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id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Biology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Chemosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptation_to_hydrostatic_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation_to_hydrostatic_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation_to_hydrostatic_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep sea</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diepsee" title="Diepsee – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Diepsee" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="عمق البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمق البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhim-h%C3%A1i" title="Chhim-hái – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chhim-hái" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_profund" title="Mar profund – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mar profund" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dybhav" title="Dybhav – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dybhav" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefsee" title="Tiefsee – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tiefsee" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCvameri" title="Süvameri – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Süvameri" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%B2%CF%85%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Άβυσσος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άβυσσος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profunda_maro" title="Profunda maro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Profunda maro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%81%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ژرف‌دریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژرف‌دریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abysse" title="Abysse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Abysse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AC%ED%95%B4" title="심해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="심해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laut_dalam" title="Laut dalam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Laut dalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מעמקי הים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מעמקי הים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Абиссаль – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Абиссаль" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenyno_gelm%C4%97s" title="Vandenyno gelmės – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vandenyno gelmės" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Длабоко море – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Длабоко море" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laut_dalam" title="Laut dalam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Laut dalam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diepzee" title="Diepzee – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Diepzee" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E6%B5%B7" title="深海 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="深海" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyphav" title="Dyphav – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dyphav" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%ADs" title="Abís – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Abís" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepsee" title="Deepsee – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Deepsee" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regi%C3%B5es_abissais" title="Regiões abissais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Regiões abissais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deti_i_thell%C3%AB" title="Deti i thellë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Deti i thellë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Deep sea" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syv%C3%A4meri" title="Syvämeri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Syvämeri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djuphav" title="Djuphav – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Djuphav" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81" title="ทะเลลึก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทะเลลึก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E6%B5%B7" title="深海 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="深海" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E6%B5%B7" title="深海 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="深海" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Lowest layer in the ocean</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the films, see <a href="/wiki/Deep_Sea_3D" title="Deep Sea 3D">Deep Sea 3D</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deep_Sea_(film)" title="Deep Sea (film)">Deep Sea (film)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg/400px-Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg/600px-Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg/800px-Schematic_representation_of_pelagic_and_benthic_zones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2321" data-file-height="1402" /></a><figcaption>Schematic representation of pelagic and benthic zones</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>deep sea</b> is broadly defined as the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m (660 ft) or the point of transition from <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> to <a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slopes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conditions within the deep sea are a combination of low temperatures, darkness, and high <a href="/wiki/Pressure#Liquid_pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deep sea is considered the least explored Earth <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> as the extreme conditions make the environment difficult to access and explore.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Organisms living within the deep sea have a variety of adaptations to survive in these conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms can survive in the deep sea through a number of feeding methods including scavenging, predation and filtration, with a number of organisms surviving by feeding on <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine snow is organic material that has fallen from upper waters into the deep sea.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">bathyscaphe</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Trieste_(bathyscaphe)" title="Trieste (bathyscaphe)">Trieste</a></i> descended to the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> near <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, at 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 6.780 mi), the deepest known spot in any ocean. If <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a> (8,848 m or 29,029 ft or 5.498 mi) were submerged there, its peak would be more than 2 km (1.2 mi) beneath the surface. After the <i>Trieste</i> was retired, the Japanese remote-operated vehicle (ROV) <i><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō</a></i> was the only vessel capable of reaching this depth until it was lost at sea in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May and June 2009, the hybrid-ROV <i><a href="/wiki/Nereus_(underwater_vehicle)" title="Nereus (underwater vehicle)">Nereus</a></i> returned to the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> for a series of three dives to depths exceeding 10,900 m (35,800 ft; 6.8 mi). