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<span>Major branches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_branches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major branches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atlantic–Congo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic–Congo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Atlantic–Congo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic–Congo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Kordofanian"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Kordofanian""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>"Kordofanian"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Kordofanian"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Westermann,_Greenberg,_and_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Westermann,_Greenberg,_and_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Westermann, Greenberg, and others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Westermann,_Greenberg,_and_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Niger–Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Niger–Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Niger–Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Common features</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Common_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Common features subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Common_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nasality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nasality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Nasality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nasality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphosyntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphosyntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Morphosyntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphosyntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Noun classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbal_extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbal_extensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Verbal extensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbal_extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Word order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Niger–Congo languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 91 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-91" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">91 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongo-tale" title="Niger-Kongo-tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Niger-Kongo-tale" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات نيجرية كنغوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات نيجرية كنغوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_nixerocongoleses" title="Llingües nixerocongoleses – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües nixerocongoleses" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AC%D8%B1-%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%D9%82%D9%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نیجر-کونقو دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نیجر-کونقو دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_tataramon_na_Niger-Congo" title="Mga tataramon na Niger-Congo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mga tataramon na Niger-Congo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нигер-конгоански езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нигер-конгоански езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_nigerek-kongoek" title="Yezhoù nigerek-kongoek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù nigerek-kongoek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_nigerocongoleses" title="Llengües nigerocongoleses – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües nigerocongoleses" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerokon%C5%BEsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Nigerokonžské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nigerokonžské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitauro_ye_Chinaija-Kongo" title="Mitauro ye Chinaija-Kongo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mitauro ye Chinaija-Kongo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Niger-Congo" title="Ieithoedd Niger-Congo – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithoedd Niger-Congo" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%CA%92er-K%C9%94%C5%8B%C9%94_bala" title="Niʒer-Kɔŋɔ bala – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Niʒer-Kɔŋɔ bala" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Congo-sprog" title="Niger-Congo-sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Niger-Congo-sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongo-Sprachen" title="Niger-Kongo-Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Niger-Kongo-Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerokongoske_r%C4%9Bcy" title="Nigerokongoske rěcy – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Nigerokongoske rěcy" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Νιγηροκονγκολεζικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νιγηροκονγκολεζικές γλώσσες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_nigerocongolesas" title="Lenguas nigerocongolesas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas nigerocongolesas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C4%9Derkonga_lingvaro" title="Niĝerkonga lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Niĝerkonga lingvaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongo_hizkuntzak" title="Niger-Kongo hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Niger-Kongo hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AC%D8%B1-%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="زبان‌های نیجر-کنگو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های نیجر-کنگو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Congo_bhasa" title="Niger-Congo bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Niger-Congo bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_nig%C3%A9ro-congolaises" title="Langues nigéro-congolaises – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues nigéro-congolaises" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongoleeske_talen" title="Niger-Kongoleeske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Niger-Kongoleeske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengaghyn_Neegeyragh-Congoagh" title="Çhengaghyn Neegeyragh-Congoagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çhengaghyn Neegeyragh-Congoagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_n%C3%ADxer-congo" title="Linguas níxer-congo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas níxer-congo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%88%EC%A0%9C%EB%A5%B4%EC%BD%A9%EA%B3%A0%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="니제르콩고어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="니제르콩고어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsunan_Nijar-Congo" title="Harsunan Nijar-Congo – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harsunan Nijar-Congo" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1-%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Նիգերա-կոնգոյական լեզուներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նիգերա-կոնգոյական լեզուներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नाइजर-कांगो भाषा परिवार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाइजर-कांगो भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerokongoske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Nigerokongoske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Nigerokongoske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigersko-kongoanski_jezici" title="Nigersko-kongoanski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nigersko-kongoanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nijer-Kongo-linguaro" title="Nijer-Kongo-linguaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nijer-Kongo-linguaro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasao_a_Niger%E2%80%93Kongo" title="Sasao a Niger–Kongo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sasao a Niger–Kongo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Niger%E2%80%93Kongo" title="Rumpun bahasa Niger–Kongo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Niger–Kongo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingues_niger-congan" title="Lingues niger-congan – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Lingues niger-congan" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iilwimi_zaseNiger-Congo" title="Iilwimi zaseNiger-Congo – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Iilwimi zaseNiger-Congo" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADgerkong%C3%B3tungum%C3%A1l" title="Nígerkongótungumál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nígerkongótungumál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_niger-kordofaniane" title="Lingue niger-kordofaniane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue niger-kordofaniane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%27%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות ניז'ריות-קונגולזיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות ניז'ריות-קונגולזיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D-%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8A_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ನೈಜರ್-ಕಾಂಗೊ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನೈಜರ್-ಕಾಂಗೊ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Нигер-конголез тілдері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нигер-конголез тілдері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kiniger-Kongo" title="Lugha za Kiniger-Kongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Kiniger-Kongo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AAn_n%C3%AEjer%C3%AE_%C3%BB_kongoy%C3%AE" title="Zimanên nîjerî û kongoyî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanên nîjerî û kongoyî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Nigro-Congenses" title="Linguae Nigro-Congenses – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Nigro-Congenses" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nig%C4%93ras-Kongo_valodas" title="Nigēras-Kongo valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nigēras-Kongo valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerio-Kongo_kalbos" title="Nigerio-Kongo kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nigerio-Kongo kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_niger-kordofaniann-e" title="Lengue niger-kordofaniann-e – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue niger-kordofaniann-e" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Congospraoke" title="Niger-Congospraoke – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Niger-Congospraoke" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok%C3%B3t%C3%A1_ya_Nizer-Kongo" title="Lokótá ya Nizer-Kongo – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lokótá ya Nizer-Kongo" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_nijer-congo" title="Linguas nijer-congo – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas nijer-congo" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-kong%C3%B3i_nyelvcsal%C3%A1d" title="Niger-kongói nyelvcsalád – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Niger-kongói nyelvcsalád" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нигер-конгоански јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нигер-конгоански јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianakaviambem-piteny_nizer%C3%B4-k%C3%B4ng%C3%B4ley" title="Fianakaviambem-piteny nizerô-kôngôley – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fianakaviambem-piteny nizerô-kôngôley" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="नायजर-काँगो भाषासमूह – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नायजर-काँगो भाषासमूह" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AC%D8%B1-%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88_%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="نیجر-کنگو زوونون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="نیجر-کنگو زوونون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Niger-Congo" title="Bahasa-bahasa Niger-Congo – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Niger-Congo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Congotalen" title="Niger-Congotalen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Niger-Congotalen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नाइजर कङ्गो भाषा परिवार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नाइजर कङ्गो भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="ニジェール・コンゴ語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニジェール・コンゴ語族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%96%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8C%DF%93%DF%8A%DF%AC_%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%AB_%DF%9E%DF%8F%DF%B2%DF%AC%DF%9C%DF%AD%DF%8F%DF%AC_%DF%9F%DF%8E%DF%AB_%DF%9D%DF%8D%DF%AC_%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2_%DF%A0%DF%8E%DF%AC" title="ߖߋ߬ߟߌߓߊ߬ ߣߌ߫ ߞߏ߲߬ߜ߭ߏ߬ ߟߎ߫ ߝߍ߬ ߞߊ߲ ߠߎ߬ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߖߋ߬ߟߌߓߊ߬ ߣߌ߫ ߞߏ߲߬ߜ߭ߏ߬ ߟߎ߫ ߝߍ߬ ߞߊ߲ ߠߎ߬" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongo_spriaken" title="Niger-Kongo spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Niger-Kongo spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-kongospr%C3%A5k" title="Niger-kongospråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Niger-kongospråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-kongospr%C3%A5k" title="Niger-kongospråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Niger-kongospråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_nig%C3%A8rocongolesas" title="Lengas nigèrocongolesas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas nigèrocongolesas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-kongo_tillari" title="Niger-kongo tillari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Niger-kongo tillari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AC%DB%90%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%DB%90" title="نايجېر کانګویي ژبې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نايجېر کانګویي ژبې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_nigero-kongijskie" title="Języki nigero-kongijskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki nigero-kongijskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_nigero-congolesas" title="Línguas nigero-congolesas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas nigero-congolesas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbi_nigero-congoleze" title="Limbi nigero-congoleze – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbi nigero-congoleze" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niqir-Kunqu_simikuna" title="Niqir-Kunqu simikuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Niqir-Kunqu simikuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Нигеро-конголезские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нигеро-конголезские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%BC%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%B3_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A" title="ᱱᱟᱭᱡᱟᱨᱼᱠᱚᱝᱜᱳ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱱᱟᱭᱡᱟᱨᱼᱠᱚᱝᱜᱳ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_leids" title="Niger–Congo leids – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Niger–Congo leids" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongo_Sproaken" title="Niger-Kongo Sproaken – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Niger-Kongo Sproaken" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Niger–Congo languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нигерско-конгоански језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нигерско-конгоански језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigersko-kongoanski_jezici" title="Nigersko-kongoanski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nigersko-kongoanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeril%C3%A4is-kongolaiset_kielet" title="Nigeriläis-kongolaiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nigeriläis-kongolaiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Kongospr%C3%A5k" title="Niger-Kongospråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Niger-Kongospråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="நைகர்-கொங்கோ மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நைகர்-கொங்கோ மொழிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C-%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81" title="ตระกูลภาษาไนเจอร์-คองโก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตระกูลภาษาไนเจอร์-คองโก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nijer-Kongo_dilleri" title="Nijer-Kongo dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nijer-Kongo dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Нігеро-конголезькі мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нігеро-конголезькі мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AC%D8%B1%DB%94%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="نائجر۔کانگو زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نائجر۔