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class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Connections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Connections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emotional_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emotional_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Emotional learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emotional_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reward" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reward"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Reward</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reward-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory_modulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory_modulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Memory modulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory_modulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuropsychological_correlates_of_amygdala_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuropsychological_correlates_of_amygdala_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neuropsychological_correlates_of_amygdala_activity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neuropsychological_correlates_of_amygdala_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexual_orientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sexual orientation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_orientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aggression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aggression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Aggression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aggression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Fear</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alcoholism_and_binge_drinking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcoholism_and_binge_drinking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Alcoholism and binge drinking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcoholism_and_binge_drinking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anxiety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anxiety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Anxiety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anxiety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posttraumatic_stress_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Posttraumatic stress disorder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posttraumatic_stress_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bipolar_disorder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bipolar_disorder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Bipolar disorder</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bipolar_disorder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Amygdala</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لوزة دماغية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لوزة دماغية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuerpu_amigdal%C3%ADn" title="Cuerpu amigdalín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cuerpu amigdalín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Бадемовидно тяло – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бадемовидно тяло" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucli_amigdaloide" title="Nucli amigdaloide – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nucli amigdaloide" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandeltuum" title="Mandeltuum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mandeltuum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AE_(%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82)" title="Αμυγδαλή (εγκέφαλος) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμυγδαλή (εγκέφαλος)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuerpo_amigdalino" title="Cuerpo amigdalino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cuerpo amigdalino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala_gorputz" title="Amigdala gorputz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Amigdala gorputz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84" title="آمیگدال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آمیگدال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdale_(cerveau)" title="Amygdale (cerveau) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Amygdale (cerveau)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%ADgdala_cerebral" title="Amígdala cerebral – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Amígdala cerebral" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8E%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%B4" title="편도체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="편도체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%B1%D6%87_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Նշաձև մարմին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նշաձև մարմին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="गलतुण्डिका – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गलतुण्डिका" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%92%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%94" title="אמיגדלה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמיגדלה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Бадамша дене – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бадамша дене" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_amygdaloideum" title="Corpus amygdaloideum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Corpus amygdaloideum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande%C4%BCveida_kodols" title="Mandeļveida kodols – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mandeļveida kodols" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%BA%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لوزه دماغيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لوزه دماغيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%81%E6%A1%83%E4%BD%93" title="扁桃体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="扁桃体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cia%C5%82o_migda%C5%82owate" title="Ciało migdałowate – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ciało migdałowate" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%ADgdala_cerebelosa" title="Amígdala cerebelosa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Amígdala cerebelosa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Миндалевидное тело – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миндалевидное тело" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Amygdala" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amigdala" title="Amigdala – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Amigdala" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Amygdala_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Amygdala (disambiguation)">Amygdala (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:lemonchiffon">Amygdala</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Amyg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Amyg.png" decoding="async" width="189" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="189" data-file-height="230" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Location of amygdalae in the human brain (view from below, anterior is at top)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Amigdale1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Amigdale1.jpg" decoding="async" width="197" height="185" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="197" data-file-height="185" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Subdivisions of the amygdala</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>corpus amygdaloideum</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000679">D000679</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroNames" title="NeuroNames">NeuroNames</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/centraldirectory.aspx?ID=237">237</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroLex" title="NeuroLex">NeuroLex</a> ID</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uri.neuinfo.org/nif/nifstd/birnlex_1241">birnlex_1241</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.09.402%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.09.402</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5549">5549</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma61841">61841</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy">Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q338924" class="extiw" title="d:Q338924">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constudoverbrain.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Constudoverbrain.png/300px-Constudoverbrain.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="409" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Constudoverbrain.png/450px-Constudoverbrain.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Constudoverbrain.png 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Human brain in the coronal orientation. Amygdalae are shown in dark red.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>amygdala</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: <b>amygdalae</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span> or <b>amygdalas</b>; also <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">corpus amygdaloideum</i></span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">ἀμυγδαλή</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">amygdalē</i></span></i>, 'almond', 'tonsil'<sup id="cite_ref-dictionary.com_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictionary.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a paired <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclear</a> complex present in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. It is considered part of the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-amyg-cytoarchitecture_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amyg-cytoarchitecture-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In primates, it is located <a href="/wiki/Lateral_and_medial" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral and medial">medially</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of many nuclei, each made up of further subnuclei. The subdivision most commonly made is into the <a href="/wiki/Basolateral_amygdala" title="Basolateral amygdala">basolateral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_nucleus_of_the_amygdala" title="Central nucleus of the amygdala">central</a>, cortical, and medial nuclei together with the <a href="/wiki/Intercalated_cells_of_the_amygdala" title="Intercalated cells of the amygdala">intercalated cell clusters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amygdala has a primary role in the processing of <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decision-making</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotional responses</a> (including fear, anxiety, and aggression). The amygdala was first identified and named by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Burdach" title="Karl Friedrich Burdach">Karl Friedrich Burdach</a> in 1822.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="MRI coronal view of the amygdala" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png/220px-MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png/330px-MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png/440px-MRI_Location_Amygdala_up.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> coronal view of the right amygdala</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mouse_Amygdala.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Mouse_Amygdala.pdf/page1-220px-Mouse_Amygdala.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Mouse_Amygdala.pdf/page1-330px-Mouse_Amygdala.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Mouse_Amygdala.pdf/page1-440px-Mouse_Amygdala.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Subdivisions of the mouse amygdala</figcaption></figure> <p>Over a dozen nuclei have been identified<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="dozen nuclei of what? (March 2024)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, each with their own subdivisions and distinct connections to the rest of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chief nuclei are the <a href="/wiki/Basolateral_amygdala" title="Basolateral amygdala">basolateral complex</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Central_nucleus_of_the_amygdala" title="Central nucleus of the amygdala">central nucleus</a>, the cortical nucleus, the medial nucleus, and the <a href="/wiki/Intercalated_cells_of_the_amygdala" title="Intercalated cells of the amygdala">intercalated cell clusters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal, and the accessory basal nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-amyg-cytoarchitecture_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amyg-cytoarchitecture-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-emotion_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emotion-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Solano-Castiella_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solano-Castiella-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has extensive connections with higher-order cortical areas in the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular</a> cortices, and the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McDonald_2020_pp._1–38_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonald_2020_pp._1–38-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basolateral complex is surrounded the intercalated cell net that is inhibitory and projects to a broad variety of areas in the <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, and the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stern_Wilke_Root_2023_pp._ENEURO.0238–23.2023_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern_Wilke_Root_2023_pp._ENEURO.0238–23.2023-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cortical and medial nuclei connect with the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory system</a> and hypothalamus.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central nucleus has extentive projections to the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatomically, the amygdala <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more particularly, its central and medial nuclei<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have sometimes been classified as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Larry_Swanson" title="Larry Swanson">Larry Swanson</a> and Gorica Petrovich, in an article titled, <i>What is the amygdala?</i> "The amygdala is neither a structural nor a functional unit".<sup id="cite_ref-Swanson_Petrovich_1998_pp._323–331_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanson_Petrovich_1998_pp._323–331-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hemispheric_specializations">Hemispheric specializations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hemispheric specializations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In one study, electrical stimulations of the right amygdala induced <a href="/wiki/Negative_affectivity" title="Negative affectivity">negative emotions</a>, especially fear and sadness. In contrast, stimulation of the left amygdala was able to induce either pleasant (happiness) or unpleasant (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-amygdala_hemispheric_specialization1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amygdala_hemispheric_specialization1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other evidence suggests that the left amygdala plays a role in the brain's <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-amygdala_hemispheric_specialization2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amygdala_hemispheric_specialization2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each side holds a specific function in how we perceive and process emotion. The right and left portions of the amygdala have independent memory systems, but work together to store, encode, and interpret emotion. </p><p>The right hemisphere of the amygdala is associated with negative emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It plays a role in the expression of fear and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. <a href="/wiki/Fear_conditioning" title="Fear conditioning">Fear conditioning</a>, which occurs when a neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere. When an individual is presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala, producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual to avoid fear-inducing stimuli and more importantly, to assess threats in the environment. </p><p>The right hemisphere is also linked to <a href="/wiki/Declarative_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative memory">declarative memory</a>, which consists of facts and information from previously experienced events and must be consciously recalled. It also plays a significant role in the retention of episodic memory. <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic memory</a> consists of the autobiographical aspects of memory, permitting recall of emotional and sensory experience of an event. This type of memory does not require conscious recall. The right amygdala plays a role in the association of time and places with emotional properties.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_and_sex_distinction"><span id="Development"></span><span id="Sex_distinction"></span>Development and sex distinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development and sex distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience of sex differences</a></div> <p>The amygdala is one of the best-understood brain regions with regard to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">differences between the sexes</a>. The amygdala is larger in males than females, in children aged 7 to 11,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adult humans,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and adult rats.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is considerable growth within the first few years of structural development in both male and female amygdalae.<sup id="cite_ref-Development_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Development-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this early period, female limbic structures grow at a more rapid pace than the male ones. Amongst female subjects, the amygdala reaches its full growth potential approximately 1.5 years before the peak of male development. The structural development of the male amygdala occurs over a longer period than in women. Because of the early development of female amygdalae, they reach their growth potential sooner than males, whose amygdalae continue to develop. The larger relative size of the male amygdala may be attributed to this extended developmental period. </p><p>Hormonal factors may contribute to these sex-specific developmental differences. The amygdala is rich in androgen receptors – nuclear receptors that bind to testosterone. Androgen receptors play a role in the DNA binding that regulates gene expression. Though testosterone is present within the female hormonal systems, women have lower levels of testosterone than men. The abundance of testosterone in the male hormonal system may contribute to development. In addition, the grey matter volume on the amygdala is predicted by testosterone levels, which may also contribute to the increased mass of the male amygdala. </p><p>There are observable developmental differences between the right and left amygdala. The left amygdala reaches its developmental peak approximately 1.5–2 years prior to the right amygdala. Despite the early growth of the left amygdala, the right increases in volume for a longer period of time. The right amygdala is associated with response to fearful stimuli as well as face recognition. It is inferred that the early development of the left amygdala functions to provide infants the ability to detect danger.