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_characteristics">Environmental characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Environmental characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light">Light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural light does not penetrate the deep ocean, with the exception of the upper parts of the <a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopelagic">mesopelagic</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> is not possible, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> cannot live in this zone, and as these are the primary <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">producers</a> of almost all of earth's ecosystems, life in this area of the ocean must depend on energy sources from elsewhere. Except for the areas close to the hydrothermal vents, this energy comes from organic material drifting down from the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a>. The sinking organic material is composed of algal particulates, detritus, and other forms of biological waste, which is collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure">Pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> in the ocean increases by about 1 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmosphere</a> for every 10 meters of depth, the amount of pressure experienced by many marine organisms is extreme. Until recent years, the scientific community lacked detailed information about the effects of pressure on most deep sea organisms because the specimens encountered arrived at the surface dead or dying and weren't observable at the pressures at which they lived. With the advent of traps that incorporate a special pressure-maintaining chamber, undamaged larger <a href="/wiki/Metazoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoan">metazoan</a> animals have been retrieved from the deep sea in good condition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salinity">Salinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Salinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">Salinity</a> is remarkably constant throughout the deep sea, at about 35 parts per thousand.<sup id="cite_ref-claus_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-claus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are some minor differences in salinity, but none that are ecologically significant, except in largely landlocked seas like the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Seas</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two areas of greatest temperature gradient in the oceans are the transition zone between the surface waters and the deep waters, the thermocline, and the transition between the deep-sea floor and the hot water flows at the hydrothermal vents. Thermoclines vary in thickness from a few hundred meters to nearly a thousand meters. Below the thermocline, the water mass of the deep ocean is cold and far more <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneous">homogeneous</a>. Thermoclines are strongest in the tropics, where the temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">epipelagic zone</a> is usually above 20 °C (68 °F). From the base of the epipelagic, the temperature drops over several hundred meters to 5-6 °C at 1,000 meters (41-43 °F at 3,300 ft). It continues to decrease to the bottom, but the rate is much slower. The cold water stems from <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation#Formation_of_deep_water_masses" title="Thermohaline circulation">sinking heavy surface water</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Polar_regions_of_Earth" title="Polar regions of Earth">polar regions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-claus_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-claus-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At any given depth, the temperature is practically unvarying over long periods of time, without seasonal changes and with very little interannual variability. No other habitat on earth has such a constant temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In hydrothermal vents the temperature of the water as it emerges from the "black smoker" chimneys may be as high as 400 °C (752 °F), being kept from boiling by the high hydrostatic pressure - thus being <a href="/wiki/Superheated_water" title="Superheated water">superheated water</a>. The temperature may back down to 2 to 4 °C (36 to 39 °F) within a few meters.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea community">Deep sea community</a></div> <p>Regions below the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">epipelagic</a> are divided into further zones, beginning with the <i><a href="/wiki/Bathyal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyal zone">bathyal zone</a></i> (also considered the <i><a href="/wiki/Continental_slope" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental slope">continental slope</a></i>) which spans from 200 to 3,000 meters (660 to 9,840 ft)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> below sea level and is essentially transitional, containing elements from both the shelf above and the abyss below.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below this zone, the deep sea consists of the <i><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a></i> (ocean depth between 3–6 km; 1.9–3.7 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal zone</a></i> (6–11 km; 3.7–6.8 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Food consists of falling organic matter known as '<a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>' and carcasses derived from the productive zone above, and is scarce both in terms of spatial and temporal distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead of relying on gas for their buoyancy, many deep-sea <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> have jelly-like flesh consisting mostly of <a href="/wiki/Glycosaminoglycan" title="Glycosaminoglycan">glycosaminoglycans</a>, which provides them with very low density. It is also common among deep water <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> to combine the gelatinous tissue with a flotation chamber filled with a <a href="/wiki/Coelom#Coelomic_fluid" title="Coelom">coelomic fluid</a> made up of the metabolic waste product <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>, which is lighter than the surrounding water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The midwater fish have special adaptations to cope with these conditions—they are small, usually being under 25 centimetres (10 in); they have slow <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolisms</a> and unspecialized diets, preferring to sit and wait for food rather than waste energy searching for it. They have elongated bodies with weak, watery <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletal</a> structures. They often have extendable, hinged jaws with recurved teeth. Because of the sparse distribution and lack of light, finding a partner with which to breed is difficult, and many organisms are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphroditic</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Because light is so scarce, fish often have larger than normal, tubular eyes with only <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their upward field of vision allows them to seek out the silhouette of possible prey.