></i>. Middle East Online</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin Jackson, "The Forgotten Caliphate", <i>Jihadica</i>, 14 December 2014, quoted in Wood, <i>The Way of the Strangers</i>, 2017, pp. 152–255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wood-153-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wood-153_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wood-153_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, <i>The Way of the Strangers</i>, 2017, p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Interview with Kevin Jackson, 15 December 2015, quoted in Wood, <i>The Way of the Strangers</i>, 2017, p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin Jackson, "The Forgotten Caliphate", <i>Jihadica</i>, 14 December 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wood-155-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wood-155_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wood-155_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, <i>The Way of the Strangers</i>, 2017, p. 155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, <i>The Way of the Strangers</i>, 2017, p. 297, n. 14. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/caliphate-wont-last-but-its-legacy-may/story-e6frg6zo-1227017262005?nk=51e8f7ae253f68a1dc07a0006cd370bf">"Caliphate won't last but its legacy may"</a>. The Australian. 8 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caliphate+won%27t+last+but+its+legacy+may&rft.pub=The+Australian&rft.date=2014-08-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fopinion%2Fcaliphate-wont-last-but-its-legacy-may%2Fstory-e6frg6zo-1227017262005%3Fnk%3D51e8f7ae253f68a1dc07a0006cd370bf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28560449">"Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi: Islamic State's driving force"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 30 July 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140731104059/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28560449">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Abu+Bakr+al-Baghdadi%3A+Islamic+State%27s+driving+force&rft.date=2014-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-28560449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaheen2015" class="citation news cs1">Shaheen, Kareem (21 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/21/isis-palmyra-syria-islamic-state">"Isis 'controls 50% of Syria' after seizing historic city of Palmyra"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150930133020/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/21/isis-palmyra-syria-islamic-state">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Isis+%27controls+50%25+of+Syria%27+after+seizing+historic+city+of+Palmyra&rft.date=2015-05-21&rft.aulast=Shaheen&rft.aufirst=Kareem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2015%2Fmay%2F21%2Fisis-palmyra-syria-islamic-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28082962">"Isis rebels declare 'Islamic state' in Iraq and Syria"</a>. BBC. 30 June 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221118195906/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28082962">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Isis+rebels+declare+%27Islamic+state%27+in+Iraq+and+Syria&rft.date=2014-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-28082962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-icrc-idUSKBN0M921N20150313">"Islamic State-controlled parts of Syria, Iraq largely out of reach: Red Cross"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. 13 March 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626142235/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/13/us-mideast-crisis-syria-icrc-idUSKBN0M921N20150313">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Islamic+State-controlled+parts+of+Syria%2C+Iraq+largely+out+of+reach%3A+Red+Cross&rft.date=2015-03-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-mideast-crisis-syria-icrc-idUSKBN0M921N20150313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerges,_Fawaz_A.2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fawaz_Gerges" title="Fawaz Gerges">Gerges, Fawaz A.</a> (2017). <i>ISIS: A History</i>. Princeton University Press (Kindle Edition). pp. 283–284. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691175799" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691175799"><bdi>978-0691175799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISIS%3A+A+History&rft.pages=283-284&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press+%28Kindle+Edition%29&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0691175799&rft.au=Gerges%2C+Fawaz+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/23/world/middleeast/assad-supporters-weigh-benefits-of-us-strikes-in-syria.html?_r=0">"Blamed for Rise of ISIS, Syrian Leader Is Pushed to Escalate Fight"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 22 August 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170715060520/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/23/world/middleeast/assad-supporters-weigh-benefits-of-us-strikes-in-syria.html?_r=0">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Blamed+for+Rise+of+ISIS%2C+Syrian+Leader+Is+Pushed+to+Escalate+Fight&rft.date=2014-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F08%2F23%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Fassad-supporters-weigh-benefits-of-us-strikes-in-syria.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timeline-WC-2019-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Timeline-WC-2019_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timeline-WC-2019_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/timeline-the-rise-spread-and-fall-the-islamic-state">"Timeline: the Rise, Spread, and Fall of the Islamic State"</a>. <i>The Wilson Center</i>. 28 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210208025300/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/timeline-the-rise-spread-and-fall-the-islamic-state">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Wilson+Center&rft.atitle=Timeline%3A+the+Rise%2C+Spread%2C+and+Fall+of+the+Islamic+State&rft.date=2019-10-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Farticle%2Ftimeline-the-rise-spread-and-fall-the-islamic-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=1870&region=E1">"The Holy Quran"</a>. Alislam.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626144851/http://www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=1870&region=E1">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Khilafat-e-Rashidah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alislam.org%2Flibrary%2Fbooks%2FKhilafat-e-Rashida.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alislam.org/egazette/updates/the-islamic-khilafat-its-rise-fall-and-re-emergence/">"The Islamic Khilafat – Its Rise, Fall, and Re-emergence"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Reunified+Islam%3A+Unlikely+but+Not+Entirely+Radical&rft.date=2006-01-14&rft.aulast=Vick&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F13%2FAR2006011301816.