کانگو زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Niger-Congo" title="Ngữ hệ Niger-Congo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ hệ Niger-Congo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%94-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日尔-刚果语系 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="尼日尔-刚果语系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80w%E1%BB%8Dn_%C3%A8d%C3%A8_Niger-K%C3%B3ng%C3%B2" title="Àwọn èdè Niger-Kóngò – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Àwọn èdè Niger-Kóngò" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E7%88%BE-%E5%89%9B%E6%9E%9C%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日爾-剛果語系 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="尼日爾-剛果語系" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_Nicer-Kongoy" title="Zıwanê Nicer-Kongoy – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanê Nicer-Kongoy" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%C4%97-Kuonga_kalbas" title="Nigerė-Kuonga kalbas – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Nigerė-Kuonga kalbas" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Large language family of Sub-Saharan Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ffddaa;">Niger–Congo</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">(hypothetical)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Proposed language family</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger%E2%80%93Congo_language" title="Proto-Niger–Congo language">Proto-Niger–Congo language</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafofa_languages" title="Lafofa languages">Lafofa</a>? <small>(<a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian</a>?)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamou_language" title="Siamou language">Siamou</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo</a>? <small>(noun classes)</small></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/nic" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:nic">nic</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg/300px-Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg/450px-Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg/600px-Map_of_the_Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1342" data-file-height="1123" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Map showing the distribution of major Niger–Congo languages. Pink-red is the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> subfamily.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Niger–Congo</b> is a hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a> spoken over the majority of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It unites the <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo languages</a> (which share a characteristic <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun class</a> system), and possibly several smaller groups of languages that are difficult to classify. If valid, Niger–Congo would be the world's largest in terms of member languages, the third-largest in terms of speakers, and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa's largest</a> in terms of geographical area.<sup id="cite_ref-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> has almost as many member languages,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this is complicated by the <a href="/wiki/Dialect#Dialect_or_language" title="Dialect">ambiguity about what constitutes a distinct language</a>; the number of named Niger–Congo languages listed by <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> is 1,540.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proposed family would be the third-largest in the world by number of native speakers, with around 700 million people as of 2015.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Within Niger–Congo, the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> alone account for 350 million people (2015), or half the total Niger–Congo speaking population. The most widely spoken Niger–Congo languages by number of native speakers are <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingala language">Lingala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_language" title="Fon language">Fon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ga%E2%80%93Dangme_languages" title="Ga–Dangme languages">Ga-Dangme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sesotho_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesotho language">Sesotho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akan_language" title="Akan language">Akan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moor%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mooré language">Mooré</a>. The most widely spoken by the total number of speakers is <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, which is used as a lingua franca in parts of eastern and <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Africa">southeastern Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the ultimate <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic unity</a> of the core of Niger–Congo (called <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic–Congo">Atlantic–Congo</a>) is widely accepted, the internal cladistic structure is not well established. Other primary branches may include <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Katla_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katla languages">Katla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rashad_languages" title="Rashad languages">Rashad</a>. The connection of the Mande languages especially has never been demonstrated, and without them, the validity of Niger–Congo family as a whole (as opposed to Atlantic–Congo or a similar subfamily) has not been established. </p><p>One of the most distinctive characteristics common to Atlantic–Congo languages is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Noun-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun-class">noun-class</a> system, which is essentially a gender system with multiple genders.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin <span class="anchor" id="Homeland"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_homeland#Niger–Congo" title="Linguistic homeland">Linguistic homeland § Niger–Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa#Genetic_history" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa § Genetic history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></div> <p>The language family most likely originated in or near the area where these languages were spoken prior to <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a> (i.e. West Africa or Central Africa). Its expansion may have been associated with the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> agriculture in the African Neolithic period, following the <a href="/wiki/African_humid_period#End" title="African humid period">desiccation of the Sahara in c. 3500 BCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar classifications to Niger–Congo have been made ever since <a href="/wiki/Diedrich_Westermann" class="mw-redirect" title="Diedrich Westermann">Diedrich Westermann</a> in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> continued that tradition, making it the starting point for modern linguistic classification in Africa, with some of his publications going to press starting in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there has been active debate for many decades over the appropriate subclassifications of the languages in this language family, which is a key tool used in localising a language's place of origin.<sup id="cite_ref-rogerblench.info2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogerblench.info2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No definitive "<a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger%E2%80%93Congo_language" title="Proto-Niger–Congo language">Proto-Niger–Congo</a>" lexicon or grammar has been developed for the language family as a whole. </p><p>An important unresolved issue in determining the time and place where the Niger–Congo languages originated and their range prior to recorded history is this language family's relationship to the <a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian languages</a>, now spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Nuba_Mountains" title="Nuba Mountains">Nuba Mountains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, which is not contiguous with the remainder of the Niger–Congo-language-speaking region and is at the northeasternmost extent of the current Niger–Congo linguistic region. The current prevailing linguistic view is that Kordofanian languages are part of the Niger–Congo language family and that these may be the first of the many languages still spoken in that region to have been spoken in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evidence is insufficient to determine if this outlier group of Niger–Congo language speakers represents a prehistoric range of a Niger–Congo linguistic region that has since contracted as other languages have intruded, or if instead, this represents a group of Niger–Congo language speakers who migrated to the area at some point in prehistory where they were an isolated linguistic community from the beginning. </p><p>There is more agreement regarding the place of origin of <a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Benue–Congo">Benue–Congo</a>, the largest subfamily of the group. Within Benue–Congo, the place of origin of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> as well as time at which it started to expand is known with great specificity. Blench (2004), relying particularly on prior work by <a href="/wiki/Kay_Williamson" title="Kay Williamson">Kay Williamson</a> and P. De Wolf, argued that Benue–Congo probably originated at the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Benue_River" title="Benue River">Benue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger Rivers</a> in central <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rogerblench.info_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogerblench.info-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These estimates of the place of origin of the Benue–Congo language family do not fix a date for the start of that expansion, other than that it must have been sufficiently prior to the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a> to allow for the diversification of the languages within this language family that includes Bantu. </p><p>The classification of the relatively divergent family of the <a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian languages</a>, centred in the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>, as part of the Niger–Congo language family is disputed. Ubangian was grouped with Niger–Congo by Greenberg (1963), and later authorities concurred,<sup id="cite_ref-Williamson2000_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williamson2000-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was questioned by Dimmendaal (2008).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a>, beginning around 1000 BC, swept across much of Central and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>, leading to the assimilation and extinction of many of the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Pygmy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmy">Pygmy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bushmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushmen">Bushmen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>) populations there.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_branches">Major branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is an overview of the language groups usually included in Niger–Congo. The genetic relationship of some branches is not universally accepted, and the cladistic connection between those who are accepted as related may also be unclear. </p><p>The core phylum of the Niger–Congo group are the Atlantic–Congo languages. The non-Atlantic–Congo languages within Niger–Congo are grouped as <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijo</a> (sometimes with <a href="/wiki/Defaka_language" title="Defaka language">Defaka</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a>), <a href="/wiki/Katla_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katla languages">Katla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rashad_languages" title="Rashad languages">Rashad</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atlantic–Congo"><span id="Atlantic.E2.80.93Congo"></span>Atlantic–Congo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Atlantic–Congo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nigeria" title="Languages of Nigeria">Languages of Nigeria</a></div><p>Atlantic–Congo combines the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic languages">Atlantic languages</a>, which do not form one branch, and <a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Volta–Congo languages">Volta–Congo</a>. It comprises more than 80% of the Niger–Congo speaking population, or close to 600 million people (2015). </p><p>The proposed <a href="/wiki/Savannas_languages" title="Savannas languages">Savannas group</a> combines <a href="/wiki/Adamawa_languages" title="Adamawa languages">Adamawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Gur</a>. Outside of the Savannas group, Volta–Congo comprises <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwa_languages" title="Kwa languages">Kwa</a> (or "West Kwa"), <a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Niger_languages" title="Volta–Niger languages">Volta–Niger</a> (also "East Kwa" or "West Benue–Congo"), and <a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Benue–Congo languages">Benue–Congo</a> (or "East Benue–Congo"). Volta–Niger includes the two largest <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nigeria" title="Languages of Nigeria">languages of Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>. Benue–Congo includes the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantoid_languages" title="Southern Bantoid languages">Southern Bantoid</a> group, which is dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>, which account for 350 million people (2015), or half the total Niger–Congo speaking population. </p><p>The strict genetic unity of any of these subgroups may themselves be under dispute. For example, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> (2012) argued that <a href="/wiki/Adamawa_languages" title="Adamawa languages">Adamawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwa_languages" title="Kwa languages">Kwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bantoid_languages" title="Bantoid languages">Bantoid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> are not coherent groups.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the Kordofanian branch is generally included in the Niger–Congo languages, some researchers do not agree with its inclusion. <i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i> 3.4 (2019)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> does not accept that the <a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian</a> branches (<a href="/wiki/Lafofa_languages" title="Lafofa languages">Lafofa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Talodi languages">Talodi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heiban_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Heiban languages">Heiban</a>) or the difficult-to-classify <a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal language</a> have been demonstrated to be Atlantic–Congo languages. It otherwise accepts the family but not its inclusion within a broader Niger–Congo. Glottolog also considers <a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a> to be independent language phyla that have not been demonstrated to be related to each other. </p><p>The Atlantic–Congo group is characterised by the <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun class</a> systems of its languages. Atlantic–Congo largely corresponds to Mukarovsky's "Western Nigritic" phylum.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><b><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic languages">Atlantic</a></b></dt></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> Atlantic group accounts for about 35 million speakers as of 2016, mostly accounted for by <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a> speakers. Atlantic is not considered to constitute a valid group. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senegambian_languages" title="Senegambian languages">Senegambian languages</a>: includes <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>, spoken across the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bak_languages" title="Bak languages">Bak languages</a>, sometimes grouped with Senegambian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_languages" title="Mel languages">Mel languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limba_language" title="Limba language">Limba language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gola_language" title="Gola language">Gola language</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><b><a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Volta–Congo">Volta–Congo</a></b></dt></dl> <ul><li><b>North-Volta</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a></b>: languages of the <a href="/wiki/Kru_people" title="Kru people">Kru people</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>; includes <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bété language">Bété</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyabwa_language" title="Nyabwa language">Nyabwa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dida_language" title="Dida language">Dida</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa%E2%80%93Ubangi_languages" title="Adamawa–Ubangi languages">Adamawa-Ubangi</a>: <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_languages" title="Adamawa languages">Adamawa</a></b>: close to 100 languages and dialects scattered across the <a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau" title="Adamawa Plateau">Adamawa Plateau</a>, spoken by an estimated total of 1.6 million as of 1996; the largest is <a href="/wiki/Mumuye_language" title="Mumuye language">Mumuye</a>, accounting for about a quarter of Adamawa speakers.