<sup id="cite_ref-Development_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Development-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In childhood, the amygdala is found to react differently to same-sex versus opposite-sex individuals. This reactivity decreases until a person enters adolescence, where it increases dramatically at puberty.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other functional and structural differences between male and female amygdalae have been observed. Subjects' amygdala activation was observed when watching a horror film and <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli" title="Subliminal stimuli">subliminal stimuli</a>. The results of the study showed a different lateralization of the amygdala in men and women. Enhanced memory for the film was related to enhanced activity of the left, but not the right, amygdala in women, whereas it was related to enhanced activity of the right, but not the left, amygdala in men.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a study of decision-making ability in patients with unilateral amygdala damage suggested that men with right (but not left) amygdala damage were more likely to be impaired in decision-making ability, while women with left (but not right) amygdala damage were more likely to be impaired in decision-making ability.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study found evidence that on average, women tend to retain stronger memories for emotional events than men.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connections">Connections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Connections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A simple view of the information processing through the amygdala follows as: the amygdala sends projections to the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septal_area" title="Septal area">septal nuclei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">BNST</a> (via the amygdalofugal tract), the dorsomedial thalamus (via the amygdalothalamic tract), the nuclei of the <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">trigeminal nerve</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">facial nerve</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Laterodorsal_tegmental_nucleus" title="Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus">laterodorsal tegmental nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-emotion_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emotion-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basolateral amygdala projects to the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>, including the medial shell. <sup id="cite_ref-Lalumiere2014_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lalumiere2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nieh2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieh2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray_718-amygdala.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gray_718-amygdala.png/220px-Gray_718-amygdala.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gray_718-amygdala.png/330px-Gray_718-amygdala.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Gray_718-amygdala.png/440px-Gray_718-amygdala.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coronal_plane" title="Coronal plane">Coronal</a> section of brain through intermediate mass of <a href="/wiki/Third_ventricle" title="Third ventricle">third ventricle</a>. Amygdala is shown in purple.</figcaption></figure> <p>The medial nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromone</a>-processing. It receives input from the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">olfactory bulb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">olfactory cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.<sup id="cite_ref-emotion_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emotion-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Solano-Castiella_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solano-Castiella-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Variability in amygdala connectivity has been related to a variety of behaviors and outcomes such as fear recognition<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and social network size.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotional_learning">Emotional learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Emotional learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion and memory</a></div> <p>In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during <a href="/wiki/Fear_conditioning" title="Fear conditioning">fear conditioning</a>, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Maren_561–7_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maren_561–7-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a sustained enhancement of signaling between affected neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-rd_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rd-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been studies that show that damage to the amygdala can interfere with memory that is strengthened by emotion. One study examined a patient with bilateral degeneration of the amygdala. He was told a violent story accompanied by matching pictures and was observed based on how much he could recall from the story. The patient had less recollection of the story than patients with functional amygdala, showing that the amygdala has a strong connection with emotional learning.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emotional memories are thought to be stored in <a href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">synapses</a> throughout the brain. Fear memories, for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the <a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">bed nuclei of the stria terminalis</a> (part of the <a href="/wiki/Extended_amygdala" title="Extended amygdala">extended amygdala</a>). These connections are not the sole site of fear memories given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory neurons">sensory neurons</a> project their <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminals" class="mw-redirect" title="Axon terminals">axon terminals</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Central_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Central nucleus">central nucleus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses such as defensive behavior (freezing or escape responses), autonomic nervous system responses (changes in blood pressure and heart rate/tachycardia), neuroendocrine responses (stress-hormone release), etc. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a> of emotional responses.<sup id="cite_ref-rd_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rd-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accumulating evidence has suggested that multiple neuromodulators acting in the amygdala regulates the formation of emotional memories.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems that distinct neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no clustering of these distinct neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, lesions of the central nucleus in the amygdala have been shown to reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral regions do not exhibit the same effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Dissociable_roles_of_the_central_and_basolateral_amygdala_in_appetitive_emotional_learning_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dissociable_roles_of_the_central_and_basolateral_amygdala_in_appetitive_emotional_learning-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala have different functions in appetitive conditioning.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16545468_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16545468-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, researchers found an example of appetitive emotional learning showing an important role for the basolateral amygdala: The naïve female mice are innately attracted to non-volatile pheromones contained in male-soiled bedding, but not by the male-derived volatiles, become attractive if associated with non-volatile attractive pheromones, which act as unconditioned stimulus in a case of Pavlovian associative learning.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the vomeronasal, olfactory and emotional systems, Fos (gene family) proteins show that non-volatile pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal system, whereas air-borne volatiles activate only the olfactory system. Thus, the acquired preference for male-derived volatiles reveals an olfactory-vomeronasal associative learning. Moreover, the reward system is differentially activated by the primary pheromones and secondarily attractive odorants. Exploring the primary attractive pheromone activates the basolateral amygdala and the shell of nucleus accumbens but neither the ventral tegmental area nor the orbitofrontal cortex. In contrast, exploring the secondarily attractive male-derived odorants involves activation of a circuit that includes the basolateral amygdala, prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area. Therefore, the basolateral amygdala stands out as the key center for vomeronasal-olfactory associative learning.