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roy, Olivier, <i>Failure of Islamism,</i> Harvard University Press, (1994) pp. 42–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ikhwanweb.com/Article.asp?ID=967&SectionID=91">"The Muslim Brotherhood And Copts, Historical Perspective"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Campus+Radicals+%E2%80%93+Hizb-ut+Tahrir&rft.pub=Newstatesman.com&rft.date=2007-04-17&rft.aulast=Bieliauskas&rft.aufirst=Hana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newstatesman.com%2F200704170005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonn2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Sonn" title="Tamara Sonn">Sonn, Tamara</a> (2010). <i>Islam: A Brief History</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8094-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8094-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-8094-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.pages=38&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8094-8&rft.aulast=Sonn&rft.aufirst=Tamara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Masnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Mishkat, Chapter Al-Anzar Wal Tahzir</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Naeem_Bin_Hammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Naeem Bin Hammad">Naeem Bin Hammad</a>, Kitab Al-Fitan (8584\503\4) أخرج ( ك ) نعيم بن حماد (986) , والحاكم</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EI2-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EI2_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Madelung, Wilferd (1986). 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Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 1230–1238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09419-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09419-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-Mahd%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.pages=1230-1238&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09419-2&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"As-Sirah" of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kathir" title="Ibn Kathir">Ibn Kathir</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Tarikh ut-Tabari" by at-Tabari</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Siratu Ibn Hisham" by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hisham" title="Ibn Hisham">Ibn Hisham</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"As-Sunan ul-Kubra" of Bayhaqi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Al-fasil-fil Milal" by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibnu_Hazim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibnu Hazim (page does not exist)">Ibnu Hazim</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Al-A’kd Al-Farid" of Al-Waqidi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"as-Sirah" of Ibnu Ishaq</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahj-ul-Balagha (part 1 p. 91)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ahkam_Al-Sultaniyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyah (page does not exist)">Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyah</a> p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhalla" title="Al-Muhalla">Al-Muhalla</a>, volume 9, p. 360</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subul Al-Asha, volume 9, p. 277</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Mizan, volume 2, p. 157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mughni Al-Muhtaj, volume 4, p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Mughni fi abwab Al-Tawheed, volume 20, p. 243</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Fiqh Alal-Mathahib Al- Arba’a (the fiqh of the four schools of thought), volume 5, p. 416</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Fasl Fil-Milal, volume 4, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matalib Ulil-Amr</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maqalat Al-Islamyin, volume 2, p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Moghni Fi Abuab Al-Tawhid, volume 20, pp. 58–145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=30">2:30</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tafseer ul-Qurtubi 264/1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharhu Sahih Muslim p. 205 vol 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">al Iqtisaad fil Itiqaad p. 240</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siyaasah Shariyyah – chapter: 'The obligation of adherence to the leadership'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan A. Wensinck, <i>Concordance de la Tradition Musulmane</i> vol. 2, p. 70. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, 1936–1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frncis1984-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frncis1984_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Robinson" title="Francis Robinson">Robinson, Francis</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofislamicwo0000robi"><i>Atlas of the Islamic World Since 1500</i></a></span>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Facts_on_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Facts on File">Facts on File</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofislamicwo0000robi/page/47">47</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0871966298" title="Special:BookSources/0871966298"><bdi>0871966298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Islamic+World+Since+1500&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0871966298&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlasofislamicwo0000robi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bahai-library.com/momen_introduction_shii_islam%26chapter%3D7">"7: Imamate"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism</i>. p. 147+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171210071623/https://bahai-library.com/momen_introduction_shii_islam%26chapter%3D7">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3A+Imamate&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Shi%27i+Islam%3A+The+History+and+Doctrines+of+Twelver+Shi%27ism&rft.pages=147%2B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbahai-library.com%2Fmomen_introduction_shii_islam%2526chapter%253D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1x-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1x_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1x_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachedina1981" class="citation book cs1">Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1981). <i>Islamic messianism : the idea of Mahdi in twelver Shīʻism</i>. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780873954426" title="Special:BookSources/9780873954426"><bdi>9780873954426</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6420933">6420933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+messianism+%3A+the+idea+of+Mahdi+in+twelver+Sh%C4%AB%CA%BBism&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6420933&rft.isbn=9780873954426&rft.aulast=Sachedina&rft.aufirst=Abdulaziz+Abdulhussein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFḤusayn1975" class="citation book cs1">Ḥusayn, Ṭabāṭabāʼī Muḥammad (1975). <i>Shiʻite Islam</i> (1st ed.