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[{"id":114954551,"identifier":"Attachment_114954551","shouldShowBulkDownload":false}]; window.loswp.shouldDetectTimezone = true; window.loswp.shouldShowBulkDownload = true; window.loswp.showSignupCaptcha = false window.loswp.willEdgeCache = false; window.loswp.work = {"work":{"id":119570579,"created_at":"2024-05-19T17:59:30.770-07:00","from_world_paper_id":254721445,"updated_at":"2024-11-22T21:07:35.004-08:00","_data":{"publisher":"Elsevier BV","grobid_abstract":"We have created images of z value, error, and variation components for a PET activation study using various ANOVA designs and anatomical standardization methods. Data were acquired in four PET centers. In each center, CBF was measured on six normal male subjects under resting and covert verb generation, three times for each. The images were anatomically standardized with LINEAR transformation, SPM (Ver. 95), HBA (Karolinska/Tohoku), or MICHIGAN (Minoshima). ANOVA was performed pixel by pixel to compute t (and z) for the task main effect (Verb vs Rest) in four different designs: (i) two way (subject and task) (2W), (ii) two-way with interaction (2WI), (iii) subject considered a random factor (2WI-MX), and (iv) threeway (subject, task, and replication) (3W). A large area extending from the Broca to the left premotor cortex was activated. The localization of the highest peak depended both on the anatomical standardization and on the ANOVA design, the variation ranging 3-4 cm. Smoothing reduced the variation while erasing possible subfoci. The z images of 2W, 2WI, and 3W looked alike, whereas 2WI-MX presented lower peak z values. SPM tended to present higher z values than the other methods. The error was high in the gray and low in the white matter. The root mean square for the subject effect was high on the border of gray matter especially in LINEAR and HBA, revealing intersubject mismatch in the gray matter distribution. The root mean square for the subject-by-task interaction effect revealed individual variation in activation. 1998 Academic Press","publication_date":"1998,10,1","publication_name":"NeuroImage","grobid_abstract_attachment_id":"114954551"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Influence of ANOVA Design and Anatomical Standardization on Statistical Mapping for PET Activation","broadcastable":false,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [34797888]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loswp.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon';</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div 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href="https://www.academia.edu/44660708/Assessing_inter_individual_differences_with_task_related_functional_neuroimaging">Assessing inter-individual differences with task-related functional neuroimaging</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="26156242" href="https://uva.academia.edu/maellebreton">mael lebreton</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="3317578" href="https://ens.academia.edu/StefanoPalminteri">Stefano Palminteri</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">R esearchers in psychology have long ago acknowledged the importance of building and testing theories that account for both the typical behaviour observed in a representative sample of the population and the observed differences between people 1-3. Since the mid-twentieth century, scientific psychology has benefited from important complementary insights from experimental psychology, which studies variance among treatments, and from correlational psychology, which studies variance among participants. Similarly nowadays, understanding the average typical brain and understanding the differences between individuals constitute the two complementary goals of cognitive neuroscience 4,5. Inter-individual differences in neural activities can be a source of statistical noise when considering the typical brain, but may also represent the very object of interest 6-9 and can help provide an accurate and representative picture of brain function 10. Across the whole spectrum of neuroscience subfields, understanding how differences in neural activity across individuals produce differences in behavioural responses appears necessary, not only to test key predictions of neurobiological theories, but also to realize the potential of neuroimaging applications. For instance, developmental neuroscience and neuroscience of ageing rely, by nature, on the comparison of different individuals characterized by different ages or life histories 11. Likewise, some neurobiologi-cal concepts, like cognitive reserve, are entirely designed to explain differences in symptoms between individuals faced with the same neural pathology 12,13. Inter-individual differences are also important in neuroscience subfields investigating cognitive processes such as learning 14 or executive control 6 , where the neural data could shed light on why some individuals perform better than others. Regarding applications, clinical diagnostics in psychiatry are expected to greatly benefit from the joint analysis of individual behaviour and brain activity, as such complementary techniques will allow doctors to better dissociate between neurotypical and affected cases 15-17. The most promising socioeconomic applications of neuroimaging, such as the characterization of individual preferences and cognitive abilities , also critically depend on our ability to understand how inter-individual differences in brain functions relate to inter-individual differences in behaviour 18-22. One appealing strategy to investigate how inter-individual differences in brain functions relate to inter-individual differences in behaviour involves task-related functional MRI (fMRI). Task-related fMRI is claimed to be able to target the mechanisms underpinning cognitive processes, because-unlike other biomarkers, such as genetics, neuroanatomy, or measures estimated from