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a></b>: a group of minor languages spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>. May be an independent family or grouped with Adamawa as "<a href="/wiki/Adamawa%E2%80%93Ubangi_languages" title="Adamawa–Ubangi languages">Adamawa-Ubangi</a>".</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Gur</a></b>: about 70 languages spoken in the Sahel and Savanna regions of West Africa, accounting for some 20 million speakers (2010). The largest language of this group is <a href="/wiki/Moor%C3%A9_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mooré language">Mooré)</a>, with over 12 million speakers. Gur and Adamawa-Ubangi have also been grouped as <a href="/wiki/Savannas_languages" title="Savannas languages">Savannas languages</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Senufo_languages" title="Senufo languages">Senufo</a></b>: languages of the <a href="/wiki/Senufo_people" title="Senufo people">Senufo people</a> (about 3 million speakers as of 2010), spoken in <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, with a geographical outlier in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>; includes <a href="/wiki/Senari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Senari language">Senari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supyire_language" title="Supyire language">Supyire</a>. Senufo has been placed traditionally within Gur but is now usually considered an early offshoot from Atlantic–Congo.</li></ul></li> <li><b>South-Volta</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Kwa_languages" title="Kwa languages">Kwa</a></b>: a divergent <a href="/wiki/Linkage_(linguistics)" title="Linkage (linguistics)">linkage</a><sup id="cite_ref-Blench2012_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench2012-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of languages of uncertain genetic unity, spoken along the Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana and in central Togo, with a total of some 40 million speakers (2010s). The largest language in this group is <a href="/wiki/Akan_language" title="Akan language">Akan</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, with about 22 million speakers as of 2014, including <a href="/wiki/Twi" title="Twi">Twi</a> (9 million in 2015).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Niger_languages" title="Volta–Niger languages">Volta–Niger</a></b> (also known as "West Benue–Congo" or "East Kwa"): a large <a href="/wiki/Linkage_(linguistics)" title="Linkage (linguistics)">linkage</a><sup id="cite_ref-Blench2012_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench2012-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of West African languages, accounting for roughly 110–120 million speakers (late 2010s). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gbe_languages" title="Gbe languages">Gbe</a>: spoken in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a> (7 million speakers in 2017) is the largest and best known.</li> <li>"<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><a href="/wiki/YEAI" class="mw-redirect" title="YEAI">YEAI</a></span></span>": a large group of languages centred on Nigeria, accounting for about 100 million speakers (late 2010s) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yoruboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoruboid">Yoruboid</a>: 50 million speakers (2010s), including <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> (c. 40 million 2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Edoid">Edoid</a>: including <a href="/wiki/Edo_language" title="Edo language">Edo</a> (24 million 2010s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akoko_language" title="Akoko language">Akoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Igboid">Igboid</a>: including <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a> (24 million 2011)</li></ul></li> <li>"<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">NOI</span></span>": <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nupoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nupoid">Nupoid</a>: c. 3 million (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1990</span> estimates)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oko_language" title="Oko language">Oko</a>: a minor dialect continuum spoken in <a href="/wiki/Kogi_State" title="Kogi State">Kogi State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idomoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Idomoid">Idomoid</a>: group of languages of central Nigeria, including <a href="/wiki/Idoma_language" title="Idoma language">Idoma</a> with 1 to 2 million speakers (2010s)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayere%E2%80%93Ahan_languages" title="Ayere–Ahan languages">Ayere-Ahan</a> (moribund or extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Benue–Congo languages">Benue–Congo</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Linkage_(linguistics)" title="Linkage (linguistics)">linkage</a><sup id="cite_ref-Blench2012_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench2012-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (East Benue–Congo) <ul><li>Bantoid-Cross: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_River_languages" title="Cross River languages">Cross River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bantoid_languages" title="Northern Bantoid languages">Northern Bantoid</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dakoid_languages" title="Dakoid languages">Dakoid</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fam_language" title="Fam language">Fam</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikar_language" title="Tikar language">Tikar</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mambiloid_languages" title="Mambiloid languages">Mambiloid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bendi_languages" title="Bendi languages">Bendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantoid_languages" title="Southern Bantoid languages">Southern Bantoid</a>: includes the far-flung <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> spread across Sub-Saharan Africa in the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000 BCE</span> to 500 CE. <ul><li>Tivoid-Beboid: a large range of languages of southwestern Cameroon and southeastern Nigeria: <a href="/wiki/Tivoid_languages" title="Tivoid languages">Tivoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esimbi_language" title="Esimbi language">Esimbi</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Beboid_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="East Beboid languages">East Beboid</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Beboid_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="West Beboid languages">West Beboid</a>?, <a href="/wiki/Momo_languages" title="Momo languages">Momo</a>?, <a href="/wiki/Furu_languages" title="Furu languages">Furu</a>?, <a href="/wiki/Buru_language_(Nigeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Buru language (Nigeria)">Buru</a>?, <a href="/wiki/Menchum_language" title="Menchum language">Menchum</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekoid_languages" title="Ekoid languages">Ekoid</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mbe_language" title="Mbe language">Mbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamfe_languages" title="Mamfe languages">Mamfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassfields_languages" title="Grassfields languages">Grassfields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarawan_languages" title="Jarawan languages">Jarawan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mbam_languages" title="Mbam languages">Mbam</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a></b>: divided into <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie zones A–S</a>, for a total of between 250 and 550 named languages.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Central Nigerian (Platoid): <a href="/wiki/Jukunoid_languages" title="Jukunoid languages">Jukunoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kainji_languages" title="Kainji languages">Kainji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plateau_languages" title="Plateau languages">Plateau</a></li> <li>other languages unclassified within Benue–Congo: <a href="/wiki/Ukaan_language" title="Ukaan language">Ukaan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fali_of_Baissa" title="Fali of Baissa">Fali of Baissa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tita_language" title="Tita language">Tita</a>.</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The putative Niger–Congo languages outside of the Atlantic–Congo family are centred in the upper <a href="/wiki/Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a> river basins, south and west of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a>), and far to the east in south-central Sudan, around the <a href="/wiki/Nuba_Mountains" title="Nuba Mountains">Nuba Mountains</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian</a> families). They account for a total population of about 100 million (2015), mostly <a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples" title="Mandé peoples">Mandé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>: languages of the <a href="/wiki/Dogon_people" title="Dogon people">Dogon people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, estimated at 1.6 million as of 2013. May have a noun-class system related to the Atlantic–Congo languages.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>, the languages of the <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw people</a> (3 million as of 2011), plus the moribund <a href="/wiki/Defaka_language" title="Defaka language">Defaka language</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>: languages of the <a href="/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples" title="Mandé peoples">Mandé peoples</a>, estimated at 70 million as of 2016</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a>, spoken in Dogon country but seemingly unrelated to Dogon.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamou_language" title="Siamou language">Siamou</a>, once classified as Kru.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Kordofanian""><span id=".22Kordofanian.22"></span>"Kordofanian"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: "Kordofanian""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The various <a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian languages</a> are spoken in south-central Sudan, around the <a href="/wiki/Nuba_Mountains" title="Nuba Mountains">Nuba Mountains</a>. "Kordofanian" is a geographic grouping, not a genetic one, named for the <a href="/wiki/Kordofan" title="Kordofan">Kordofan</a> region. These are minor languages, spoken by a total of about 100,000 people according to 1980s estimates. Katla and Rashad languages show isoglosses with Benue–Congo that the other families lack.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talodi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Talodi languages">Talodi languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiban_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Heiban languages">Heiban languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafofa_languages" title="Lafofa languages">Lafofa languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashad_languages" title="Rashad languages">Rashad languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katla_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Katla languages">Katla languages</a></li></ul> <p>The endangered or extinct <a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mpre_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mpre language">Mpre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a> languages are often assigned to Niger–Congo. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger-Congo_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Overview map"><img alt="Overview map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Niger-Congo_map.png/120px-Niger-Congo_map.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Niger-Congo_map.png/180px-Niger-Congo_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Niger-Congo_map.png/240px-Niger-Congo_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1207" data-file-height="1139" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Overview map</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Overview map of Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon"><img alt="Overview map of Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png/120px-Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png/180px-Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png/240px-Nigeria_Benin_Cameroon_languages.png 2x" data-file-width="1522" data-file-height="1388" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Overview map of Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger-Congo_speakers.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Table of demographic estimates in the same color code as the maps (est. 400 million speakers as of 2007)"><img alt="Table of demographic estimates in the same color code as the maps (est. 400 million speakers as of 2007)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Niger-Congo_speakers.png/59px-Niger-Congo_speakers.png" decoding="async" width="59" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Niger-Congo_speakers.png/88px-Niger-Congo_speakers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Niger-Congo_speakers.png/117px-Niger-Congo_speakers.png 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="4692" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Table of demographic estimates in the same color code as the maps (est. 400 million speakers as of 2007)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_history">Classification history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classification history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_classifications">Early classifications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Niger–Congo as it is known today was only gradually recognized as a linguistic unit. In early classifications of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">languages of Africa</a>, one of the principal criteria used to distinguish different groupings was the languages' use of prefixes to classify nouns, or the lack thereof. A major advance came with the work of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_Wilhelm_Koelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle">Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle</a>, who in his 1854 <i><a href="/wiki/Polyglotta_Africana" title="Polyglotta Africana">Polyglotta Africana</a></i> attempted a careful classification, the groupings of which in quite a number of cases correspond to modern groupings. An early sketch of the extent of Niger–Congo as one language family can be found in Koelle's observation, echoed in <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Bleek" title="Wilhelm Bleek">Bleek</a> (1856), that the Atlantic languages used prefixes just like many Southern African languages. Subsequent work of Bleek, and some decades later the comparative work of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Meinhof" title="Carl Meinhof">Meinhof</a>, solidly established <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> as a linguistic unit. </p><p>In many cases, wider classifications employed a blend of typological and racial criteria. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCller_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Müller (linguist)">Friedrich Müller</a>, in his ambitious classification (1876–88), separated the 'Negro' and Bantu languages. Likewise, the Africanist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Richard_Lepsius" title="Karl Richard Lepsius">Karl Richard Lepsius</a> considered Bantu to be of African origin, and many 'Mixed Negro languages' as products of an encounter between Bantu and intruding Asiatic languages. </p><p>In this period a relation between Bantu and languages with Bantu-like (but less complete) noun class systems began to emerge. Some authors saw the latter as languages which had not yet completely evolved to full Bantu status, whereas others regarded them as languages which had partly lost original features still found in Bantu. The Bantuist Meinhof made a major distinction between Bantu and a 'Semi-Bantu' group which according to him was originally of the unrelated Sudanic stock. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Westermann,_Greenberg,_and_others"><span id="Westermann.2C_Greenberg.2C_and_others"></span>Westermann, Greenberg, and others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Westermann, Greenberg, and others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westermann_1911_Sudansprachen_cover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/86/Westermann_1911_Sudansprachen_cover.jpg/200px-Westermann_1911_Sudansprachen_cover.