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0873952729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0873952729"><bdi>978-0873952729</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/123145315">123145315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shi%CA%BBite+Islam&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123145315&rft.isbn=978-0873952729&rft.aulast=%E1%B8%A4usayn&rft.aufirst=%E1%B9%ACab%C4%81%E1%B9%ADab%C4%81%CA%BC%C4%AB+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Rafia'a & Derayati 2003: Al-Hashiyah ala al-Usul al-Kafi (in Arabic)</i>. pp. 590–599.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rafia%27a+%26+Derayati+2003%3A+Al-Hashiyah+ala+al-Usul+al-Kafi+%28in+Arabic%29.&rft.pages=590-599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachedina1988" class="citation book cs1">Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1988). <i>The just ruler (al-sultān al-adil) in Shīite Islam : the comprehensive authority of the jurist in Imamite jurisprudence</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195119152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195119152"><bdi>978-0195119152</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45842548">45842548</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+just+ruler+%28al-sult%C4%81n+al-adil%29+in+Sh%C4%ABite+Islam+%3A+the+comprehensive+authority+of+the+jurist+in+Imamite+jurisprudence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45842548&rft.isbn=978-0195119152&rft.aulast=Sachedina&rft.aufirst=Abdulaziz+Abdulhussein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Red Shi'ism vs. Black Shi'ism: Social Justice and Salvation for the Masses</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Shi%27ism+vs.+Black+Shi%27ism%3A+Social+Justice+and+Salvation+for+the+Masses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Thirtieth_Greater_Sin:_Not_Helping_the_Oppressed" class="citation book cs1">The Thirtieth Greater Sin: Not Helping the Oppressed. <i>Ayatullah Sayyid Abdul Husayn Dastghaib Shirazi Greater Sins</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ayatullah+Sayyid+Abdul+Husayn+Dastghaib+Shirazi+Greater+Sins&rft.au=The+Thirtieth+Greater+Sin%3A+Not+Helping+the+Oppressed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whoishussain.org/about/story/">"Our Story"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220805120843/https://whoishussain.org/about/story/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Story&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhoishussain.org%2Fabout%2Fstory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2muslims-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2muslims_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2muslims_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2muslims_159-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2muslims.com/directory/Detailed/225505.shtml">"Gharm Allah Al-Ghamdy"</a>. 2muslims.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707062249/http://www.2muslims.com/directory/Detailed/225505.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gharm+Allah+Al-Ghamdy&rft.pub=2muslims.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2muslims.com%2Fdirectory%2FDetailed%2F225505.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeaves2010" class="citation book cs1">Geaves, Ron (1 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pzCvE-P75CAC&pg=PA61"><i>Islam Today: An Introduction</i></a>. A&C Black. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84706-478-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84706-478-3"><bdi>978-1-84706-478-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131633/https://books.google.com/books?id=pzCvE-P75CAC&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+Today%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft.isbn=978-1-84706-478-3&rft.aulast=Geaves&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpzCvE-P75CAC%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFWeeramantry1997">Weeramantry 1997</a>, pp. 132 & 135); Mathieu Tillier, Judicial Authority and <i>Qāḍī</i>s’ Autonomy under the Abbasids, <i>al-Masāq</i>, 26 (2014), p. 119-131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feldman-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Feldman_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2008" class="citation news cs1">Feldman, Noah (16 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all">"Why Shariah?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121116110730/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Shariah%3F&rft.date=2008-03-16&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F03%2F16%2Fmagazine%2F16Shariah-t.html%3Fei%3D5070%26em%3D%26en%3D5c1b8de536ce606f%26ex%3D1205812800%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Idrisi-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Idrisi_164-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Idrisi_164-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zohor Idrisi (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf">The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080625192522/http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/AgricultureRevolution2.pdf">Archived</a> 25 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, FSTC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Shatzmiller" title="Maya Shatzmiller">Maya Shatzmiller</a>, p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Cambridge economic history of Europe</i>, p. 437. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08709-0">0-521-08709-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i> <b>29</b> (1), p. 79-96 [81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Banaji-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banaji_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanaji2007" class="citation journal cs1">Banaji, Jairus (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15983/1/Islam%20and%20capitalism.pdf">"Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Materialism_(journal)" title="Historical Materialism (journal)">Historical Materialism</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1): 47–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156920607x171591">10.1163/156920607x171591</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412055545/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15983/1/Islam%20and%20capitalism.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 12 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Materialism&rft.atitle=Islam%2C+the+Mediterranean+and+the+rise+of+capitalism&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-74&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156920607x171591&rft.aulast=Banaji&rft.aufirst=Jairus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F15983%2F1%2FIslam%2520and%2520capitalism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), <i>Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents</i>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12357-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12357-4">0-231-12357-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuran2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kuran, Timur (Fall 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/2546/1/Kuran_The_Absence_of.pdf">"The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The American Journal of Comparative Law</i>. <b>53</b> (4): 785–834. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2F53.4.785">10.1093/ajcl/53.4.785</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10161%2F2546">10161/2546</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30038724">30038724</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131532/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/2546/Kuran_The_Absence_of.pdf;jsessionid=4326D8A92D6E2F21598EB6C8926E477D?sequence=1">Archived</a> from the original on 17 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=The+Absence+of+the+Corporation+in+Islamic+Law%3A+Origins+and+Persistence&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=785-834&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10161%2F2546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30038724%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcl%2F53.4.785&rft.aulast=Kuran&rft.aufirst=Timur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdukespace.lib.duke.edu%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F10161%2F2546%2F1%2FKuran_The_Absence_of.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabib1969" class="citation journal cs1">Labib, Subhi Y. 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"Capitalism in Medieval Islam". <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 79–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700097837">10.1017/S0022050700097837</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2115499">2115499</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153962294">153962294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Capitalism+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=79-96&rft.date=1969-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153962294%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2115499%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700097837&rft.aulast=Labib&rft.aufirst=Subhi+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpier2002" class="citation journal cs1">Spier, Ray (August 2002). 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"The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century". <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 263–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs001041759900208x">10.1017/s001041759900208x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/179447">179447</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144129603">144129603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=The+Law%2C+Agency%2C+and+Policy+in+Medieval+Islamic+Society%3A+Development+of+the+Institutions+of+Learning+from+the+Tenth+to+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=263-93&rft.date=1999-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144129603%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F179447%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs001041759900208x&rft.aulast=Arjomand&rft.aufirst=Said+Amir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmin1978" class="citation journal cs1">Amin, Samir (June 1978). 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Kevin Jaques", <i>Journal of Islamic Studies</i>, <b>18</b> (2): 246–248 [246], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2Fetm005">10.1093/jis/etm005</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Authority%2C+Conflict%2C+and+the+Transmission+of+Diversity+in+Medieval+Islamic+Law+by+R.+Kevin+Jaques&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=246-248+246&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2Fetm005&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+Atif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzmiller1994" class="citation cs2">Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), <i>Labour in the Medieval Islamic World</i>, Brill Publishers, p. 66, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09896-1"><bdi>978-90-04-09896-1</bdi></a>, <q>Life expectancy was another area where Islamic society diverged from the suggested model for agricultural society. No less than three separate studies about the life expectancy of religious scholars, two from 11th century Muslim Spain, and one from the Middle East, concluded that members of this occupational group enjoyed a life expectancy of 69, 75, and 72.8 years respectively!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labour+in+the+Medieval+Islamic+World&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09896-1&rft.aulast=Shatzmiller&rft.aufirst=Maya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShatzmiller1994" class="citation cs2">Shatzmiller, Maya (1994), <i>Labour in the Medieval Islamic World</i>, Brill Publishers, p. 66, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09896-1"><bdi>978-90-04-09896-1</bdi></a>, <q>This rate is uncommonly high, not only under the conditions in medieval cities, where these 'ulama' lived, but also in terms of the average life expectancy for contemporary males. [...] In other words, the social group studied through the biographies is, a priori, a misleading sample, since it was composed exclusively of individuals who enjoyed exceptional longevity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Labour+in+the+Medieval+Islamic+World&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09896-1&rft.aulast=Shatzmiller&rft.aufirst=Maya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2006" class="citation cs2">Conrad, Lawrence I. (2006), <i>The Western Medical Tradition</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. 15, 137, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47564-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47564-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47564-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Medical+Tradition&rft.pages=15%2C+137&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47564-8&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/241864.stm">"A millennium of health improvement"</a>. BBC. 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170816015345/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/241864.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+millennium+of+health+improvement&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fhealth%2F241864.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson" class="citation cs2">Coulson, Andrew J., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817928928_105.pdf"><i>Delivering Education</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a>, p. 117, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110817054244/http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/0817928928_105.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 17 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2008</span>, <q>Reaching further back through the centuries, the civilisations regarded as having the highest literacy rates of their ages were parent-driven educational marketplaces. The ability to read and write was far more widely enjoyed in the early medieval Islamic empire and in fourth-century-B.C.E. Athens than in any other cultures of their times.