resting-state functional imaging 8,23-it allows measuring the neural activity directly elicited by the cognitive processes of interest 16,24. This is particularly true when fMRI is combined with computational modelling, an approach called model-based fMRI, as mechanistic measures of cognitive function are explicitly incorporated in the analysis framework in the form of a computational variables 16,25-28. In the following section, we develop a concrete example of inter-individual difference analyses in task-related fMRI. This example is inspired by the human reinforcement-learning literature, as it is one of the most typical examples of model-based fMRI 25,29,30. We then use this example to expose and discuss important assumptions and requirements underlying the standard inter-individual brain-behaviour differences (IBBD) analytical strategy. An IBBD analysis example from human reinforcement-learning Reinforcement learning, i.e., learning by trial and error, is thought to be a fundamental cognitive building block and is used to achieve behavioural goals ranging from tuning motor actions to making decisions in social contexts 31,32. Reinforcement learning is one of the Explaining and predicting individual behavioural differences induced by clinical and social factors constitutes one of the most promising applications of neuroimaging. In this Perspective, we discuss the theoretical and statistical foundations of the analyses of inter-individual differences in task-related functional neuroimaging. Leveraging a five-year literature review (July 2013-2018), we show that researchers often assess how activations elicited by a variable of interest differ between individuals. We argue that the rationale for such analyses, typically grounded in resource theory, offers an over-large analytical and interpre-tational flexibility that undermines their validity. We also recall how, in the established framework of the general linear model, inter-individual differences in behaviour can act as hidden moderators and spuriously induce differences in activations. We conclude with a set of recommendations and directions, which we hope will contribute to improving the statistical validity and the neurobiological interpretability of inter-individual difference analyses in task-related functional neuroimaging. NAture HuMAN BeHAvIour | www.nature.com/nathumbehav</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Assessing inter-individual differences with task-related functional neuroimaging","attachmentId":65132862,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/44660708/Assessing_inter_individual_differences_with_task_related_functional_neuroimaging","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/44660708/Assessing_inter_individual_differences_with_task_related_functional_neuroimaging"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="20505484" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/20505484/Variability_in_fMRI_An_examination_of_intersession_differences">Variability in fMRI: An examination of intersession differences</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="41621304" href="https://cardiff.academia.edu/DavidMcGonigle">David McGonigle</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Neuroimage, 2000</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Variability in fMRI: An examination of intersession differences","attachmentId":41408794,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/20505484/Variability_in_fMRI_An_examination_of_intersession_differences","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/20505484/Variability_in_fMRI_An_examination_of_intersession_differences"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="100963712" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/100963712/Mass_univariate_testing_biases_the_detection_of_interaction_effects_in_whole_brain_analysis_of_variance">Mass univariate testing biases the detection of interaction effects in whole-brain analysis of variance</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="267661913" href="https://independent.academia.edu/DylanWagner10">Dylan Wagner</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2017</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Whole-brain analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a common analytic approach in cognitive neuroscience. Researchers are often interested in exploring whether brain activity reflects to the interaction of two factors. Disordinal interactions — where there is a reversal of the effect of one independent variable at a level of a second independent variable — are common in the literature. It is well established in power-analyses of factorial ANOVAs that certain patterns of interactions, such as disordinal (e.g., cross-over interactions) require less power than others to detect. This fact, combined with the perils of mass univariate testing suggests that testing for interactions in whole-brain ANOVAs, may be biased towards the detection of disordinal interactions. Here, we report on a series of simulated analysis --including whole-brain fMRI data using realistic multi-source noise parameters-- that demonstrate a bias towards the detection of disordinal interactions in mass-univariate contexts. ...