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reward">Reward</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">Glutamatergic</a> neurons in the basolateral amygdala send projections to the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a> shell and core. Activation of these projections drive <a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">motivational salience</a>. The ability of these projections to drive <a href="/wiki/Incentive_salience" class="mw-redirect" title="Incentive salience">incentive salience</a> is dependent upon <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_receptor_D1" title="Dopamine receptor D1">dopamine receptor D1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lalumiere2014_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lalumiere2014-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nieh2014_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieh2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory_modulation">Memory modulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Memory modulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amygdala is also involved in the modulation of <a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">memory consolidation</a>. Following any learning event, the <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> for the event is not formed instantaneously. Rather, information regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long-term (potentially lifelong) storage over time, possibly via <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>. Recent studies suggest that the amygdala regulates memory consolidation in other brain regions. Also, <a href="/wiki/Fear_conditioning" title="Fear conditioning">fear conditioning</a>, a type of memory that is impaired following amygdala damage, is mediated in part by long-term potentiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Maren_561–7_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maren_561–7-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the consolidation period, the memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that emotional arousal following the learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of <a href="/wiki/Stress_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress hormones">stress hormones</a> to mice immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two days later.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amygdala, especially the basolateral nuclei, are involved in mediating the effects of emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event, as shown by many laboratories including that of <a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a>. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animals' subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a> tasks such as inhibitory avoidance, where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze, where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the amygdalae is injected into the amygdalae, the animals had better memory for the training in the task.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a drug that inactivates the amygdalae is injected, the animals had impaired memory for the task.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In rats, <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a> was found to increase in the amygdala immediately after exposure to stress.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20226828_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20226828-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stress was induced by 30 minutes of restraint or by forced swimming. By seven days after exposure to these stresses, increased DNA damage was no longer detectable in the amygdala, probably because of <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20226828_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20226828-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monks" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monks">Buddhist monks</a> who do <a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">compassion meditation</a> have been shown to modulate their amygdala, along with their <a href="/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction" title="Temporoparietal junction">temporoparietal junction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insula</a>, during their practice.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> study, more intensive insula activity was found in expert meditators than in novices.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionalness" of the information. More emotionally arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates with retention. Amygdala neurons show various types of <a href="/wiki/Neural_oscillation" title="Neural oscillation">oscillation</a> during emotional arousal, such as <a href="/wiki/Theta_rhythm" class="mw-redirect" title="Theta rhythm">theta activity</a>. These synchronized neuronal events could promote <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a> (which is involved in memory retention) by increasing interactions between neocortical storage sites and temporal lobe structures involved in <a href="/wiki/Declarative_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative memory">declarative memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rorschach_blot_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Rorschach_blot_03.jpg/220px-Rorschach_blot_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Rorschach_blot_03.jpg/330px-Rorschach_blot_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Rorschach_blot_03.jpg/440px-Rorschach_blot_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="805" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rorschach_test" title="Rorschach test">Rorschach test</a> blot 03</figcaption></figure> <p>Research using <a href="/wiki/Rorschach_test" title="Rorschach test">Rorschach test</a> blot 03 finds that the number of unique responses to this random figure links to larger sized amygdalae. The researchers note, "Since previous reports have indicated that unique responses were observed at higher frequency in the artistic population than in the nonartistic normal population, this positive correlation suggests that amygdalar enlargement in the normal population might be related to creative mental activity."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuropsychological_correlates_of_amygdala_activity">Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early research on primates provided explanations as to the functions of the amygdala, as well as a basis for further research. As early as 1888, rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex (including the amygdala) were observed to have significant social and emotional deficits.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kl%C3%BCver" title="Heinrich Klüver">Heinrich Klüver</a> and Paul Bucy later expanded upon this same observation by showing that large lesions to the anterior temporal lobe produced noticeable changes, including overreaction to all objects, hypoemotionality, loss of fear, <a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">hypersexuality</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osmosis.org/answers/hyperorality#:~:text=Hyperorality%20refers%20to%20the%20compulsive,temporal%20lobes%20of%20the%20brain.">hyperorality</a>, a condition in which inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an <a href="/wiki/Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">inability to recognize familiar objects</a> and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later named <a href="/wiki/Kl%C3%BCver-Bucy_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Klüver-Bucy syndrome">Klüver-Bucy syndrome</a> accordingly,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later research proved it was specifically due to amygdala lesions. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1981, researchers found that selective <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency_lesioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio frequency lesioning">radio frequency lesions</a> of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-Bucy syndrome.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With advances in <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> technology such as <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a>, neuroscientists have made significant findings concerning the amygdala in the human brain. A variety of data shows the amygdala has a substantial role in mental states, and is related to many <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">psychological disorders</a>. Some studies have shown children with <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a> tend to have a smaller left amygdala. In the majority of the cases, there was an association between an increase in the size of the left amygdala with the use of <a href="/wiki/SSRI" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRI">SSRIs</a> (antidepressant medication) or psychotherapy. The left amygdala has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">social anxiety disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive and compulsive disorders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PTSD" class="mw-redirect" title="PTSD">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>, as well as more broadly to separation and <a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">generalized anxiety disorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arehart-Treichel2005_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arehart-Treichel2005-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2003 study, subjects with <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a> showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than normal control subjects. Some borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or saw them as threatening.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopathy</a> show reduced autonomic responses to instructed fear cues than otherwise healthy individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, researchers observed <a href="/wiki/Hyperactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperactivity">hyperactivity</a> in the amygdala when patients were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with severe <a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">social phobia</a> showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16256956_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16256956-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, depressed patients showed exaggerated left amygdala activity when interpreting emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces. This hyperactivity was normalized when patients were administered antidepressant medication.