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delivering+Education&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution&rft.aulast=Coulson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.hoover.org%2Fdocuments%2F0817928928_105.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2009" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>, <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [177–8], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233">143484233</a>, <q>The spread of written knowledge was at least the equal of what it was in China after printing became common there in the tenth century. (Chinese books were printed in small editions of a hundred or so copies.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-186+177-8&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson" class="citation cs2">Coulson, Andrew J., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817928928_105.pdf"><i>Delivering Education</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a>, p. 117, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110817054244/http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/0817928928_105.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 17 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2008</span>, <q>In neither case did the state supply or even systematically subsidise educational services. The Muslim world's eventual introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the eleventh century was quickly followed by partisan religious squabbling over education and the gradual fall of Islam from its place of cultural and scientific preeminence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Delivering+Education&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution&rft.aulast=Coulson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.hoover.org%2Fdocuments%2F0817928928_105.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2009" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>, <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [177], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233">143484233</a>, <q>According to legend, paper came to the Islamic world as a result of the capture of Chinese paper makers at the 751 C.E. battle of Talas River.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-186+177&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2009" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>, <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [177], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233">143484233</a>, <q>Whatever the source, the diffusion of paper-making technology via the lands of Islam produced a shift from oral to scribal culture across the rest of Afroeurasia that was rivalled only by the move from scribal to typographic culture. (Perhaps it will prove to have been even more important than the recent move from typographic culture to the Internet.) The result was remarkable. As historian Jonathan Bloom informs us, paper encouraged "an efflorescence of books and written culture incomparably more brilliant than was known anywhere in Europe until the invention of printing with movable type in the fifteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-186+177&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2009" class="citation cs2">Burke, Edmund (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i>, <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [178], <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484233">143484233</a>, <q>More so than any previously existing society, Islamic society of the period 1000–1500 was profoundly a culture of books. [...] The emergence of a culture of books is closely tied to cultural dispositions toward literacy in Islamic societies. Muslim young men were encouraged to memorise the Qur'an as part of their transition to adulthood, and while most presumably did not (though little is known about literacy levels in pre-Mongol Muslim societies), others did. Types of literacy in any event varied, as Nelly Hanna has recently suggested, and are best studied as part of the complex social dynamics and contexts of individual Muslim societies. The need to conform commercial contracts and business arrangements to <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> provided a further impetus for literacy, especially likely in commercial centers. Scholars often engaged in commercial activity and craftsmen or tradesmen often spent time studying in madrasas. The connection between what <a href="/wiki/Brian_Street" title="Brian Street">Brian Street</a> has called "maktab literacy" and commercial literacy was real and exerted a steady pressure on individuals to upgrade their reading skills.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-186+178&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1993" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, T. W. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=PA881">"Khalīfa"</a>. In Houtsma, M. Th (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam"><i>E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936</i></a>. Vol. IV. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 881–885. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09790-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khal%C4%ABfa&rft.btitle=E.J.+Brill%27s+First+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+1913%E2%80%931936&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=881-885&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09790-2&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=T.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CP7fYghBFQC%26pg%3DPA881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroneHinds1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Crone" title="Patricia Crone">Crone, Patricia</a>; Hinds, Martin (1986), <i>God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam</i>, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32185-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32185-3"><bdi>978-0-521-32185-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Caliph%3A+Religious+Authority+in+the+First+Centuries+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32185-3&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Hinds%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonner1981" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Donner" title="Fred Donner">Donner, Fred McGraw</a> (1981), <i>The Early Islamic Conquests</i>, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fheb.00877">2027/heb.00877</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05327-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05327-1"><bdi>978-0-691-05327-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fheb.00877&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05327-1&rft.aulast=Donner&rft.aufirst=Fred+McGraw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrickWalker2014" class="citation book