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/86/Westermann_1911_Sudansprachen_cover.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Westermann's 1911 <i>Die Sudansprachen: Eine sprachvergleichende Studie</i> laid much of the basis for the understanding of Niger–Congo.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann" title="Diedrich Hermann Westermann">Westermann</a>, a pupil of Meinhof, set out to establish the internal classification of the then <a href="/wiki/Sudanic_languages" title="Sudanic languages">Sudanic languages</a>. In a 1911 work he established a basic division between 'East' and 'West'. A historical reconstruction of West Sudanic was published in 1927, and in his 1935 'Charakter und Einteilung der Sudansprachen' he conclusively established the relationship between Bantu and West Sudanic. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> took Westermann's work as a starting-point for his own classification. In a series of articles published between 1949 and 1954, he argued that Westermann's 'West Sudanic' and Bantu formed a single genetic family, which he named Niger–Congo; that Bantu constituted a subgroup of the Benue–Congo branch; that Adamawa-Eastern, previously not considered to be related, was another member of this family; and that Fula belonged to the West Atlantic languages. Just before these articles were collected in final book form (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i>) in 1963, he amended his classification by adding <a href="/wiki/Kordofanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Kordofanian">Kordofanian</a> as a branch co-ordinate with Niger–Congo as a whole; consequently, he renamed the family <i>Congo-Kordofanian</i>, later <i>Niger–Kordofanian</i>. Greenberg's work on African languages, though initially greeted with scepticism, became the prevailing view among scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-Williamson2000_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williamson2000-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bennet and Sterk (1977) presented an internal reclassification based on lexicostatistics that laid the foundation for the regrouping in <a href="/wiki/John_Bendor-Samuel" title="John Bendor-Samuel">Bendor-Samuel</a> (1989). Kordofanian was presented as one of several primary branches rather than being coordinate to the family as a whole, prompting re-introduction of the term <i>Niger–Congo</i>, which is in current use among linguists. Many classifications continue to place Kordofanian as the most distant branch, but mainly due to negative evidence (fewer lexical correspondences), rather than positive evidence that the other languages form a valid genealogical group. Likewise, Mande is often assumed to be the second-most distant branch based on its lack of the noun-class system prototypical of the Niger–Congo family. Other branches lacking any trace of the noun-class system are Dogon and Ijaw, whereas the Talodi branch of Kordofanian does have cognate noun classes, suggesting that Kordofanian is also not a unitary group. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pozdniakov" title="Konstantin Pozdniakov">Pozdniakov</a> (2012) stated: "The hypothesis of kinship between Niger–Congo languages didn't appear as a result of discovery of numerous related forms, for example, in Mande and Adamawa. It appeared as a result of comparison between the Bantu languages, for which the classical <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> was possible to be applied and which were reliably reconstructed, with other African languages. Niger–Congo does not exist without Bantu. We need to say clearly that if we establish a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic relationship</a> between a form in Bantu and in Atlantic languages, or between Bantu and Mande, we have all grounds to trace this form back to Niger–Congo. If we establish such a relationship between Mel and Kru or between Mande and Dogon, we don't have enough reason to claim it Niger–Congo. In other words, all Niger–Congo languages are equal, but <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> are "more equal" than the others."<sup id="cite_ref-Pozdniakov_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pozdniakov-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i> (2013) accepts the core with noun-class systems, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo languages</a>, apart from the recent inclusion of some of the Kordofanian groups, but not Niger–Congo as a whole. They list the following as separate families: Atlantic–Congo, Mande, Dogon, Ijoid, Lafofa, Katla-Tima, Heiban, Talodi, and Rashad. </p><p>Babaev (2013) stated: "The truth here is that almost no attempts in fact have been made to verify Greenberg's Niger–Congo hypothesis. This might seem strange but the path laid by Joseph Greenberg to Proto–Niger–Congo was not followed by much research. Most scholars have focused on individual families or groups, and classifications as well as reconstructions were made on lower levels. Compared with the volume of literature on Atlantic or Mande languages, the list of papers considering the aspects of Niger–Congo reconstruction per se is quite scarce."<sup id="cite_ref-Babaev_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Babaev-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Oxford Handbooks Online</i> (2016) has indicated that the continuing reassessment of Niger–Congo's "internal structure is due largely to the preliminary nature of Greenberg's classification, explicitly based as it was on a methodology that doesn't produce proofs for genetic affiliations between languages but rather aims at identifying "likely candidates."...The ongoing descriptive and documentary work on individual languages and their varieties, greatly expanding our knowledge on formerly little-known linguistic regions, is helping to identify clusters and units that allow for the application of the historical-comparative method. Only the reconstruction of lower-level units, instead of "big picture" contributions based on mass comparison, can help to verify (or disprove) our present concept of Niger–Congo as a genetic grouping consisting of Benue–Congo plus Volta–Niger, Kwa, Adamawa plus Gur, Kru, the so-called Kordofanian languages, and probably the language groups traditionally classified as Atlantic."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coherence of Niger–Congo as a language phylum is supported by Grollemund, et al. (2016), using <a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational phylogenetic">computational phylogenetic</a> methods.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The East/West Volta–Congo division, West/East Benue–Congo division, and North/South Bantoid division are not supported, whereas a <a href="/wiki/Bantoid_languages" title="Bantoid languages">Bantoid</a> group consisting of Ekoid, Bendi, Dakoid, Jukunoid, Tivoid, Mambiloid, Beboid, Mamfe, Tikar, Grassfields, and Bantu is supported. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Automated_Similarity_Judgment_Program" title="Automated Similarity Judgment Program">Automated Similarity Judgment Program</a> (ASJP) also groups many Niger–Congo branches together. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Dimmendaal" title="Gerrit Dimmendaal">Dimmendaal</a>, Crevels, and Muysken (2020) stated: "Greenberg's hypothesis of Niger–Congo phylum has sometimes been taken as an established fact rather than a hypothesis awaiting further proof, but there have also been attempts to look at his argumentation in more detail. Much of the discussion concerning Niger–Congo after Greenberg's seminal contribution in fact centered around the inclusion or exclusion of specific languages or language groups."<sup id="cite_ref-Dimmendaal_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimmendaal-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Good (2020) stated: "First proposed by Greenberg (1949), Niger–Congo (NC) has for decades been treated as one of the four major phyla of <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African languages</a>. The term, as presently used, however, is not without its difficulties. On the one hand, it is employed as a referential label for a group of over 1,500 languages, putting it among the largest commonly cited language groups in the world. On the other hand, the term is also intended to embody a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> of genealogical relationship between the referential NC languages that has not been proven."<sup id="cite_ref-Good_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Good-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstruction">Reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger%E2%80%93Congo_language" title="Proto-Niger–Congo language">Proto-Niger–Congo language</a></div> <p>The lexicon of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Niger–Congo">Proto–Niger–Congo</a> (or Proto-Atlantic–Congo) has not been comprehensively reconstructed, although <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pozdniakov" title="Konstantin Pozdniakov">Konstantin Pozdniakov</a> reconstructed the <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral system</a> of Proto–Niger–Congo in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-pozdniakov_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pozdniakov-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most extensive reconstructions of lower-order Niger–Congo branches include several reconstructions of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Bantu">Proto-Bantu</a>, which has consequently had a disproportionate influence on conceptions of what Proto–Niger–Congo may have been like. The only stage higher than Proto-Bantu that has been reconstructed is a pilot project by Stewart, who since the 1970s has reconstructed the common ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Potou%E2%80%93Tano_languages" title="Potou–Tano languages">Potou-Tano</a> and Bantu languages, without so far considering the hundreds of other languages which presumably descend from that same ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niger–Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan"><span id="Niger.E2.80.93Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan"></span>Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan<span class="anchor" id="Kongo–Saharan"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages#Blench_2006" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan languages § Blench 2006</a></div> <p>Over the years, several linguists have suggested a link between Niger–Congo and <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>, probably starting with Westermann's comparative work on the "<a href="/wiki/Sudanic_languages" title="Sudanic languages">Sudanic</a>" family in which '<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a>' (now classified as Nilo-Saharan) and '<a href="/wiki/Western_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Sudanic languages">Western Sudanic</a>' (now classified as Niger–Congo) were united. Gregersen (1972) proposed that Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan be united into a larger phylum, which he termed <i>Kongo-Saharan</i>. His evidence was mainly based on the uncertainty in the classification of <a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>, morphological resemblances, and lexical similarities. A more recent proponent was <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> (1995), who puts forward phonological, morphological and lexical evidence for uniting Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan in a <i>Niger–Saharan</i> phylum, with special affinity between Niger–Congo and <a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a>. However, fifteen years later his views had changed, with Blench (2011) proposing instead that the <a href="/wiki/Noun-classifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun-classifier">noun-classifier</a> system of Central Sudanic, commonly reflected in a tripartite <a href="/wiki/General_number" class="mw-redirect" title="General number">general</a>-<a href="/wiki/Singulative" class="mw-redirect" title="Singulative">singulative</a>-<a href="/wiki/Plurative" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurative">plurative</a> number system, triggered the development or elaboration of the <a href="/wiki/Noun-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun-class">noun-class</a> system of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo languages</a>, with tripartite number marking surviving in the <a href="/wiki/Plateau_languages" title="Plateau languages">Plateau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Gur languages</a> of Niger–Congo, and the lexical similarities being due to loans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_features">Common features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Common features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Niger–Congo languages have a clear preference for <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllables</a> of the type CV (Consonant Vowel). The typical word structure of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Niger-Congo">Proto–Niger–Congo</a> (though it has not been reconstructed) is thought to have been CVCV, a structure still attested in, for example, Bantu, Mande and Ijoid – in many other branches this structure has been reduced through <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> change. Verbs are composed of a root followed by one or more extensional suffixes. Nouns consist of a root originally preceded by a noun class prefix of (C)V- shape which is often eroded by phonological change. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants">Consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several branches of Niger–Congo have a regular phonological contrast between two classes of consonants. Pending more clarity as to the precise nature of this contrast, it is commonly characterized as a contrast between <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis and lenis</a> consonants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels">Vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Niger–Congo languages' <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a> is based on the [ATR] (<a href="/wiki/Advanced_tongue_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced tongue root">advanced tongue root</a>) feature. In this type of vowel harmony, the position of the root of the tongue in regards to backness is the phonetic basis for the distinction between two harmonizing sets of vowels. In its fullest form, this type involves two classes, each of five vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-Morton_2012:70-71_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morton_2012:70-71-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>[+ATR]</th> <th>[−ATR] </th></tr> <tr> <td>[i]</td> <td>[ɪ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[e]</td> <td>[ɛ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[ə]</td> <td>[a] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[o]</td> <td>[ɔ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[u]</td> <td>[ʊ] </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The roots are then divided into [+ATR] and [−ATR] categories. This feature is lexically assigned to the roots because there is no determiner within a normal root that causes the [ATR] value.<sup id="cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unseth_2009:2-3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two types of [ATR] vowel harmony controllers in Niger–Congo. The first controller is the root. When a root contains a [+ATR] or [−ATR] vowel, then that value is applied to the rest of the word, which involves crossing morpheme boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakovic_2000:ii_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakovic_2000:ii-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, suffixes in <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a> assimilate to the [ATR] value of the root to which they attach. The following examples of these suffixes alternate depending on the root.<sup id="cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unseth_2009:2-3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>[+ATR]</th> <th>[−ATR]</th> <th>Purpose </th></tr> <tr> <td>-le</td> <td>-lɛ</td> <td>'participant' </td></tr> <tr> <td>-o</td> <td>-ɔ</td> <td>'nominalizing' </td></tr> <tr> <td>-əl</td> <td>-al</td> <td>'benefactive' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Furthermore, the directionality of assimilation in [ATR] root-controlled vowel harmony need not be specified. The root features [+ATR] and [−ATR] spread left and/or right as needed, so that no vowel would lack a specification and be ill-formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Clements_1981_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clements_1981-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike in the root-controlled harmony system, where the two [ATR] values behave symmetrically, a large number of Niger–Congo languages exhibit a pattern where the [+ATR] value is more active or dominant than the [−ATR] value.<sup id="cite_ref-Casali_2002:29_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casali_2002:29-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in the second vowel harmony controller being the [+ATR] value. If there is even one vowel that is [+ATR] in the whole word, then the rest of the vowels harmonize with that feature. However, if there is no vowel that is [+ATR], the vowels appear in their underlying form.