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Mass univariate testing biases the detection of interaction effects in whole-brain analysis of variance","attachmentId":101635507,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/100963712/Mass_univariate_testing_biases_the_detection_of_interaction_effects_in_whole_brain_analysis_of_variance","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/100963712/Mass_univariate_testing_biases_the_detection_of_interaction_effects_in_whole_brain_analysis_of_variance"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="15054658" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/15054658/Intersubject_Variability_in_Cortical_Activations_during_a_Complex_Language_Task">Intersubject Variability in Cortical Activations during a Complex Language Task</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="34074613" href="https://independent.academia.edu/MartyWoldorff">Marty Woldorff</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">NeuroImage, 2000</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Intersubject Variability in Cortical Activations during a Complex Language Task","attachmentId":43616539,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/15054658/Intersubject_Variability_in_Cortical_Activations_during_a_Complex_Language_Task","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/15054658/Intersubject_Variability_in_Cortical_Activations_during_a_Complex_Language_Task"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":114954551,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":114954551,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_114954551" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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href="https://www.academia.edu/96814532/3_4_Statistical_Analysis_Articulating_the_Task_Induced_Neural_Activity_of_Interest"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="95348398" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/95348398/Equivalence_of_cognitive_processes_in_brain_imaging_and_behavioral_studies_Evidence_from_task_switching">Equivalence of cognitive processes in brain imaging and behavioral studies: Evidence from task switching</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="254107396" href="https://independent.academia.edu/HannesRuge">Hannes 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href="https://www.academia.edu/95348398/Equivalence_of_cognitive_processes_in_brain_imaging_and_behavioral_studies_Evidence_from_task_switching"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="5105151" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/5105151/Herrera_et_al_Acta_Psychologica">Herrera et al . Acta Psychologica</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="3886207" href="https://unipd.academia.edu/CarloSemenza">Carlo Semenza</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Herrera et al . Acta Psychologica","attachmentId":32317235,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/5105151/Herrera_et_al_Acta_Psychologica","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/5105151/Herrera_et_al_Acta_Psychologica"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="30328980" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/30328980/Levy_Gigi_2011_Neuropsychologia">Levy Gigi 2011 Neuropsychologia</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="57438252" href="https://biu.academia.edu/EinatLeviGigi">Einat Levy- Gigi</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Levy Gigi 2011 Neuropsychologia","attachmentId":50783383,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/30328980/Levy_Gigi_2011_Neuropsychologia","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/30328980/Levy_Gigi_2011_Neuropsychologia"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span 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data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/116561031/The_effect_of_task_block_arrangement_on_the_detectability_of_activation_in_fMRI">The effect of task block arrangement on the detectability of activation in fMRI</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="123161429" href="https://independent.academia.edu/KayakoMatsuo">Kayako Matsuo</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 2003</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The effect of task block arrangement on the detectability of activation in 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href="https://www.academia.edu/79109358/Single_trial_linear_correlation_analysis_application_to_characterization_of_stimulus_modality_effects">Single-trial linear correlation analysis: application to characterization of stimulus modality effects</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1095434" href="https://ucy.academia.edu/FofiConstantinidou">Fofi Constantinidou</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 2013</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Single-trial linear correlation analysis: application to characterization of stimulus modality 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R., Mushtaq, F. and Smith, D. V. (2011) Exploiting trial-to-trial variability in multimodal experiments. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 5:80.</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="114875" href="https://mmu.academia.edu/AmyRBland">Amy R. Bland</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Bland, A. R., Mushtaq, F. and Smith, D. V. (2011) Exploiting trial-to-trial variability in multimodal experiments. 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data-entity-id="93568832" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/93568832/Neuroimaging_as_a_New_Tool_in_the_Toolbox_of_Psychological_Science">Neuroimaging as a New Tool in the Toolbox of Psychological Science</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="52090999" href="https://independent.academia.edu/gberntson">gary berntson</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Neuroimaging as a New Tool in the Toolbox of Psychological 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data-entity-id="101290303" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/101290303/Frontal_Lobe_activation_during_mental_transformation_of_size">Frontal Lobe activation during mental transformation of size</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="250471184" href="https://independent.academia.edu/Bundesen">Claus Bundesen</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">NeuroImage, 1998</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Frontal Lobe activation during mental transformation of 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