Energies | An Open Access Journal from MDPI

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value="heritage" > Heritage </option> <option value="histories" > Histories </option> <option value="horticulturae" > Horticulturae </option> <option value="hospitals" > Hospitals </option> <option value="humanities" > Humanities </option> <option value="humans" > Humans </option> <option value="hydrobiology" > Hydrobiology </option> <option value="hydrogen" > Hydrogen </option> <option value="hydrology" > Hydrology </option> <option value="hygiene" > Hygiene </option> <option value="immuno" > Immuno </option> <option value="idr" > Infectious Disease Reports </option> <option value="informatics" > Informatics </option> <option value="information" > Information </option> <option value="infrastructures" > Infrastructures </option> <option value="inorganics" > Inorganics </option> <option value="insects" > Insects </option> <option value="instruments" > Instruments </option> <option value="iic" > Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction </option> <option value="ijerph" > International 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</option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" > Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.) </option> <option value="jcp" > Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP) </option> <option value="jdad" > Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD) </option> <option value="jdb" > Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB) </option> <option value="jeta" > Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA) </option> <option value="jemr" > Journal of Eye Movement Research (JEMR) </option> <option value="jfb" > Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB) </option> <option value="jfmk" > Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK) </option> <option value="jof" > Journal of Fungi (JoF) </option> <option value="jimaging" > Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging) </option> <option value="jintelligence" > Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.) </option> <option value="jlpea" > Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA) </option> <option value="jmmp" > Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP) </option> <option value="jmse" > Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE) </option> <option value="jmahp" > Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP) </option> <option value="jmms" > Journal of Mind and Medical Sciences (JMMS) </option> <option value="jmp" > Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP) </option> <option value="jnt" > Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT) </option> <option value="jne" > Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE) </option> <option value="ohbm" > Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM) </option> <option value="jop" > Journal of Parks </option> <option value="jpm" > Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM) </option> <option value="jpbi" > Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI) </option> <option value="jor" > Journal of Respiration 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Computational Applications (MCA) </option> <option value="mathematics" > Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="microwave" > Microwave </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies </option> <option value="photochem" > Photochem </option> <option value="photonics" > Photonics </option> <option value="phycology" > Phycology </option> <option value="physchem" > Physchem </option> <option value="psf" > Physical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="physics" > Physics </option> <option value="physiologia" > Physiologia </option> <option value="plants" > Plants </option> <option value="plasma" > Plasma </option> <option value="platforms" > Platforms </option> <option value="pollutants" > Pollutants </option> <option value="polymers" > Polymers </option> <option value="polysaccharides" > Polysaccharides </option> <option value="populations" > Populations </option> <option value="poultry" > Poultry </option> <option value="powders" > Powders </option> <option value="proceedings" > Proceedings </option> <option 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value="reports" > Reports </option> <option value="reprodmed" > Reproductive Medicine (Reprod. Med.) </option> <option value="resources" > Resources </option> <option value="rheumato" > Rheumato </option> <option value="risks" > Risks </option> <option value="robotics" > Robotics </option> <option value="ruminants" > Ruminants </option> <option value="safety" > Safety </option> <option value="sci" > Sci </option> <option value="scipharm" > Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.) </option> <option value="sclerosis" > Sclerosis </option> <option value="seeds" > Seeds </option> <option value="sensors" > Sensors </option> <option value="separations" > Separations </option> <option value="sexes" > Sexes </option> <option value="signals" > Signals </option> <option value="sinusitis" > Sinusitis </option> <option value="smartcities" > Smart Cities </option> <option value="socsci" > Social Sciences </option> <option value="siuj" > Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ) </option> <option value="societies" > Societies </option> <option value="software" > Software </option> <option value="soilsystems" > Soil Systems </option> <option value="solar" > Solar </option> <option value="solids" > Solids </option> <option value="spectroscj" > Spectroscopy Journal </option> <option value="sports" > Sports </option> <option value="standards" > Standards </option> <option value="stats" > Stats </option> <option value="stresses" > Stresses </option> <option value="surfaces" > Surfaces </option> <option value="surgeries" > Surgeries </option> <option value="std" > Surgical Techniques Development </option> <option value="sustainability" > Sustainability </option> <option value="suschem" > Sustainable Chemistry </option> <option