cs1">Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2AtvBAAAQBAJ"><i>Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God</i></a>. Abc-Clio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610691789" title="Special:BookSources/9781610691789"><bdi>9781610691789</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+in+History%2C+Thought%2C+and+Culture%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+the+Prophet+of+God&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781610691789&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Coeli&rft.au=Walker%2C+Adam+Hani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2AtvBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoeje1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jan_de_Goeje" title="Michael Jan de Goeje">Goeje, Michael Jan de</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Caliphate"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Caliphate">"Caliphate" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caliphate&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Goeje&rft.aufirst=Michael+Jan+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeramantry1997" class="citation book cs1">Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997). <i>Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-411-0241-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-411-0241-8"><bdi>90-411-0241-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justice+Without+Frontiers%3A+Furthering+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=90-411-0241-8&rft.aulast=Weeramantry&rft.aufirst=Judge+Christopher+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Wright" title="Lawrence Wright">Wright, Lawrence</a> (2007) [2006], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/loomingtower00lawr"><i>The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11</i></a>, London: Vintage, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-3084-2"><bdi>978-1-4000-3084-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Looming+Tower%3A+Al+Qaeda+and+the+Road+to+9%2F11&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-3084-2&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Floomingtower00lawr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_M._Holt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter M. Holt">Holt, Peter M.</a> (1984). "Some Observations on the 'Abbāsid Caliphate of Cairo". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 501–507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00113710">10.1017/s0041977x00113710</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161092185">161092185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Some+Observations+on+the+%27Abb%C4%81sid+Caliphate+of+Cairo&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=501-507&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x00113710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161092185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÖzoğlu2011" class="citation book cs1">Özoğlu, Hakan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cAhcJj-ij28C&pg=PA6"><i>From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313379567" title="Special:BookSources/9780313379567"><bdi>9780313379567</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Caliphate+to+Secular+State%3A+Power+Struggle+in+the+Early+Turkish+Republic&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780313379567&rft.aulast=%C3%96zo%C4%9Flu&rft.aufirst=Hakan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcAhcJj-ij28C%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="GWWotS2017" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Graeme (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bPoOCwAAQBAJ&q=The+Way+of+the+Strangers+by+wood"><i>The Way of the Strangers : Encounters with the Islamic State</i></a>. New York: Random House. pp. 128–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-8875-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-8875-8"><bdi>978-0-8129-8875-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+of+the+Strangers+%3A+Encounters+with+the+Islamic+State&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=128-9&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-8875-8&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbPoOCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BWay%2Bof%2Bthe%2BStrangers%2Bby%2Bwood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629130758/http://www.studyislam.com/isp/jsp/IslamBasic/Islamic_State.html">The theory of government in Islam</a>, by The Internet Islamic University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YnDEQSxryykC&pg=PA1">The History of Al-Khilafah Ar-Rashidah (The Rightly Guided Caliphates)</a> School Textbook, By Dr. '<a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahsan" title="Abdullah al-Ahsan">Abdullah al-Ahsan</a>, `Abdullah Ahsan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oALIyvjV0fEC&pg=PA1">The Crisis of the Early Caliphate</a> By Richard Stephen Humphreys, Stephen (EDT) Humphreys from The History of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4J3PJZDYBMoC&pg=PA1">The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate</a> By Clifford Edmund (TRN) Bosworth, from The History of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GcKhwo8SmlMC&pg=PR25">Return of the Caliphate to Baghdad</a> By Franz Rosenthal from The History of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s04pus5jBNwC&pg=RA1-PA2">Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877–1924)</a> By Azmi Özcan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=riIDwZ3K85AC&pg=RA1-PR23">Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate from Contemporary Arabic and Persian Sources</a> By Guy Le Strange</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-Wvg__iHPAC&pg=PA1">The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba: Berbers and Andalusis in conflict</a> By Peter C. Scales</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alislam.org/topics/khilafat/khilafat-and-caliphate.pdf">Khilafat and Caliphate</a>, By Mubasher Ahmad</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11829711">The abolition of the Caliphate</a>, from <i>The Economist</i>, 8 March 1924</li> <li><i>The Clash of the Caliphates: Understanding the real war of ideas</i>, by Tony Corn, Small Wars Journal, March 2011</li> <li>Hüseyin Yılmaz. <i>Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought</i>. Princeton University Press, 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8804-7">978-1-4008-8804-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Caliphates" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Caliphates">Caliphates</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Caliphate">"Caliphate"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Caliphate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FCaliphate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaliphate" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://interactive.aljazeera.com/aje/2016/the-caliph-islamic-history/index.html">The Caliph</a> – a three-part documentary by <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,3604,1605653,00.html">The return of the caliphate</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6943070.stm">Islamists urge caliphate revival</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Umayyad_dynasty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Umayyads" title="Template:Umayyads"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Umayyads" title="Template