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, the amygdala has been observed to respond differently in people with <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>. A 2003 study found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala volumes and somewhat smaller <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampal</a> volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many studies have focused on the connections between the amygdala and <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_message" class="mw-redirect" title="Subliminal message">subliminal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15563325_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15563325-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the amygdala is not necessary for the <a href="/wiki/Fear_processing_in_the_brain" title="Fear processing in the brain">processing of fear-related stimuli</a>, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_orientation">Sexual orientation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sexual orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent studies have suggested possible correlations between brain structure, including differences in hemispheric ratios and connection patterns in the amygdala, and sexual orientation. <a href="/wiki/Homosexual_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual men">Homosexual men</a> tend to exhibit more feminine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual males do, just as <a href="/wiki/Homosexual_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual women">homosexual women</a> tend to show more masculine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual females do. It was observed that amygdala connections were more widespread from the left amygdala in homosexual males, as is also found in heterosexual females. Amygdala connections were more widespread from the right amygdala in homosexual females, as in heterosexual males.<sup id="cite_ref-pnas_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_2">Social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increased activity in the amygdala following compassion-oriented meditation may contribute to social connectedness.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the structural white matter connectivity to other brain regions is also associated with social network size.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amygdala volume correlates positively with both the size (the number of contacts a person has) and the complexity (the number of different groups to which a person belongs) of <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals with larger amygdalae had larger and more complex social networks. The amygdala is responsible for facial recognition and allows others to respond appropriately to different emotional expressions.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were also better able to make accurate social judgments about other persons' faces.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amygdala's role in the analysis of social situations stems specifically from its ability to identify and process changes in facial features. It does not, however, process the direction of the gaze of the person being perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amygdala is also thought to be a determinant of the level of a person's <a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">emotional intelligence</a>. It is particularly hypothesized that larger amygdalae allow for greater emotional intelligence, enabling greater societal integration and cooperation with others.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amygdala processes reactions to violations concerning <a href="/wiki/Personal_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal space">personal space</a>. These reactions are absent in persons in whom the amygdala is damaged bilaterally.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the amygdala is found to be activated in <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> when people observe that others are physically close to them, such as when a person being scanned knows that an experimenter is standing immediately next to the scanner, versus standing at a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aggression">Aggression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Aggression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animal studies have shown that stimulating the amygdala appears to increase both sexual and aggressive behavior. Likewise, studies using brain lesions have shown that harm to the amygdala may produce the opposite effect. Thus, it appears that this part of the brain may play a role in the display and modulation of aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fear">Fear</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are cases of human patients with focal bilateral amygdala lesions due to the rare genetic condition <a href="/wiki/Urbach-Wiethe_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbach-Wiethe disease">Urbach-Wiethe disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_human_amygdala_and_the_inductio_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_human_amygdala_and_the_inductio-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Staut-1998_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staut-1998-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such patients fail to exhibit fear-related behaviors, leading one, <a href="/wiki/S.M._(patient)" title="S.M. (patient)">S.M.</a>, to be dubbed the "woman with no fear". This finding reinforces the conclusion that the amygdala "plays a pivotal role in triggering a state of fear".<sup id="cite_ref-The_human_amygdala_and_the_inductio_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_human_amygdala_and_the_inductio-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcoholism_and_binge_drinking">Alcoholism and binge drinking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alcoholism and binge drinking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amygdala appears to play a role in <a href="/wiki/Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">binge drinking</a>, being damaged by repeated episodes of intoxication and withdrawal.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/PRKCE" title="PRKCE">Protein kinase C-epsilon</a> in the amygdala is important for regulating behavioral responses to <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, and controlling anxiety-like behavior. The protein is involved in controlling the function of other proteins and plays a role in development of the ability to consume a large amount of ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duration of chronic alcohol consumption and abstinence may affect dynamic brain network adaptations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When excessive drinking occurs, the amygdala is affected through behavioral changes and reduces the brain's plasticity. Brain plasticity is how our brain grows and develops; it is also how our neurons can make connections with other neurons. This ultimately increases our neural pathways allowing us to increase our knowledge of the world around us. When our brain plasticity decreases, it makes it difficult for neurons to make connections to other neurons. Often when binge drinking, or alcoholism occurs, our amygdala is affected and leads to behavior damage. These behavioral damages can be lack of control, inability to conduct oneself in a mature manner, aggressive behavior, loss of conduct, anxiety, depression, personality disorders, excessive drug intake, bi-polar disorder, confusion, higher tolerance levels, irritability, and inappropriate sexual behaviors with others and self.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anxiety">Anxiety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anxiety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Amygdala" title="Special:EditPage/Amygdala">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There may also be a link between the amygdala and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, there is a higher prevalence of females that are affected by <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety disorders">anxiety disorders</a>. In an experiment, <a href="/wiki/Common_degu" title="Common degu">degu</a> pups were removed from their mother but allowed to hear her call. In response, the males produced increased <a href="/wiki/Serotonin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin receptor">serotonin receptors</a> in the amygdala but females lost them. This led to the males being less affected by the stressful situation. </p><p>The clusters of the amygdala are activated when an individual expresses feelings of fear or aggression. This occurs because the amygdala is the primary structure of the brain responsible for fight or flight response. Anxiety and panic attacks can occur when the amygdala senses environmental stressors that stimulate <a href="/wiki/Fight_or_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight or flight">fight or flight</a> response. The amygdala is directly associated with <a href="/wiki/Fear_conditioning" title="Fear conditioning">conditioned fear</a>. Conditioned fear is the framework used to explain the behavior produced when an originally neutral stimulus is consistently paired with a stimulus that evokes fear. The amygdala represents a core fear system in the human body, which is involved in the expression of conditioned fear. Fear is measured by changes in autonomic activity including increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, as well as in simple <a href="/wiki/Reflex" title="Reflex">reflexes</a> such as flinching or blinking. </p><p>The central nucleus of the amygdala has direct correlations to the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> – areas directly related to fear and anxiety. This connection is evident from studies of animals that have undergone amygdalae removal. Such studies suggest that animals lacking an amygdala have less fear expression and indulge in non-species-like behavior. Many projection areas of the amygdala are critically involved in specific signs that are used to measure fear and anxiety. </p><p>Mammals have very similar ways of processing and responding to danger. Scientists have observed similar areas in the brain – specifically in the amygdala – lighting up or becoming