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prey_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Prey fish">Prey fish</a> however also have adaptations to cope with <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>. These adaptations are mainly concerned with reduction of silhouettes, a form of <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>. The two main methods by which this is achieved are reduction in the area of their shadow by lateral compression of the body,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and counter illumination via <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is achieved by production of light from ventral <a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">photophores</a>, which tend to produce such light intensity to render the underside of the fish of similar appearance to the background light. For more sensitive <a href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">vision in low light</a>, some fish have a <a href="/wiki/Retroreflector" title="Retroreflector">retroreflector</a> behind the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flashlight_fish_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Flashlight fish (disambiguation)">Flashlight fish</a> have this plus <a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">photophores</a>, which combination they use to detect <a href="/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" title="Tapetum lucidum">eyeshine</a> in other fish (see <i><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" title="Tapetum lucidum">tapetum lucidum</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Organisms in the deep sea are almost entirely reliant upon sinking living and dead organic matter which falls at approximately 100 meters per day.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, only about 1 to 3% of the production from the surface reaches the seabed, mostly in the form of marine snow. This ends up accumulating on the benthic floor, around 1 cm every 1,000 years. Larger food falls, such as <a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">whale carcasses</a>, also occur and studies have shown that these may happen more often than currently believed. There are many <a href="/wiki/Scavengers" class="mw-redirect" title="Scavengers">scavengers</a> that feed primarily or entirely upon large food falls and the distance between whale carcasses is estimated to only be 8 kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there are a number of filter feeders that feed upon organic particles using tentacles, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Freyella_elegans" title="Freyella elegans">Freyella elegans</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophages</a> play an important role in cycling nutrients in deep sea sediments. They are extremely abundant (between 5×10<sup>12</sup> and 1×10<sup>13</sup> phages per square meter) in sediments around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Danovaro_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Danovaro-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite being so isolated deep sea organisms have still been harmed by human interaction with the oceans. The <a href="/wiki/London_Convention_on_the_Prevention_of_Marine_Pollution_by_Dumping_of_Wastes_and_Other_Matter" title="London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter">London Convention</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aims to protect the marine environment from dumping of wastes such as <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>. A study found that at one region there had been a decrease in deep sea coral from 2007 to 2011, with the decrease being attributed to global warming and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, and biodiversity estimated as being at the lowest levels in 58 years.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ocean acidification is particularly harmful to deep sea corals because they are made of aragonite, an easily soluble carbonate, and because they are particularly slow growing and will take years to recover.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep sea trawling is also harming the biodiversity by destroying deep sea habitats which can take years to form.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another human activity that has altered deep sea biology is mining. One study found that at one mining site fish populations had decreased at six months and at three years, and that after twenty six years populations had returned to the same levels as prior to the disturbance.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chemosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of species that do not primarily rely upon dissolved organic matter for their food. These species and communities are found at <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a> at sea-floor spreading zones.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example is the symbiotic relationship between the tube worm <i><a href="/wiki/Riftia" title="Riftia">Riftia</a></i> and chemosynthetic bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is this <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a> that supports the complex communities that can be found around hydrothermal vents. These complex communities are one of the few <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> on the planet that do not rely upon <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> for their supply of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Jannasch_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jannasch-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptation_to_hydrostatic_pressure">Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea fish">Deep sea fish</a> have different adaptations in their proteins, anatomical structures, and metabolic systems to survive in the Deep sea, where the inhabitants have to withstand great amount of hydrostatic pressure. While other factors like food availability and predator avoidance are important, the deep-sea organisms must have the ability to maintain well-regulated metabolic system in the face of high pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to adjust for the extreme environment, these organisms have developed unique characteristics. </p><p>Proteins are affected greatly by the elevated hydrostatic pressure, as they undergo changes in water organization during hydration and dehydration reactions of the binding events. This is due to the fact that most enzyme-ligand interactions form through charged or polar non-charge interactions. Because hydrostatic pressure affects both protein folding and assembly and enzymatic activity, the deep sea species must undergo physiological and structural adaptations to preserve protein functionality against pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Actin is a protein that is essential for different cellular functions. The α-actin serves as a main component for muscle fiber, and it is highly conserved across numerous different species. Some Deep-sea fish developed pressure tolerance through the change in mechanism of their α-actin. In some species that live in depths greater than 5 km (3.1 mi), <i>C.armatus</i> and <i>C.yaquinae</i> have specific substitutions on the active sites of α-Actin, which serves as the main component of muscle fiber.