talk:Umayyads"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Umayyads" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Umayyads"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Umayyad_dynasty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty#Family_tree_of_Umayyad_rulers" title="Umayyad dynasty">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Umayyad_caliphs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Umayyad caliphs">Media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Caliphs of Damascus</a><br />(661–750)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_II" title="Mu'awiya II">Mu'awiya II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_I" title="Marwan I">Marwan I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_I" title="Al-Walid I">Al-Walid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik">Sulayman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" title="Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik">Hisham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Walid_II" title="Al-Walid II">Al-Walid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_III" title="Yazid III">Yazid III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Walid" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Walid">Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg/110px-%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg/165px-%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg/220px-%E5%80%AD%E9%A6%AC%E4%BA%9E%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E7%89%88%E5%9C%96.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="853" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirs of Córdoba</a><br />(756–929)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_I" title="Abd al-Rahman I">Abd al-Rahman I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Hisham I of Córdoba">Hisham I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_I" title="Al-Hakam I">Al-Hakam I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II" title="Abd ar-Rahman II">Abd ar-Rahman II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba">Muhammad I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Al-Mundhir of Córdoba">al-Mundhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Abdullah of Córdoba">Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphs of Córdoba</a><br />(929–1031)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III" title="Abd al-Rahman III">Abd al-Rahman III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_II" title="Hisham II">Hisham II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad II of Córdoba">Muhammad II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_al-Hakam" title="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam">Sulayman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_II" title="Hisham II">Hisham II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulayman_ibn_al-Hakam" title="Sulayman ibn al-Hakam">Sulayman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27ayti" title="Al-Mu'ayti">Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_IV" title="Abd al-Rahman IV">Abd al-Rahman IV</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Nasir" title="Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir">Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir</a></i><sup>[H]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun">Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud</a></i><sup>[H]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Mu%27tali" title="Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali">Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali</a></i><sup>[H]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Qasim_al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun">Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud</a></i><sup>[H]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_V" title="Abd al-Rahman V">Abd al-Rahman V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_III_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad III of Córdoba">Muhammad III</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Ali_ibn_Hammud_al-Mu%27tali" title="Yahya ibn Ali ibn Hammud al-Mu'tali">Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali</a></i><sup>[H]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_III_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Hisham III of Córdoba">Hisham III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><sup>[H]</sup> indicates <a href="/wiki/Hammudid_dynasty" title="Hammudid dynasty">Hammudid</a> usurpers</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abbasid_Caliphs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Template:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Template talk:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abbasid_Caliphs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a><br />(749–1258)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz</a></i><sup>[B]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muti%27" title="Al-Muti'">al-Muti'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i%27" title="Al-Ta'i'">al-Ta'i'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_I" title="Al-Mustansir I">al-Mustansir I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><i>(<a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Mongol conquest</a>)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a><br />(1261–1517)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">al-Mustansir II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_I" title="Al-Hakim I">al-Hakim I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_I_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustakfi I (Cairo)">al-Mustakfi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_I" title="Al-Wathiq I">al-Wathiq I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_II" title="Al-Hakim II">al-Hakim II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_I" title="Al-Mu'tadid I">al-Mu'tadid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_II" title="Al-Wathiq II">al-Wathiq II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_II" title="Al-Mu'tadid II">al-Mu'tadid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_II" title="Al-Mustakfi II">al-Mustakfi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Cairo)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Cairo)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustanjid (Cairo)">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_II" title="Al-Mutawakkil II">al-Mutawakkil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%9317)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)">Ottoman conquest</a>)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>[B]</sup> indicates ephemeral caliphs recognized in the city of Baghdad only</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fatimid_Caliphs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fatimid_caliphs" title="Template:Fatimid caliphs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fatimid_caliphs" title="Template talk:Fatimid caliphs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fatimid_caliphs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fatimid