more active when a mammal is threatened or beginning to experience anxiety. Similar parts of the brain are activated when rodents and humans alike observe a dangerous situation, the amygdala playing a crucial role in this assessment. By observing the amygdalae's functions, it can determine why one rodent may be much more anxious than another. There is a direct relationship between the activation of the amygdala and the level of anxiety the subject feels. </p><p>Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal sensations that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. Apart from initiation of stress, long-term changes in amygdala neurons may also increase anxiety after long-term or traumatic stress, led by the action of stress-related hormones within the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the flip side, blocking the action of stress hormones in the amygdala reduces anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Posttraumatic_stress_disorder">Posttraumatic stress disorder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Posttraumatic stress disorder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There seems to be a connection with the amygdalae and how the brain processes <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a>. Multiple studies have found that the amygdalae may be responsible for the emotional reactions of PTSD patients. One study in particular found that when PTSD patients are shown pictures of faces with fearful expressions, their amygdalae tended to have a higher activation than someone without PTSD.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bipolar_disorder">Bipolar disorder</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bipolar disorder"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amygdala dysfunction during face emotion processing is well-documented in <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>. Individuals with bipolar disorder showed greater amygdala activity (especially the amygdala/medial-prefrontal-cortex circuit).<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Frontal and side view of amygdala"><img alt="Frontal and side view of amygdala" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Amygdala.png/120px-Amygdala.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Amygdala.png/180px-Amygdala.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Amygdala.png/240px-Amygdala.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="455" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Frontal and side view of amygdala</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Amygdala along with other subcortical regions, in glass brain."><img alt="Amygdala along with other subcortical regions, in glass brain." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png/120px-Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png/180px-Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png/240px-Amygdala_-_DK_ATLAS.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Amygdala along with other subcortical regions, in glass brain.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_dorsal_view.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Dorsal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain"><img alt="Dorsal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Amygdala_dorsal_view.png/99px-Amygdala_dorsal_view.png" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Amygdala_dorsal_view.png/148px-Amygdala_dorsal_view.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Amygdala_dorsal_view.png/197px-Amygdala_dorsal_view.png 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="932" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dorsal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_frontal_view.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Frontal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain"><img alt="Frontal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Amygdala_frontal_view.png/120px-Amygdala_frontal_view.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Amygdala_frontal_view.png/180px-Amygdala_frontal_view.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Amygdala_frontal_view.png/240px-Amygdala_frontal_view.png 2x" data-file-width="1026" data-file-height="1007" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Frontal view of the amygdalae in an average human brain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Left lateral view of the amygdala in an average human brain"><img alt="Left lateral view of the amygdala in an average human brain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png/120px-Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png/180px-Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png/240px-Amygdala_left_lateral_slice.png 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="763" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Left lateral view of the amygdala in an average human brain</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_coronal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Amygdala highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Amygdala highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Amygdala_coronal_sections.gif/112px-Amygdala_coronal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Amygdala_coronal_sections.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Amygdala highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Amygdala highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Amygdala highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif/120px-Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif/180px-Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Amygdala_sagittal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Amygdala highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Amygdala highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images"><img alt="Amygdala highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif/96px-Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif/144px-Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Amygdala_transversal_sections.gif 2x" data-file-width="148" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Amygdala highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_olfactory_cortical_areas" title="Accessory olfactory cortical areas">Accessory olfactory cortical areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala_hijack" title="Amygdala hijack">Amygdala hijack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BELBIC" title="BELBIC">BELBIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercalated_cells_of_the_amygdala" title="Intercalated cells of the amygdala">Intercalated cells of the amygdala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triune_brain" title="Triune brain">Triune brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdalotomy" title="Amygdalotomy">Amygdalotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdalohippocampectomy" title="Amygdalohippocampectomy">Amygdalohippocampectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S.M._(patient)" title="S.M. (patient)">S.M. (patient)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-dictionary.com-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dictionary.com_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=amygdala">"Amygdala - Define Amygdala at Dictionary.com"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071018165255/http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=amygdala">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amygdala+-+Define+Amygdala+at+Dictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Damygdala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-amyg-cytoarchitecture-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amyg-cytoarchitecture_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-amyg-cytoarchitecture_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmuntsKedoKindlerPieperhoff2005" class="citation journal cs1">Amunts K, Kedo O, Kindler M, Pieperhoff P, Mohlberg H, Shah NJ, Habel U, Schneider F, Zilles K (December 2005). "Cytoarchitectonic mapping of the human amygdala, hippocampal region and entorhinal cortex: intersubject variability and probability maps". <i>Anatomy and Embryology</i>. <b>210</b> (5–6): 343–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00429-005-0025-5">10.1007/s00429-005-0025-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16208455">16208455</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6984617">6984617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anatomy+and+Embryology&rft.atitle=Cytoarchitectonic+mapping+of+the+human+amygdala%2C+hippocampal+region+and+entorhinal+cortex%3A+intersubject+variability+and+probability+maps&rft.volume=210&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=343-52&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6984617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16208455&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00429-005-0025-5&rft.aulast=Amunts&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Kedo%2C+O&rft.au=Kindler%2C+M&rft.au=Pieperhoff%2C+P&rft.au=Mohlberg%2C+H&rft.au=Shah%2C+NJ&rft.au=Habel%2C+U&rft.au=Schneider%2C+F&rft.au=Zilles%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_Idaho_College_of_Science2004" class="citation web cs1">University of Idaho College of Science (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070331204849/http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/med532/amygdala.htm">"amygdala"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/med532/amygdala.htm">the original</a> on 31 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=amygdala&rft.date=2004&rft.au=University+of+Idaho+College+of+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sci.uidaho.edu%2Fmed532%2Famygdala.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bzdok_Laird_Zilles_Fox_2013_pp._3247–3266_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBzdokLairdZillesFox2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bzdok, Danilo; Laird, Angela R.; Zilles, Karl; Fox, Peter T.; Eickhoff, Simon B. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801486">"An investigation of the structural, connectional, and functional subspecialization in the human amygdala"</a>. <i>Human Brain Mapping</i>. <b>34</b> (12): 3247–3266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.22138">10.1002/hbm.22138</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1065-9471">1065-9471</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801486">4801486</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22806915">22806915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Brain+Mapping&rft.atitle=An+investigation+of+the+structural%2C+connectional%2C+and+functional+subspecialization+in+the+human+amygdala&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3247-3266&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4801486%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1065-9471&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22806915&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhbm.22138&rft.aulast=Bzdok&rft.aufirst=Danilo&rft.au=Laird%2C+Angela+R.&rft.au=Zilles%2C+Karl&rft.au=Fox%2C+Peter+T.&rft.au=Eickhoff%2C+Simon+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4801486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPabba2013" class="citation journal cs1">Pabba M (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3755265">"Evolutionary development of the amygdaloid complex"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Neuroanatomy</i>. <b>7</b>: 27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnana.2013.00027">10.3389/fnana.2013.00027</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3755265">3755265</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24009561">24009561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neuroanatomy&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+development+of+the+amygdaloid+complex&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3755265%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24009561&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnana.2013.00027&rft.aulast=Pabba&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3755265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBzdokLairdZillesFox2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bzdok, D.; Laird, A. R.; Zilles, K.; Fox, P. T.; Eickhoff, S. B. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801486">"An investigation of the structural, connectional, and functional subspecialization in the human amygdala"</a>. <i>Human Brain Mapping</i>. <b>34</b> (12): 3247–3266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.22138">10.1002/hbm.22138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4801486">4801486</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22806915">22806915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Brain+Mapping&rft.atitle=An+investigation+of+the+structural%2C+connectional%2C+and+functional+subspecialization+in+the+human+amygdala&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3247-3266&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4801486%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22806915&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhbm.22138&rft.aulast=Bzdok&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Laird%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Zilles%2C+K.&rft.au=Fox%2C+P.+T.&rft.au=Eickhoff%2C+S.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4801486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emotion-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emotion_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emotion_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emotion_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen_Best2004" class="citation web cs1">Ben Best (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/anatmd9.html">"The Amygdala and the Emotions"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070309132748/http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/anatmd9.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Diffusion tensor imaging segments the human amygdala in vivo". <i>NeuroImage</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 2958–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2009.11.027">10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.11.027</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-ABE5-F">11858/00-001M-0000-0010-ABE5-F</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19931398">19931398</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17137887">17137887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft.atitle=Diffusion+tensor+imaging+segments+the+human+amygdala+in+vivo&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2958-65&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-ABE5-F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17137887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19931398&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2009.11.027&rft.aulast=Solano-Castiella&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Anwander%2C+A&rft.au=Lohmann%2C+G&rft.au=Weiss%2C+M&rft.au=Docherty%2C+C&rft.au=Geyer%2C+S&rft.au=Reimer%2C+E&rft.au=Friederici%2C+AD&rft.au=Turner%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McDonald_2020_pp._1–38-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McDonald_2020_pp._1–38_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald2020" class="citation book cs1">McDonald, Alexander J. (2020). "Functional neuroanatomy of the basolateral amygdala: Neurons, neurotransmitters, and circuits". <i>Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience</i>. Vol. 26. Elsevier. pp. 1–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-815134-1.00001-5">10.1016/b978-0-12-815134-1.00001-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815134-1"><bdi>978-0-12-815134-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8248694">8248694</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34220399">34220399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Functional+neuroanatomy+of+the+basolateral+amygdala%3A+Neurons%2C+neurotransmitters%2C+and+circuits&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Behavioral+Neuroscience&rft.pages=1-38&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8248694%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34220399&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-815134-1.00001-5&rft.isbn=978-0-12-815134-1&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Alexander+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stern_Wilke_Root_2023_pp._ENEURO.0238–23.2023-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stern_Wilke_Root_2023_pp._ENEURO.0238–23.2023_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternWilkeRoot2023" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Daniel B.; Wilke, Anna; Root, Cory M. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10576262">"Anatomical Connectivity of the Intercalated Cells of the Amygdala"</a>. <i>eNeuro</i>. <b>10</b> (10): ENEURO.0238–23.2023. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FENEURO.0238-23.2023">10.1523/ENEURO.0238-23.2023</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2373-2822">2373-2822</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10576262">10576262</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37775310">37775310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=eNeuro&rft.atitle=Anatomical+Connectivity+of+the+Intercalated+Cells+of+the+Amygdala&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=ENEURO.0238-23.2023&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10576262%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2373-2822&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37775310&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FENEURO.0238-23.2023&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Daniel+B.&rft.au=Wilke%2C+Anna&rft.au=Root%2C+Cory+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10576262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/Scripts/hiercentraldirectory.aspx?ID=219">Amygdala</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080507145446/http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/Scripts/hiercentraldirectory.aspx?ID=219">Archived</a> 7 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/BrainInfo" class="mw-redirect" title="BrainInfo">BrainInfo</a> database</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwansonPetrovich1998" class="citation journal cs1">Swanson LW, Petrovich GD (August 1998). 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(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23977455">23977455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage%3A+Clinical&rft.atitle=Elevated+amygdala+responses+to+emotional+faces+in+youths+with+chronic+irritability+or+bipolar+disorder&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=637-645&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3746996%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23977455&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nicl.2013.04.007&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=LA&rft.au=Kim%2C+P&rft.au=Bones%2C+BL&rft.au=Hinton%2C+KE&rft.au=Milch%2C+HS&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+RC&rft.au=Adleman%2C+NE&rft.au=Marsh%2C+AA&rft.au=Blair%2C+RJ&rft.au=Pine%2C+DS&rft.au=Leibenluft%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3746996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeenerFournierMullinKronhaus2012" class="citation journal cs1">Keener MT, Fournier JC, Mullin BC, Kronhaus D, Perlman SB, LaBarbara E, Almeida JC, Phillips ML (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3685204">"Dissociable patterns of medial prefrontal and amygdala activity to face identity versus emotion in bipolar disorder"</a>. <i>Psychological Medicine</i>. <b>42</b> (9): 1913–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291711002935">10.1017/S0033291711002935</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3685204">3685204</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22273442">22273442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Medicine&rft.atitle=Dissociable+patterns+of+medial+prefrontal+and+amygdala+activity+to+face+identity+versus+emotion+in+bipolar+disorder&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1913-24&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3685204%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22273442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0033291711002935&rft.aulast=Keener&rft.aufirst=MT&rft.au=Fournier%2C+JC&rft.au=Mullin%2C+BC&rft.au=Kronhaus%2C+D&rft.au=Perlman%2C+SB&rft.au=LaBarbara%2C+E&rft.au=Almeida%2C+JC&rft.au=Phillips%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3685204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeDoux2008" class="citation journal cs1">LeDoux JE (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.2698">"Amygdala"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a></i>. <b>3</b> (4): 2698. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SchpJ...3.2698L">2008SchpJ...3.2698L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.2698">10.4249/scholarpedia.2698</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scholarpedia&rft.atitle=Amygdala&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2698&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4249%2Fscholarpedia.2698&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008SchpJ...3.2698L&rft.aulast=LeDoux&rft.aufirst=JE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4249%252Fscholarpedia.2698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmygdala" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amygdala&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Amygdala" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Amygdala">Amygdala</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brainmaps.org/index.php?q=amygdala">Stained brain slice images which include the "amygdala"</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BrainMaps" title="BrainMaps">BrainMaps project</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Human brain">human brain</a> and associated structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">Basal ganglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">Striatum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal striatum">Dorsal striatum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">Putamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">Caudate nucleus</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_striatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral striatum">Ventral striatum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">Nucleus accumbens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tubercle" title="Olfactory tubercle">Olfactory tubercle</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">Globus pallidus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral globus pallidus">GPe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_globus_pallidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial globus pallidus">GPi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Amygdala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">Claustrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrum_semiovale" title="Centrum semiovale">Centrum semiovale</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_capsule" title="Internal capsule">Internal capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior limb of internal capsule">Anterior limb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genu_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Genu of internal capsule">Genu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_limb_of_internal_capsule" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior limb of internal capsule">Posterior limb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">Optic radiation</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corona_radiata" title="Corona radiata">Corona radiata</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_capsule" title="External capsule">External capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_capsule" title="Extreme capsule">Extreme capsule</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pallidothalamic_tracts" title="Pallidothalamic tracts">Pallidothalamic tracts</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhinencephalon" title="Rhinencephalon">Rhinencephalon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_olfactory_nucleus" title="Anterior olfactory nucleus">Anterior olfactory nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_perforated_substance" title="Anterior perforated substance">Anterior perforated substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">Olfactory bulb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tract" title="Olfactory tract">Olfactory tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial olfactory stria">Medial olfactory stria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral olfactory stria">Lateral olfactory stria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_trigone" title="Olfactory trigone">Olfactory trigone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Basal_forebrain" title="Basal forebrain">basal forebrain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substantia_innominata" title="Substantia innominata">Substantia innominata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_basalis" title="Nucleus basalis">Nucleus basalis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleus_of_diagonal_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus of diagonal band">Nucleus of diagonal band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_band_of_Broca" title="Diagonal band of Broca">Diagonal band of Broca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archicortex" title="Archicortex">Archicortex</a>:<br /><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_anatomy" title="Hippocampus anatomy">Hippocampus anatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus proper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus_proper" title="Hippocampus proper">CA4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascia_dentata" title="Fascia dentata">Fascia dentata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subiculum" title="Subiculum">Subiculum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveus_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveus of hippocampus">Alveus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perforant_path" title="Perforant path">Perforant path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schaffer_collateral" title="Schaffer collateral">Schaffer collateral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Smell" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Olfactory_system" title="Template:Olfactory system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Olfactory_system" title="Template talk:Olfactory system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Olfactory_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Olfactory system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Smell" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Smell</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microanatomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_epithelium" title="Olfactory epithelium">Epithelium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_glands" title="Olfactory glands">glands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_mucosa" title="Olfactory mucosa">mucosa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustentacular_cell" title="Sustentacular cell">Sustentacular cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufted_cell" title="Tufted cell">Tufted cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory nerve</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">neuron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb" title="Olfactory bulb">Olfactory bulb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glomerulus_(olfaction)" title="Glomerulus (olfaction)">glomeruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_bulb_mitral_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory bulb mitral cell">mitral cells</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_tract" title="Olfactory tract">Olfactory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_trigone" title="Olfactory trigone">Olfactory trigone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> areas involved in smell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Primary_olfactory_cortex" title="Primary olfactory cortex">Primary olfactory cortex</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral olfactory stria">Lateral olfactory stria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piriform_cortex" title="Piriform cortex">Piriform cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EC-hippocampus_system" title="EC-hippocampus system">EC-hippocampus system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Entorhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepyriform_area" title="Prepyriform area">Prepyriform area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periamygdaloid_cortex" title="Periamygdaloid cortex">Periamygdaloid cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stria_medullaris" title="Stria medullaris">Stria medullaris</a> → <a href="/wiki/Habenular_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Habenular nuclei">Habenular nuclei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Amygdala</a> → <a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a> → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">4</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_forebrain_bundle" title="Medial forebrain bundle">Medial forebrain bundle</a> → <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medial_olfactory_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial olfactory stria">Medial olfactory stria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_olfactory_nucleus" title="Anterior olfactory nucleus">Anterior olfactory nucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odor" title="Odor">Odor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_olfaction" title="Evolution of olfaction">Evolution of olfaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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