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These specific substitutions, Q137K and V54A from <i>C.armatus</i> or I67P from <i>C.yaquinae</i> are predicted to have importance in pressure tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substitution in the active sites of actin result in significant changes in the salt bridge patterns of the protein, which allows for better stabilization in ATP binding and sub unit arrangement, confirmed by the free energy analysis and molecular dynamics simulation.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was found that deep sea fish have more salt bridges in their actins compared to fish inhabiting the upper zones of the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In relations to protein substitution, specific <a href="/wiki/Osmolyte" title="Osmolyte">osmolytes</a> were found to be abundant in deep sea fish under high hydrostatic pressure. For certain <a href="/wiki/Chondrichthyes" title="Chondrichthyes">chondrichthyans</a>, it was found that <a href="/wiki/Trimethylamine_N-oxide" title="Trimethylamine N-oxide">Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)</a> increased with depth, replacing other osmolytes and urea.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the ability of TMAO being able to protect proteins from high hydrostatic pressure destabilizing proteins, the osmolyte adjustment serves are an important adaptation for deep sea fish to withstand high hydrostatic pressure. </p><p>Deep-sea organisms possess molecular adaptations to survive and thrive in the deep oceans. <a href="/wiki/Mariana_hadal_snailfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariana hadal snailfish">Mariana hadal snailfish</a> developed modification in the <a href="/wiki/Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">Osteocalcin</a>(<i>burlap</i>) gene, where premature termination of the gene was found.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteocalcin gene regulates bone development and tissue mineralization, and the frameshift mutation seems to have resulted in the open skull and cartilage-based bone formation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to high hydrostatic pressure in the deep sea, closed skulls that organisms living on the surface develop cannot withstand the enforcing stress. Similarly, common bone developments seen in surface vertebrates cannot maintain their structural integrity under constant high pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploration">Exploration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></div><p>It has been suggested that more is known about the Moon than the deepest parts of the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Flannery_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flannery-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a common misconception based on a 1953 statement by George E.R. Deacon published in the <i>Journal of Navigation</i>, and largely refers to the scarce amount of seafloor bathymetry available at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The similar idea that more people have stood on the moon than have been to the deepest part of the ocean is likewise problematic and dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/220px--Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="238" data-mwtitle="Autonomous_landers,_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Autonomous_landers,_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1440" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/37/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM/Autonomous_landers%2C_Observing_the_deepest_places_on_Earth.WebM.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Describing the operation and use of an autonomous lander (<a href="/wiki/RV_Kaharoa" title="RV Kaharoa">RV Kaharoa</a>) in deep-sea research; the fish seen is the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_grenadier" title="Abyssal grenadier">abyssal grenadier</a> (<i>Coryphaenoides armatus</i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Still, the deep-sea remains one of the least explored regions on planet Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pressures even in the mesopelagic become too great for traditional exploration methods, demanding alternative approaches for deep-sea research. Baited camera stations, small crewed submersibles, and ROVs (<a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Remotely operated vehicle">remotely operated vehicles</a>) are three methods utilized to explore the ocean's depths. Because of the difficulty and cost of exploring this zone, current knowledge is limited. Pressure increases at approximately one <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmosphere</a> for every 10 meters meaning that some areas of the deep sea can reach pressures of above 1,000 atmospheres. This not only makes great depths very difficult to reach without mechanical aids, but also provides a significant difficulty when attempting to study any organisms that may live in these areas as their cell chemistry will be adapted to such vast pressures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a> – Cold, salty water deep below the surface of Earth's oceans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_landslide" title="Submarine landslide">Submarine landslide</a> – Landslides that transport sediment across the continental shelf and into the deep ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Planet" title="The Blue Planet"><i>The Blue Planet</i></a> – 2001 British nature documentary television series <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Planet_II" title="Blue Planet II"><i>Blue Planet II</i></a> – 2017 British nature documentary television series</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepheloid_layer" title="Nepheloid layer">Nepheloid layer</a> – Layer of water in deep sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogenous_ooze" title="Biogenous ooze">Biogenous ooze</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_sea&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTyler2003" class="citation book cs1">Tyler, P. 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title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q1070117">Deep sea</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foraminifera.eu/weddell.html">Deep Sea Foraminifera</a> – Deep Sea Foraminifera from 4400 meters depth, Antarctica - an image gallery and description of hundreds of specimens</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocean.si.edu/deep-sea">Deep Ocean Exploration</a> on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deepseacreatures.org">Deep-Sea Creatures</a> Facts and images from the deepest parts of the ocean</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailyresearch.com/how-deep-is-the-ocean/">How Deep Is The Ocean</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160615162236/https://www.thedailyresearch.com/how-deep-is-the-ocean">Archived</a> 2016-06-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback 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oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draupner_wave" title="Draupner wave">Draupner wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a 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