caliphs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fatimid_Caliphs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Fatimid_caliphs" title="List of Fatimid caliphs">Fatimid Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_al-Mahdi_Billah" title="Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Fatimid_caliph)" title="Al-Qa'im (Fatimid caliph)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur_Billah" title="Al-Mansur Billah">al-Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27izz_li-Din_Allah" title="Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah">al-Mu'izz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Aziz_Billah" title="Al-Aziz Billah">al-Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">al-Hakim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_li-I%27zaz_Din_Allah" title="Al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_Billah" title="Al-Mustansir Billah">al-Mustansir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27li" title="Al-Musta'li">al-Musta'li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amir_bi-Ahkam_Allah" title="Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah">al-Amir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hafiz" title="Al-Hafiz">al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zafir" title="Al-Zafir">al-Zafir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fa%27iz_bi-Nasr_Allah" title="Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah">al-Fa'iz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adid" title="Al-Adid">al-Adid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ottoman_sultans_/_caliphs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">sultans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_tree" title="Ottoman family tree">Family tree (detailed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_tree_(simplified)" title="Ottoman family tree (simplified)">Family tree (simplified)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty#Succession_practices" title="Ottoman dynasty">Line of succession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0sa_%C3%87elebi" title="İsa Çelebi">İsa Çelebi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_%C3%87elebi" title="Süleyman Çelebi">Süleyman Çelebi</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi" title="Musa Çelebi">Musa Çelebi</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_%C3%87elebi" title="Mustafa Çelebi">Mustafa Çelebi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayezid_II" title="Bayezid II">Bayezid II</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cem_Sultan" title="Cem Sultan">Cem Sultan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a><sup>§</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selim_II" title="Selim II">Selim II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_III" title="Murad III">Murad III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_III" title="Mehmed III">Mehmed III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_I" title="Ahmed I">Ahmed I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_I" title="Mustafa I">Mustafa I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osman_II" title="Osman II">Osman II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_I" title="Mustafa I">Mustafa I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire">Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire">Suleiman II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_II" title="Ahmed II">Ahmed II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_II" title="Mustafa II">Mustafa II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_III" title="Ahmed III">Ahmed III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_I" title="Mahmud I">Mahmud I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osman_III" title="Osman III">Osman III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_III" title="Mustafa III">Mustafa III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_I" title="Abdul Hamid I">Abdul Hamid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_IV" title="Mustafa IV">Mustafa IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid I">Abdulmejid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulaziz" title="Abdulaziz">Abdulaziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murad_V" title="Murad V">Murad V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_V" title="Mehmed V">Mehmed V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_VI" title="Mehmed VI">Mehmed VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulmejid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdulmejid II">Abdulmejid II</a><sup>§§</sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>§</sup> First Ottoman caliph • <sup>§§</sup> Caliph only <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_states" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#66CC33;background:#66CC33"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_state" title="Template:Islamic state"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_state" title="Template talk:Islamic state"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_state" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic state"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_states" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic states</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)">Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_Twelver_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shi'a Twelver doctrine)">Twelver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Nizari_Ismaili_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Nizari Ismaili doctrine)">Sevener</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardianship_of_the_Islamic_Jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists">Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_monarchy" title="Islamic monarchy">Islamic monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">Islamic emirate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131401#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131401#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131401#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/257263881">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7722009-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Caliphate"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85018926">United States</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Islamic Empire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85068444">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="イスラム帝国"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564276">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="chalífát"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph744840&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293762105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/hilafet">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caliphate&oldid=1259682082">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caliphate&oldid=1259682082</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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