value="symmetry" > Symmetry </option> <option value="synbio" > SynBio </option> <option value="systems" > Systems </option> <option value="targets" > Targets </option> <option value="taxonomy" > Taxonomy </option> <option value="technologies" > Technologies </option> <option value="telecom" > Telecom </option> <option value="textiles" > Textiles </option> <option value="thalassrep" > Thalassemia Reports </option> <option value="therapeutics" > Therapeutics </option> <option value="thermo" > Thermo </option> <option value="timespace" > Time and Space </option> <option value="tomography" > Tomography </option> <option value="tourismhosp" > Tourism and Hospitality </option> <option value="toxics" > Toxics </option> 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href="/journal/energies/stats" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="text-decoration: none;"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journal_indexing_logos/IF_no_number.svg?af8a884fb765d812?1739885660" class="iflogo2"> <div class="iflogo1__if-number">3.0</div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/about/journals">Journals</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="#">Energies</a> </div> </div> </header> <div id="main-content" class=""> <div class="row full-width" data-equalizer="three-columns"> <div id="middle-column" class="content__column large-6 large-push-3 medium-6 medium-push-3 small-12 columns end middle-bordered"> <div id="js-small-main-top-container"> </div> <div class="content__container content__container__orbit "> <div id="title-story" class=""> <ul class="title-story-orbit" data-orbit> <li > <a href="/1996-1073/17/20/5069"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_1735573608141.jpg?1739885660" alt="An Experimental Study of an Autonomous Heat Removal System Based on an Organic Rankine Cycle for an Advanced Nuclear Power Plant" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> An Experimental Study of an Autonomous Heat Removal System Based on an Organic Rankine Cycle for an Advanced Nuclear Power Plant </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/1996-1073/17/24/6384"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_1735573509773.jpg?1739885660" alt="Permanent Magnets in Sustainable Energy: Comparative Life Cycle Analysis" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> Permanent Magnets in Sustainable Energy: Comparative Life Cycle Analysis </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/1996-1073/17/24/6255"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_17355733488609.jpg?1739885660" alt="Seawater Treatment Technologies for Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis&mdash;A Review" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> Seawater Treatment Technologies for Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis—A Review </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/1996-1073/17/20/5057"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_173557379180357.jpg?1739885660" alt="Hybrid Attacks in Distributed Energy Resources" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> Hybrid Attacks in Distributed Energy Resources </div> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="content__container"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link show-for-small-only"> <h2 class="no-padding-left no-margin">Journal Description</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="journal__description"> <h1> <em>Energies</em> </h1> <div class="journal__description__content"> <em>Energies</em> is a <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/editorial_process">peer-reviewed</a>, open access journal of related scientific research, technology development, engineering policy, and management studies related to the general field of energy, from technologies of energy supply, conversion, dispatch, and final use to the physical and chemical processes behind such technologies. <em>Energies</em> is published semimonthly online by MDPI. <a href="http://www.eubia.org/">The European Biomass Industry Association (EUBIA)</a>, <a href="https://eurec.be/">Association of European Renewable Energy Research Centres (EUREC)</a>, <a href="http://www.ichpw.pl/en/">Institute of Energy and Fuel Processing Technology (ITPE)</a>, <a href="https://www.interpore.org/">International Society for Porous Media (InterPore)</a>, <a href="http://www.cyted.org/en">CYTED</a> and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/societies">others</a> are affiliated with <em>Energies</em> and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.<br /> <ul> <li><strong><span class="label openaccess"><a title="Open Access" href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">Open Access</a></span></strong>— free for readers, with <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/apc">article processing charges (APC)</a> paid by authors or their institutions.</li> <li><strong>High Visibility:</strong> indexed within <a href="https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/62932">Scopus</a>, <a href="https://mjl.clarivate.com/search-results?issn=1996-1073&hide_exact_match_fl=true&utm_source=mjl&utm_medium=share-by-link&utm_campaign=search-results-share-this-journal">SCIE (Web of Science)</a>, <a href="https://www.engineeringvillage.com/home.url">Ei Compendex</a>, <a href="https://econpapers.repec.org/scripts/search.pf">RePEc</a>, <a href="https://www.theiet.org/publishing/inspec/inspec-content-coverage/">Inspec</a>, <a href="https://sso.cas.org/as/authorization.oauth2?response_type=code&client_id=scifinder-n&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fscifinder-n.cas.org%2Fpa%2Foidc%2Fcb&state=eyJ6aXAiOiJERUYiLCJhbGciOiJkaXIiLCJlbmMiOiJBMTI4Q0JDLUhTMjU2Iiwia2lkIjoianMiLCJzdWZmaXgiOiJUYWozcGUu">CAPlus / SciFinder</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/indexing">other databases</a>.</li> <li><strong><strong>Journal Rank: </strong></strong>CiteScore - Q1 (Control and Optimization)</li> <li><strong>Rapid Publication:</strong> manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).