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakovic_2000:ii_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakovic_2000:ii-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of vowel harmony control is best exhibited in West African languages. For example, in Nawuri, the diminutive suffix /-bi/ will cause the underlying [−ATR] vowels in a word to become phonetically [+ATR].<sup id="cite_ref-Casali_2002:29_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casali_2002:29-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two types of vowels which affect the harmony process. These are known as neutral or opaque vowels. Neutral vowels do not harmonize to the [ATR] value of the word, and instead maintain their own [ATR] value. The vowels that follow them, however, will receive the [ATR] value of the root. Opaque vowels maintain their own [ATR] value as well, but they affect the harmony process behind them. All of the vowels following an opaque vowel will harmonize with the [ATR] value of the opaque vowel instead of the [ATR] vowel of the root.<sup id="cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unseth_2009:2-3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vowel inventory listed above is a ten-vowel language. This is a language in which all of the vowels of the language participate in the harmony system, producing five harmonic pairs. Vowel inventories of this type are still found in some branches of Niger–Congo, for example in the <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Togo_Mountain_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghana Togo Mountain languages">Ghana Togo Mountain languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_1999_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson_1999-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is the rarer inventory as oftentimes there are one or more vowels that are not part of a harmonic pair. This has resulted in seven- and nine-vowel systems being the more popular systems. The majority of languages with [ATR] controlled vowel harmony have either seven or nine vowel phonemes, with the most common non-participatory vowel being /a/.<sup id="cite_ref-Morton_2012:70-71_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morton_2012:70-71-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been asserted that this is because vowel quality differences in the mid-central region where /ə/, the counterpart of /a/, is found, are difficult to perceive. Another possible reason for the non-participatory status of /a/ is that there is articulatory difficulty in advancing the tongue root when the tongue body is low in order to produce a low [+ATR] vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-Archangeli_and_Pulleyblank_1994_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archangeli_and_Pulleyblank_1994-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the vowel inventory for nine-vowel languages is generally: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>[+ATR]</th> <th>[−ATR] </th></tr> <tr> <td>[i]</td> <td>[ɪ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[e]</td> <td>[ɛ] </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>[a] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[o]</td> <td>[ɔ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[u]</td> <td>[ʊ] </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>And seven-vowel languages have one of two inventories: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>[+ATR]</th> <th>[−ATR] </th></tr> <tr> <td>[i]</td> <td>[ɪ] </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>[ɛ] </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>[a] </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>[ɔ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[u]</td> <td>[ʊ] </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>[+ATR]</th> <th>[−ATR] </th></tr> <tr> <td>[i]</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>[e]</td> <td>[ɛ] </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>[a] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[o]</td> <td>[ɔ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>[u]</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note that in the nine-vowel language, the missing vowel is, in fact, [ə], [a]'s counterpart, as would be expected.<sup id="cite_ref-Casali_2008_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casali_2008-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that ten vowels have been reconstructed for proto-Ijoid has led to the hypothesis that the original vowel inventory of Niger–Congo was a full ten-vowel system.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Stewart, in recent comparative work, reconstructs a seven-vowel system for his proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nasality">Nasality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nasality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several scholars have documented a contrast between oral and <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowels</a> in Niger–Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his reconstruction of proto-Volta–Congo, Steward (1976) postulates that <a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">nasal consonants</a> have originated under the influence of nasal vowels; this hypothesis is supported by the fact that there are several Niger–Congo languages that have been analysed as lacking nasal consonants altogether. Languages like this have nasal vowels accompanied with <a href="/wiki/Complementary_distribution" title="Complementary distribution">complementary distribution</a> between oral and nasal consonants before oral and nasal vowels. Subsequent loss of the nasal/oral contrast in vowels may result in nasal consonants becoming part of the phoneme inventory. In all cases reported to date, the bilabial /m/ is the first nasal consonant to be phonologized. Niger–Congo thus invalidates two common assumptions about nasals:<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that all languages have at least one primary nasal consonant, and that if a language has only one primary nasal consonant it is /n/. </p><p>Niger–Congo languages commonly show fewer nasalized than oral vowels. <a href="/wiki/Kasem_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasem language">Kasem</a>, a language with a ten-vowel system employing ATR vowel harmony, has seven nasalized vowels. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> has seven oral vowels and only five nasal ones. However, the language of <a href="/wiki/Zialo_language" title="Zialo language">Zialo</a> has a nasal equivalent for each of its seven oral vowels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tone">Tone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The large majority of present-day Niger–Congo languages are <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a>. A typical Niger–Congo tone system involves two or three contrastive level tones. Four-level systems are less widespread, and five-level systems are rare. Only a few Niger–Congo languages are non-tonal; Swahili is perhaps the best known, but within the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic languages">Atlantic</a> branch some others are found. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Niger-Congo">Proto–Niger–Congo</a> is thought to have been a tone language with two contrastive levels. Synchronic and comparative-historical studies of tone systems show that such a basic system can easily develop more tonal contrasts under the influence of depressor consonants or through the introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">downstep</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Languages which have more tonal levels tend to use tone more for lexical and less for grammatical contrasts. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><small>Contrastive levels of tone in some Niger–Congo languages</small> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Tones</th> <th>Languages </th></tr> <tr> <td>H, L</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dyula_language" title="Dyula language">Dyula</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bambara_language" title="Bambara language">Bambara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maninka_language" title="Maninka language">Maninka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temne_language" title="Temne language">Temne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagbani_language" title="Dagbani language">Dagbani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gbaya_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gbaya language">Gbaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Efik_language" title="Efik language">Efik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingala_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lingala language">Lingala</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>H, M, L</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yakuba_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakuba language">Yakuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nafaanra_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nafaanra language">Nafaanra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kasem_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasem language">Kasem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banda_languages" title="Banda languages">Banda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jukun_Takum_language" title="Jukun Takum language">Jukun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dangme_language" title="Dangme language">Dangme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yukuben_language" title="Yukuben language">Yukuben</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Akan languages">Akan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anyi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anyi language">Anyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>T, H, M, L</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gban_language" title="Gban language">Gban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wobe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wobe language">Wobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Munzombo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Munzombo language">Munzombo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igede_language" title="Igede language">Igede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mambila_language" title="Mambila language">Mambila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_language" title="Fon language">Fon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>T, H, M, L, B</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashuku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashuku language">Ashuku</a> (Benue–Congo), <a href="/wiki/Dan-Santa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dan-Santa language">Dan-Santa</a> (Mande) </td></tr> <tr> <td>PA/S</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandinka_language" title="Mandinka language">Mandinka (Senegambia)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kimwani" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimwani">Kimwani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>none</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><small>Abbreviations used: T top, H high, M mid, L low, B bottom, PA/S pitch-accent or stress<br /> Adapted from Williamson 1989:27</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphosyntax">Morphosyntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Morphosyntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_classification">Noun classification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Noun classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Niger–Congo languages are known for their system of <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun classification</a>, traces of which can be found in every branch of the family but Mande, Ijoid, Dogon, and the Katla and Rashad branches of Kordofanian. These noun-classification systems are somewhat analogous to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> in other languages, but there are often a fairly large number of classes (often 10 or more), and the classes may be male human/female human/animate/inanimate, or even completely gender-unrelated categories such as places, plants, abstracts, and groups of objects. For example, in Bantu, the Swahili language is called <i>Kiswahili,</i> while the Swahili people are <i>Waswahili.</i> Likewise, in Ubangian, the <a href="/wiki/Zande_language" title="Zande language">Zande language</a> is called <i>Pazande,</i> while the <a href="/wiki/Zande_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Zande people">Zande people</a> are called <i>Azande.</i> </p><p>In the Bantu languages, where noun classification is particularly elaborate, it typically appears as prefixes, with verbs and adjectives marked according to the class of the noun they refer to. For example, in Swahili, <i>watu wazuri wataenda</i> is 'good <i>(zuri)</i> people <i>(tu)</i> will go <i>(ta-enda)'</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbal_extensions">Verbal extensions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Verbal extensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The same Atlantic–Congo languages which have noun classes also have a set of <a href="/wiki/Verb_applicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb applicative">verb applicatives</a> and other verbal extensions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reciprocal (grammar)">reciprocal</a> suffix <i>-na</i> (Swahili <i>penda</i> 'to love', <i>pendana</i> 'to love each other'; also applicative <i>pendea</i> 'to love for' and <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> <i>pendeza</i> 'to please'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Word_order">Word order</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject-verb-object</a> word order is quite widespread among today's Niger–Congo languages, but <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> is found in branches as divergent as <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a>. As a result, there has been quite some debate as to the basic <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> of Niger–Congo. </p><p>Whereas Claudi (1993) argues for SVO on the basis of existing SVO > SOV grammaticalization paths, Gensler (1997) points out that the notion of 'basic word order' is problematic as it excludes structures with, for example, <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliaries</a>. However, the structure SC-OC-VbStem (Subject concord, Object concord, Verb stem) found in the "verbal complex" of the SVO Bantu languages suggests an earlier SOV pattern (where the subject and object were at least represented by pronouns). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">Noun phrases</a> in most Niger–Congo languages are characteristically <i>noun-initial</i>, with <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitives</a> all coming after the noun. The major exceptions are found in the western<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> areas where verb-final word order predominates and genitives precede nouns, though other modifiers still come afterwards. Degree words almost always follow adjectives, and except in verb-final languages <a href="/wiki/Adposition" title="Adposition">adpositions</a> are prepositional. </p><p>The verb-final languages of the Mende region have two quite unusual word order characteristics. Although verbs follow their direct objects, oblique adpositional phrases (like "in the house", "with timber") typically come after the verb,<sup id="cite_ref-Haspelmath_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haspelmath-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> creating a <b>SOVX</b> word order. Also noteworthy in these languages is the prevalence of internally headed and correlative <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a>, in both of which the head occurs <i>inside</i> the relative clause rather than the main clause. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGood2020" class="citation book cs1">Good, Jeff (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cfXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139">"Niger-Congo, with a special focus on Benue-Congo"</a>. In Vossen, Rainer; Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of African Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 139–160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191007378" title="Special:BookSources/9780191007378"><bdi>9780191007378</bdi></a>. <q>The term [Niger–Congo], as presently used, however, is not without its difficulties. On the one hand, it is employed as a referential label for a group of over 1,500 languages, putting it among the largest commonly cited language groups in the world. On the other hand, the term is also intended to embody a hypothesis of genealogical relationship between the referential NC languages that has not been proven (p.139)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo%2C+with+a+special+focus+on+Benue-Congo&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+African+Languages&rft.pages=139-160&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780191007378&rft.aulast=Good&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-cfXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niger-Congo_Language_Family2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Irene Thompson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aboutworldlanguages.com/niger-congo-language-family">"Niger-Congo Language Family"</a>, "aboutworldlanguages", March 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeineNurse2000" class="citation book cs1">Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (2000-08-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C7XhcYoFxaQC&pg=PA11"><i>African Languages: An Introduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521666299" title="Special:BookSources/9780521666299"><bdi>9780521666299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Languages%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000-08-03&rft.isbn=9780521666299&rft.aulast=Heine&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rft.au=Nurse%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC7XhcYoFxaQC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmmon2006" class="citation book cs1">Ammon, Ulrich (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LMZm0w0k1c4C&pg=PA2036"><i>Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 2036. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110184181" title="Special:BookSources/9783110184181"><bdi>9783110184181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociolinguistics%3A+An+International+Handbook+of+the+Science+of+Language+and+Society&rft.pages=2036&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783110184181&rft.aulast=Ammon&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLMZm0w0k1c4C%26pg%3DPA2036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simons, Gary F. and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2018. <i>Ethnologue: Languages of the World</i>, Twenty-first edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagesgulper.com/eng/Niger.html">"Niger-Congo Languages"</a>, "The Language Gulper", March 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManningTimpson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Manning, Katie; Timpson, Adrian (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2014.07.003">"The demographic response to Holocene climate change in the Sahara"</a>. <i>Quaternary Science Reviews</i>. <b>101</b>: 28–35. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014QSRv..101...28M">2014QSRv..101...28M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2014.07.003">10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.07.003</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+demographic+response+to+Holocene+climate+change+in+the+Sahara&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=28-35&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2014.07.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014QSRv..101...28M&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Timpson%2C+Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.quascirev.2014.07.003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Igor Kopytoff, <i>The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies</i> (1989), 9–10 (cited after <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amightytree.org/niger-congo-languages-and-history/">Igbo Language Roots and (Pre)-History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190717224506/http://amightytree.org/niger-congo-languages-and-history/">Archived</a> 2019-07-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>A Mighty Tree</i>, 2011).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Westermann, D. 1922a. <i>Die Sprache der Guang</i>. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenberg, J. H. 1964. <i>Historical inferences from linguistic research in sub-Saharan Africa</i>. Boston University Papers in African History, 1:1–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rogerblench.info2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rogerblench.info2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench" class="citation web cs1">Blench, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/BC/General/Benue-Congo%20classification%20latest.pdf">"Unpublished Working Draft"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.rogerblench.info</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rogerblench.info&rft.atitle=Unpublished+Working+Draft&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FLanguage%2FNiger-Congo%2FBC%2FGeneral%2FBenue-Congo%2520classification%2520latest.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herman Bell. 1995. <i>The Nuba Mountains: Who Spoke What in 1976?</i> (the published results from a major project of the Institute of African and Asian Studies: the Language Survey of the Nuba Mountains.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rogerblench.info-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rogerblench.info_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/BC/General/Benue-Congo%20classification%20latest.pdf">"The Benue-Congo languages: a proposed internal classification"</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (May 2018)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> "No comprehensive reconstruction has yet been done for the phylum as a whole, and it is sometimes suggested (e.g. by Dixon 1997) that Niger-Congo is merely a typological and not a genetic unity. This view is not held by any specialists in the phylum, and reasons for thinking Niger-Congo is a true genetic unity will be given in this chapter. It is, however, true that the subclassification of the phylum has been continuously modified in recent years and cannot be presented as an agreed scheme. The factors which have delayed reconstruction are the large number of languages, the inaccessibility of much of the data, and the paucity of able researchers committed to this field. Emphasis will be placed on three characteristics of Niger-Congo; noun-class systems, verbal extensions, and basic lexicon." See also: Bendor-Samuel, J. ed. 1989. <i>The Niger–Congo Languages</i>. Lanham: University Press of America.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamson, K. 1971. "The Benue–Congo languages and Ijo" <i>Current Trends in Linguistics</i>, 7. ed. T. Sebeok 245–306. The Hague: Mouton.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamson, K. 1988. "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of the Niger Delta". <i>The early history of the Niger Delta</i>, edited by E. J. Alagoa, F. N. Anozie and N. Nzewunwa. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamson, K. 1989. "Benue–Congo Overview" in <i>The Niger–Congo Languages</i>. J. Bendor-Samuel ed. Lanham: University Press of America.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Wolf, P. 1971. <i>The noun class system of Proto-Benue–Congo</i>. The Hague: Mouton.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, R. M. 1989. "A proposed new classification of Benue–Congo languages". <i>Afrikanische Arbeitspapiere</i>, Köln, 17:115–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williamson2000-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williamson2000_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williamson2000_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsonBlench2000" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger (2000). "Niger-Congo". In Bernd Heine; Derek Nurse (eds.). <i>African Languages: An Introduction</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo&rft.btitle=African+Languages%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Kay&rft.au=Blench%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Dimmendaal" title="Gerrit Dimmendaal">Gerrit Dimmendaal</a> (2008) "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i> 2/5:841.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin H. Steinberg, <i>Disorders of Hemoglobin: Genetics, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2001, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PM0zzm7wbvsC&pg=PA717">p. 717</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/Niger-Congo%20an%20alternative%20view.pdf">"Niger-Congo: an alternative view"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Rogerblench.info<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Niger-Congo%3A+an+alternative+view&rft.pub=Rogerblench.info&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FLanguage%2FNiger-Congo%2FGeneral%2FNiger-Congo%2520an%2520alternative%2520view.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/NCgenOP.htm">"Roger Blench: Niger-Congo reconstruction"</a>. Rogerblench.info<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roger+Blench%3A+Niger-Congo+reconstruction&rft.pub=Rogerblench.info&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FLanguage%2FNiger-Congo%2FGeneral%2FNCgenOP.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/glottolog/family">"Glottolog 3.4 -"</a>. <i>glottolog.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=glottolog.org&rft.atitle=Glottolog+3.4+-&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fglottolog%2Ffamily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans G. Mukarovsky, <i>A Study of Western Nigritic</i>, 2 vols. (1976–1977). Blench (2004): "Almost simultaneously [with Greenberg (1963)], Mukarovsky (1976–7) published his analysis of 'Western Nigritic'. Mukarovsky's basic theme was the relationship between the reconstructions of Bantu of Guthrie and other writers and the languages of West Africa. Mukarovsky excluded Kordofanian, Mande, Ijo, Dogon, Adamawa-Ubangian and most Bantoid languages for unknown reasons, thus reconstructing an idiosyncratic grouping. Nonetheless, he buttressed his argument with an extremely valuable compilation of data, establishing the case for Bantu/Niger-Congo genetic link beyond reasonable doubt."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blench2012-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blench2012_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blench2012_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blench2012_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/General/Niger-Congo%20an%20alternative%20view.pdf">Niger-Congo: an alternative view</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaalStorch2016" class="citation web cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J.; Storch, Anne (2016-02-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935345-e-3">"Niger-Congo: A brief state of the art"</a>. <i>Oxford Handbooks Online</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.013.3">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.013.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993534-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993534-5"><bdi>978-0-19-993534-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Handbooks+Online&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo%3A+A+brief+state+of+the+art&rft.date=2016-02-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.013.3&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993534-5&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rft.au=Storch%2C+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199935345-e-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pozdniakov-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pozdniakov_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPozdniakov2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pozdniakov, Konstantin (September 18–21, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://llacan.cnrs.fr/fichiers/nigercongo/fichiers/Pozdniakov_NC_numbers.pdf">"From Atlantic to Niger-Congo: three, two, one ..."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction International Congress</i>: 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Towards+Proto-Niger-Congo%3A+Comparison+and+Reconstruction+International+Congress&rft.atitle=From+Atlantic+to+Niger-Congo%3A+three%2C+two%2C+one+...&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2012-09-18%2F2012-09-21&rft.aulast=Pozdniakov&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fllacan.cnrs.fr%2Ffichiers%2Fnigercongo%2Ffichiers%2FPozdniakov_NC_numbers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Babaev-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Babaev_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabaev2013" class="citation journal cs1">Babaev, Kirill (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313725739">"Joseph Greenberg and the Current State of Niger-Congo"</a>. <i>Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory</i> (18): 19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Association+for+the+Study+of+Language+in+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Joseph+Greenberg+and+the+Current+State+of+Niger-Congo&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Babaev&rft.aufirst=Kirill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F313725739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStorchDimmendaal2016" class="citation book cs1">Storch, Anne; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (11 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935345-e-3">"Niger-Congo"</a>. <i>Oxford Handbook Topics in Linguistics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.013.3">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.013.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993534-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993534-5"><bdi>978-0-19-993534-5</bdi></a> – via www.oxfordhandbooks.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+Topics+in+Linguistics&rft.date=2016-02-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.013.3&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993534-5&rft.aulast=Storch&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Dimmendaal%2C+Gerrit+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935345.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199935345-e-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rebecca Grollemund, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/nigercongo2/abstracts/Grollemund_Hombert_Pagel-Genetic%20Unity%20of%20the%20Niger-Congo%20family.pdf">Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family</a>. Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: comparison and reconstruction (2nd International Congress)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dimmendaal-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dimmendaal_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaalCrevelsMuysken2020" class="citation book cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J.; Crevels, Mily; Muysken, Pieter (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xbryDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201">"Patterns of dispersal and diversification in Africa"</a>. <i>Language Dispersal, Diversification, and Contact</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872381-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872381-3"><bdi>978-0-19-872381-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+dispersal+and+diversification+in+Africa&rft.btitle=Language+Dispersal%2C+Diversification%2C+and+Contact&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872381-3&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rft.au=Crevels%2C+Mily&rft.au=Muysken%2C+Pieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxbryDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Good-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Good_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGood2020" class="citation book cs1">Good, Jeff (Mar 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8fXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139">"Niger-Congo, With A Special Focus On Benue Congo"</a>. <i>The Oxford Handbook of African Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960989-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960989-5"><bdi>978-0-19-960989-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo%2C+With+A+Special+Focus+On+Benue+Congo&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+African+Languages&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-03-19&rft.isbn=978-0-19-960989-5&rft.aulast=Good&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8fXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pozdniakov-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pozdniakov_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPozdniakov2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Pozdniakov" title="Konstantin Pozdniakov">Pozdniakov, Konstantin</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/191"><i>The numeral system of Proto-Niger-Congo: A step-by-step reconstruction</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(pdf)</span>. Niger-Congo Comparative Studies. Berlin: Language Science Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.1311704">10.5281/zenodo.1311704</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-098-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-098-9"><bdi>978-3-96110-098-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+numeral+system+of+Proto-Niger-Congo%3A+A+step-by-step+reconstruction&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Niger-Congo+Comparative+Studies&rft.pub=Language+Science+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.1311704&rft.isbn=978-3-96110-098-9&rft.aulast=Pozdniakov&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flangsci-press.org%2Fcatalog%2Fbook%2F191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Gueldemann (2018) <i>Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa</i>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morton_2012:70-71-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morton_2012:70-71_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morton_2012:70-71_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2012" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Deborah (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/42/paper2759.pdf"><i>Harmony in an Eleven Vowel Language</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cascadilla Proceedings Project. pp. 70–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57473-453-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57473-453-9"><bdi>978-1-57473-453-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harmony+in+an+Eleven+Vowel+Language&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=Cascadilla+Proceedings+Project&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-57473-453-9&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lingref.com%2Fcpp%2Facal%2F42%2Fpaper2759.