</li> <li><strong>Recognition of Reviewers:</strong> reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.</li> <li><strong>Sections:</strong> published in 41 <a href='https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/sections'>topical sections</a>.</li> <li><strong>Testimonials:</strong> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/testimonials?type=all&journal_id=7&page_count=20">See what our editors and authors say about <em>Energies</em></a>.</li> <li><strong>Companion journals for <em>Energies</em> include:</strong> <em><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/Gases">Gases</a></em>, <em><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanoenergyadv">Nanoenergy Advances</a></em>, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/solar"><em>Solar</em></a><em>, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wind">Wind</a>,</em> <em><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/esa">Energy Storage and Applications</a> </em>and<em> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/bioresourbioprod">Bioresources and Bioproducts</a></em>.</li> </ul> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 15px;"> <strong>Impact Factor:</strong> 3.0 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.0 (2023) </div> <div> <a href="/journal/energies/imprint" class="UI_JournalImprintsInfoButton"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">subject</i> Imprint Information </a>    <a href="/journal/energies/energies_flyer.pdf" class="UD_JournalFlyer"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">get_app</i> Journal Flyer </a>     <a class="oa-link" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/openaccess"> <i class="material icons spaced-link"></i> Open Access </a>     <strong> ISSN: 1996-1073 </strong> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container content__container--overflow-initial"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link active"> <h2 class="no-padding-left">Latest Articles</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item no-border"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 35 pages, 1455 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/992/pdf?version=1739892169" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Identifying Resilience Factors of Power Company Business Models" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/992">Identifying Resilience Factors of Power Company Business Models</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Joanna Staszewska</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lilla Knop</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 992; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040992">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040992</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The paper focuses on the issue of the resilience of energy company business models under energy transition conditions. The main aim of this paper is to identify the key factors responsible for the resilience of an energy company’s business model. This paper presents <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/992/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The paper focuses on the issue of the resilience of energy company business models under energy transition conditions. The main aim of this paper is to identify the key factors responsible for the resilience of an energy company’s business model. This paper presents an excerpt from research on the resilience of energy company business models and the development of a system for assessing the resilience of the energy company business model. The research used a systems approach and a multi-criteria method of hierarchical analysis of decision-making problems, the so-called AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process). Its selected elements were adapted to solve the scientific problem presented in this paper. Additionally, an approach to building resilient business model strategies was used in the research process. The research instrument adopted for the analyses was a model using the concept of the so-called New Era of Innovation. It was supplemented with the elements of the Canvas model. The results of the research in the form of identified key resilience factors of the energy company’s business model are presented in this article. Of the 79 resilience factors analyzed, 28 were identified as being key to the resilience of the business model. These findings formed the basis for the development of a business model resilience assessment system. The research indicates that learning about the key factors responsible for the resilience of an energy company’s business model is an important and necessary part of the tool for assessing resilience. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/992">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/energy_economics_policy">C: Energy Economics and Policy</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="extending-content content-ready"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 917 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/991/pdf?version=1739886081" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Controlled Application of Nanoparticles for Remediation in Oil and Gas Application: Strategies, Challenges, and Innovations" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/991">Controlled Application of Nanoparticles for Remediation in Oil and Gas Application: Strategies, Challenges, and Innovations</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Esther O. Yusuf</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ityona Amber</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Simon Officer</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Gbenga F. Oluyemi</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 991; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040991">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040991</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This review provides a detailed examination of