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unseth_2009:2-3-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unseth_2009:2-3_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnseth2009" class="citation journal cs1">Unseth, Carla (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130903194104/http://www.gial.edu/images/opal/No-7-Unseth-Wolof-Vowel-Harmony.pdf">"Vowel Harmony in Wolof"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Occasional Papers in Applied Linguistics</i> (2–3). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Files/pdf/29-1/JWAL-29-1-Casali.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 30, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+West+African+Languages&rft.atitle=Nawuri+ATR+Harmony+in+Typological+Perspective&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Casali&rft.aufirst=Roderic+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org%2FFiles%2Fpdf%2F29-1%2FJWAL-29-1-Casali.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson_1999-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson_1999_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, C. G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32473%2Fsal.v28i2.107372">"ATR vowel harmony in Akposso"</a>. <i>Studies in African Linguistics</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 185–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32473%2Fsal.v28i2.107372">10.32473/sal.v28i2.107372</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+African+Linguistics&rft.atitle=ATR+vowel+harmony+in+Akposso&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-214&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.32473%2Fsal.v28i2.107372&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=C.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.32473%252Fsal.v28i2.107372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archangeli_and_Pulleyblank_1994-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Archangeli_and_Pulleyblank_1994_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchangeliPulleyblank1994" class="citation book cs1">Archangeli, Diana; Pulleyblank, Douglas (1994). <i>Grounded Phonology</i>. Current Studies in Linguistics. Vol. 25. Cambridge: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01137-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-01137-9"><bdi>0-262-01137-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grounded+Phonology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Current+Studies+in+Linguistics&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-262-01137-9&rft.aulast=Archangeli&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft.au=Pulleyblank%2C+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Casali_2008-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Casali_2008_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasali2008" class="citation journal cs1">Casali, Roderic F. (2008). "ATR Harmony in African Languages". <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 496–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00064.x">10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00064.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=ATR+Harmony+in+African+Languages&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=496-549&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00064.x&rft.aulast=Casali&rft.aufirst=Roderic+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoneux1975" class="citation journal cs1">Doneux, Jean L. (1975). "Hypothèses pour la comparative des langues atlantiques". <i>Africana Linguistica</i>. <b>6</b>. Tervuren: Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale: 41–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Faflin.1975.892">10.3406/aflin.1975.892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africana+Linguistica&rft.atitle=Hypoth%C3%A8ses+pour+la+comparative+des+langues+atlantiques&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=41-129&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Faflin.1975.892&rft.aulast=Doneux&rft.aufirst=Jean+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span> (Re: proto-Atlantic)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson2000" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Kay (2000). "Towards reconstructing Proto-Niger-Congo". In Wolff, H. E.; Gensler, O. (eds.). <i>Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress of African Linguistics, Leipzig 1997</i>. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. pp. 49–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89645-124-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-89645-124-3"><bdi>3-89645-124-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Towards+reconstructing+Proto-Niger-Congo&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2nd+World+Congress+of+African+Linguistics%2C+Leipzig+1997&rft.place=K%C3%B6ln&rft.pages=49-70&rft.pub=R%C3%BCdiger+K%C3%B6ppe&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=3-89645-124-3&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Kay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span> (Re: proto-Ijoid)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1976" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, John M. (1976). <i>Towards Volta-Congo Reconstruction : Rede</i>. Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6021-307-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-6021-307-6"><bdi>90-6021-307-6</bdi></a>,</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+Volta-Congo+Reconstruction+%3A+Rede&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Universitaire+Pers+Leiden&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=90-6021-307-6&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasali1995" class="citation journal cs1">Casali, Roderic F. (1995). "On the Reduction of Vowel Systems in Volta-Congo". <i>African Languages and Cultures</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 109–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09544169508717790">10.1080/09544169508717790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Languages+and+Cultures&rft.atitle=On+the+Reduction+of+Vowel+Systems+in+Volta-Congo&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-121&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09544169508717790&rft.aulast=Casali&rft.aufirst=Roderic+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span> (Re: proto-Volta-Conga)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, John M. (2002). "The potential of Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated". <i>Journal of African Languages and Linguistics</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 197–224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjall.2002.012">10.1515/jall.2002.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Languages+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+potential+of+Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu+as+a+pilot+Proto-Niger-Congo%2C+and+the+reconstructions+updated&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-224&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjall.2002.012&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">le Saout (1973) for an early overview, Stewart (1976) for a diachronic, Volta–Congo wide analysis, Capo (1981) for a synchronic analysis of nasality in Gbe (see <a href="/wiki/Gbe_languages#Nasality_in_Gbe" title="Gbe languages">Gbe languages: nasality</a>), and Bole-Richard (1984, 1985) as cited in Williamson (1989) for similar reports on several Mande, Gur, Kru, Kwa, and Ubangi languages.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As noted by Williamson (1989:24). The assumptions are from Ferguson's (1963) 'Assumptions about nasals' in Greenberg (ed.) <i>Universals of Language</i>, pp 50–60 as cited in Williamson art.cit.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Niger-Congo-languages/Widespread-characteristics-of-Niger-Congo-languages">"Niger-Congo languages – Widespread characteristics of Niger-Congo languages | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo+languages+%E2%80%93+Widespread+characteristics+of+Niger-Congo+languages+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNiger-Congo-languages%2FWidespread-characteristics-of-Niger-Congo-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haspelmath-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haspelmath_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haspelmath_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Haspelmath, Martin; Dryer, Matthew S.; Gil, David and Comrie, Bernard (eds.) <i>The World Atlas of Language Structures</i>; pp 346–385. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925591-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-925591-1">0-19-925591-1</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBendor-SamuelHartell1989" class="citation book cs1">Bendor-Samuel, John; Hartell, Rhonda L., eds. (1989). <i>The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family</i>. University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819173751" title="Special:BookSources/9780819173751"><bdi>9780819173751</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Niger-Congo+Languages%3A+A+Classification+and+Description+of+Africa%27s+Largest+Language+Family&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780819173751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettSterk1977" class="citation journal cs1">Bennett, Patrick R.; Sterk, Jan P. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/0a02f9effcbfcf71a81dad37a463085d/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817060">"South Central Niger-Congo: A reclassification"</a>. <i>Studies in African Linguistics</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 241–273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+African+Linguistics&rft.atitle=South+Central+Niger-Congo%3A+A+reclassification&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=241-273&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Patrick+R.&rft.au=Sterk%2C+Jan+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F0a02f9effcbfcf71a81dad37a463085d%2F1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D1817060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench1995" class="citation book cs1">Blench, Roger (January 1995). "Is Niger-Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan?". In Nicolaï, Robert; Rottland, Franz (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2326473"><i>Actes du Cinquième Colloque de Linguistique Nilo-Saharienne: 24 - 29 août 1992, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis</i></a>. Nilo-Saharan. Vol. 10. pp. 83–130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-927620-72-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-927620-72-6"><bdi>3-927620-72-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+Niger-Congo+simply+a+branch+of+Nilo-Saharan%3F&rft.btitle=Actes+du+Cinqui%C3%A8me+Colloque+de+Linguistique+Nilo-Saharienne%3A+24+-+29+ao%C3%BBt+1992%2C+Universit%C3%A9+de+Nice+Sophia-Antipolis&rft.series=Nilo-Saharan&rft.pages=83-130&rft.date=1995-01&rft.isbn=3-927620-72-6&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2326473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2011" class="citation conference cs1">Blench, Roger (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190423231958/http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf"><i>Can Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic help us understand the evolution of Niger-Congo noun classes?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. CALL 41. Leiden. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-04-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Can+Sino-Tibetan+and+Austroasiatic+help+us+understand+the+evolution+of+Niger-Congo+noun+classes%3F&rft.place=Leiden&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.leidenuniv.nl%2Flegacy%2Fblench-call-leiden-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2011" class="citation conference cs1">Blench, Roger (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Niger-Congo/Kordofanian/Nuba%20Hills%20conference%20paper%202011%20Kordofanian.pdf"><i>Should Kordofanian be split up?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Nuba Hills Conference. Leiden.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Should+Kordofanian+be+split+up%3F&rft.place=Leiden&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerblench.info%2FLanguage%2FNiger-Congo%2FKordofanian%2FNuba%2520Hills%2520conference%2520paper%25202011%2520Kordofanian.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapo1981" class="citation journal cs1">Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1981). "Nasality in Gbe: A Synchronic Interpretation". <i>Studies in African Linguistics</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 1–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+African+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Nasality+in+Gbe%3A+A+Synchronic+Interpretation&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-43&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Capo&rft.aufirst=Hounkpati+B.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasali1995" class="citation journal cs1">Casali, Roderic F. (1995). 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"Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent". <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 840–858. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00085.x">10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00085.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Language+Ecology+and+Linguistic+Diversity+on+the+African+Continent&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=840-858&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00085.x&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Greenberg, Joseph H.</a> (1963). <i>The Languages of Africa</i>. 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Documents on Social Sciences and Humanities. Tervuren, Belgium: Royal Museum for Central Africa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-4922-4429-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4922-4429-1"><bdi>978-9-4922-4429-1</bdi></a>. 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"Languages sans consonnes nasales". <i>Annales de l'Université d'Abidjan</i>. Série H, Linguistique (in French). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1011-6737">1011-6737</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/772580339">772580339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+l%27Universit%C3%A9+d%27Abidjan&rft.atitle=Languages+sans+consonnes+nasales&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F772580339&rft.issn=1011-6737&rft.aulast=le+Saout&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegererFlavier" class="citation web cs1">Segerer, G; Flavier, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reflex.cnrs.fr/">"RefLex: Reference Lexicon"</a>. 2.2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RefLex%3A+Reference+Lexicon&rft.series=2.2&rft.aulast=Segerer&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Flavier%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freflex.cnrs.fr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1976" class="citation speech cs1">Stewart, John M. (1976). <i>Towards Volta-Congo reconstruction: a comparative study of some languages of Black-Africa</i> (Speech). Leiden University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Towards+Volta-Congo+reconstruction%3A+a+comparative+study+of+some+languages+of+Black-Africa&rft.place=Leiden+University&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, John M. (2002). "The potential of Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated". <i>Journal of African Languages and Linguistics</i>. <b>23</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjall.2002.012">10.1515/jall.2002.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Languages+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+potential+of+Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu+as+a+pilot+Proto-Niger-Congo%2C+and+the+reconstructions+updated&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjall.2002.012&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebb2001" class="citation book cs1">Webb, Vic (2001). <i>African Voices: An Introduction to the Languages and Linguistics of Africa</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195716818" title="Special:BookSources/9780195716818"><bdi>9780195716818</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Voices%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Africa&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780195716818&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Vic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsonBlench" class="citation book cs1">Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger. "Niger-Congo". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.). <i>African Languages: An Introduction</i>. pp. 11–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521661782" title="Special:BookSources/9780521661782"><bdi>9780521661782</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42810789">42810789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niger-Congo&rft.btitle=African+Languages%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=11-42&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42810789&rft.isbn=9780521661782&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Kay&rft.au=Blench%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANiger%E2%80%93Congo+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Niger-Congo_languages" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Niger-Congo languages">Niger-Congo languages</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silewp/2004/silewp2004-005.pdf">An Evaluation of Niger–Congo Classification</a>, Kenneth Olson</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517122243/http://www.africamuseum.be/museum/research/publications/rmca/online/tense.pdf">Tense and Aspect in Niger–Congo</a>, Derek Nurse, Sarah Rose & John Hewson</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/class.php">Preliminary Niger–Congo classification</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509002856/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/class.php">Archived</a> 2021-05-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Segerer" title="Guillaume Segerer">Guillaume Segerer</a> 2005, LLACAN)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/docs.php">Swadesh lists of African proto-language reconstructions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808190057/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/docs.php">Archived</a> 2021-08-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Segerer" title="Guillaume Segerer">Guillaume Segerer</a> 2005, LLACAN)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/phono/PhonologieN.php">Phonologies and orthographies of African languages</a> (LLACAN)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Journals</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/lla/">Linguistique et Langues Africaines</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210113121918/http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/lla/">Archived</a> 2021-01-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (LLA)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/fichiers/Mandenkan/index.html">Journal Mandenkan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110104083238/http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/fichiers/Mandenkan/index.html">Archived</a> 2011-01-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/pub_mandenkan_en.php">introduction)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127075613/http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr/pub_mandenkan_en.php">Archived</a> 2021-01-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.njas.fi/njas">Nordic Journal of African Studies</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/">archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200711185147/http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/">Archived</a> 2020-07-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://main.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/">Journal of West African languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/jall">Journal of African Languages and Linguistics</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Niger–Congo</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></b>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia<br />(<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a></i>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates <br />(extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in <i>italics</i> have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in <b>bold</b>.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Niger–Congo_branches" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Niger%E2%80%93Congo_branches" title="Template:Niger–Congo branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Niger%E2%80%93Congo_branches" title="Template talk:Niger–Congo branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Niger%E2%80%93Congo_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Niger–Congo branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Niger–Congo_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Niger–Congo</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Savannas_languages" title="Savannas languages">Savannas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_languages" title="Adamawa languages">Adamawa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bena%E2%80%93Mboi_languages" title="Bena–Mboi languages">Bena–Mboi</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bikwin%E2%80%93Jen_languages" title="Bikwin–Jen languages">Bikwin–Jen</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bua_languages" title="Bua languages">Bua</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_language" title="Day language">Day</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Fali_languages_(Cameroon)" title="Fali languages (Cameroon)">Fali</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kim_languages" title="Kim languages">Kim</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwah_language" title="Kwah language">Kwah (Baa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longuda_language" title="Longuda language">Longuda</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mbum_languages" title="Mbum languages">Mbum (Kebi–Benue)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mumuye_languages" title="Mumuye languages">Mumuye</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyingwom_language" title="Nyingwom language">Nyingwom (Kam)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Duru_languages" title="Duru languages">Samba–Duru</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tula%E2%80%93Waja_languages" title="Tula–Waja languages">Tula–Waja</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yendang_languages" title="Yendang languages">Yendang (Maya)</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Gur</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Central Gur</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulango_languages" title="Kulango languages">Kulango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yobe_language" title="Yobe language">Miyobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samo_language_(Burkina)" title="Samo language (Burkina)">Samo (Burkina)</a> ?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Senufo_languages" title="Senufo languages">Senufo</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiefo_language" title="Tiefo language">Tiefo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusya_language" title="Tusya language">Tusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viemo_language" title="Viemo language">Viemo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Banda_languages" title="Banda languages">Banda</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gbaya_languages" title="Gbaya languages">Gbaya</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mba_languages" title="Mba languages">Mba</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ngbaka_languages" title="Ngbaka languages">Ngbaka (Mundu–Baka)</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngbandi_language" title="Ngbandi language">Ngbandi</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sere_languages" title="Sere languages">Sere (Ndogo)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zande_languages" title="Zande languages">Zande</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Volta–Congo languages">Volta–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Benue–Congo languages">Benue–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jukunoid_languages" title="Jukunoid languages">Jukunoid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kainji_languages" title="Kainji languages">Kainji</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Plateau_languages" title="Plateau languages">Plateau</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cross_River_languages" title="Cross River languages">Cross River</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Delta_languages" title="Central Delta languages">Central Delta</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lower_Cross_River_languages" title="Lower Cross River languages">Lower Cross River</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ogoni_languages" title="Ogoni languages">Ogoni</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Upper_Cross_River_languages" title="Upper Cross River languages">Upper Cross River</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bantoid_languages" title="Northern Bantoid languages">Northern Bantoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Dakoid_languages" title="Dakoid languages">Dakoid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mambiloid_languages" title="Mambiloid languages">Mambiloid</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikar_language" title="Tikar language">Tikar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantoid_languages" title="Southern Bantoid languages">Southern Bantoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Beboid_languages" title="Beboid languages">Beboid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bendi_languages" title="Bendi languages">Bendi</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ekoid_languages" title="Ekoid languages">Ekoid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Grassfields_languages" title="Grassfields languages">Grassfields</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tivoid_languages" title="Tivoid languages">Tivoid</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Niger_languages" title="Volta–Niger languages">Volta–Niger</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akoko_language" title="Akoko language">Akoko</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Akpes_language" title="Akpes language">Akpes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ayere%E2%80%93Ahan_languages" title="Ayere–Ahan languages">Ayere–Ahan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Edoid_languages" title="Edoid languages">Edoid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gbe_languages" title="Gbe languages">Gbe</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Idomoid_languages" title="Idomoid languages">Idomoid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Igboid_languages" title="Igboid languages">Igboid</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nupoid_languages" title="Nupoid languages">Nupoid</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oko_language" title="Oko language">Oko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukaan_language" title="Ukaan language">Ukaan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yoruboid_languages" title="Yoruboid languages">Yoruboid</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Atlantic_languages" title="West Atlantic languages">West Atlantic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bak_languages" title="Bak languages">Bak</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bijago_language" title="Bijago language">Bijago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gola_language" title="Gola language">Gola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limba_language" title="Limba language">Limba</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mel_languages" title="Mel languages">Mel</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalu_language" title="Nalu language">Nalu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rio_Nunez_languages" title="Rio Nunez languages">Rio Nunez</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Senegambian_languages" title="Senegambian languages">Senegambian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sua_language" title="Sua language">Sua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others (<a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dompo_language" title="Dompo language">Dompo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ega_language" title="Ega language">Ega</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kwa_languages" title="Kwa languages">Kwa</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mangree_language" title="Mangree language">Mangree</a></i> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbre_language" title="Mbre language">Mbre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mpra_language" title="Mpra language">Mpra</a></i> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamou_language" title="Siamou language">Siamou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mande_languages" title="Eastern Mande languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bissa_language" title="Bissa language">Bissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busa_language_(Mande)" title="Busa language (Mande)">Busa</a>–<a href="/wiki/Boko_language" title="Boko language">Boko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samo_language_(Burkina)" title="Samo language (Burkina)">Samo (Burkina)</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanga_language" title="Shanga language">Shanga</a>–<a href="/wiki/Kyenga_language" title="Kyenga language">Tyenga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Mande_languages" title="Southern Mande languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dan_language" title="Dan language">Dan</a>–<a href="/wiki/Goo_language" title="Goo language">Goo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tura_language" title="Tura language">Tura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gban_language" title="Gban language">Gban</a>–<a href="/wiki/Beng_language" title="Beng language">Beng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guro_language" title="Guro language">Guro</a>–<a href="/wiki/Yaure_language" title="Yaure language">Yaure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_language" title="Mano language">Mano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwan_language" title="Mwan language">Mwa</a>–<a href="/wiki/Wan_language" title="Wan language">Wan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central West<br />(Manding–Kpelle)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jogo_languages" title="Jogo languages">Jogo</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Manding_languages" title="Manding languages">Manding</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mokole_languages" title="Mokole languages">Mokole</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soso%E2%80%93Jalonke_languages" title="Soso–Jalonke languages">Soso–Jalonke (Susu–Yalunka)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mande_languages" title="Southwestern Mande languages">Southwestern Mande</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vai%E2%80%93Kono_languages" title="Vai–Kono languages">Vai–Kono</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwest<br />(Samogo–Soninke)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bobo_language" title="Bobo language">Bobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jowulu_language" title="Jowulu language">Jowulu (Jɔ)</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Samogo_languages" title="Samogo languages">Samogo (partial: Duun–Sembla)</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soninke%E2%80%93Bozo_languages" title="Soninke–Bozo languages">Soninke–Bozo</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kordofanian_languages" title="Kordofanian languages">Kordofanian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Katloid_languages" title="Katloid languages">Katla</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lafofa_languages" title="Lafofa languages">Lafofa</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rashad_languages" title="Rashad languages">Rashad</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Talodi%E2%80%93Heiban_languages" title="Talodi–Heiban languages">Talodi–Heiban</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defaka_language" title="Defaka language">Defaka</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ijoid_languages" title="Ijoid languages">Ijoid</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Komta_language" title="Komta language">Komta</a></i> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Degere" title="Degere">Degere</a> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dima-Bottego_language" title="Dima-Bottego language">Dima-Bottego</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omaio_language" title="Omaio language">Omaio</a></i> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimba_language" title="Rimba language">Rimba</a> ?</li> <li>"<i><a href="/wiki/Serengeti-Dorobo_language" title="Serengeti-Dorobo language">Serengeti-Dorobo</a></i>" ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wawu_language" title="Wawu language">Wawu</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Niger%E2%80%93Congo_language" title="Proto-Niger–Congo language">Proto-Niger–Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Bantu_language" title="Proto-Bantu language">Proto-Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Yoruboid_language" title="Proto-Yoruboid language">Proto-Yoruboid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33838#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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