strategies for controlling the deposition of nanoparticles in porous media, emphasising the factors influencing their long-term stability and the challenges faced in practical applications. The review explores fundamental mechanisms of nanoparticle retention, including surface modification, intelligent <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/991/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This review provides a detailed examination of strategies for controlling the deposition of nanoparticles in porous media, emphasising the factors influencing their long-term stability and the challenges faced in practical applications. The review explores fundamental mechanisms of nanoparticle retention, including surface modification, intelligent materials, and optimised injection techniques, while discussing environmental and operational variables such as flow velocity, pH, ionic strength, and particle size. The review highlights innovative strategies to maintain nanoparticle stability over time, including responsive ligands, smart nanoparticles, self-healing coatings, and encapsulation techniques. Real-world case studies, including projects from Lockheed Martin, NanoRem, and NANO IRM, illustrate the practical application of these strategies in environmental remediation, emphasising the need for regulatory compliance and long-term monitoring. Overall, this review offers critical insights into the controlled application of nanoparticles for remediation, providing a roadmap for addressing the technical and regulatory challenges associated with their deployment in porous media. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/991">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/geo_energy">H: Geo-Energy</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/991/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593937"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593937"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593937" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593937" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593937" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593937-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00991/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00991-g001-550.jpg?1739886296" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593937" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593937-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00991/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00991-g002-550.jpg?1739886298'><p>Figure 2</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593937-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00991/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00991-g001-550.jpg?1739886296" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Pathways for releasing nanoparticles into the environment. Diagram includes potential adsorption and desorption effects when nanoparticles interact with soil particles, affecting overall mobility and stability in environmental contexts [<a href="#B4-energies-18-00991" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/991'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00991/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00991-g002-550.jpg?1739886298" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Multilayer adsorption mechanism of nanoparticles in porous media [<a href="#B44-energies-18-00991" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. (<b>a</b>) monolayer; (<b>b</b>) multi-layer.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/991'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 15 pages, 7375 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/990/pdf?version=1739885354" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Study on the Propagation Law of CO2 Displacement in Tight Conglomerate Reservoirs in the Mahu Depression, Xinjiang, China" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/990">Study on the Propagation Law of CO<sub>2</sub> Displacement in Tight Conglomerate Reservoirs in the Mahu Depression, Xinjiang, China</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Long Tan</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jigang Zhang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jing Zhang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ruihai Jiang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jianhua Qin</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yan Dong</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhenlong Deng</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ping Song</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Chenguang Cui</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Wenya Zhai</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Fengqi Tan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 990; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040990">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040990</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> To achieve the efficient utilization of low-permeability tight sand and gravel reservoirs with strong heterogeneity in the Mahu oil area of Xinjiang, CO<sub>2</sub> injection is used to improve oil recovery. The sweep pattern of the injected gas is closely related to the <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/990/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> To achieve the efficient utilization of low-permeability tight sand and gravel reservoirs with strong heterogeneity in the Mahu oil area of Xinjiang, CO<sub>2</sub> injection is used to improve oil recovery. The sweep pattern of the injected gas is closely related to the development of reservoir pores and throats. Firstly, a three-dimensional model of the average pore-throat radius was established based on complete two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance scanning data of the target layer’s full-diameter core in the Wuerhe Formation. Subsequently, an online NMR injection CO<sub>2</sub> continuous oil displacement experiment was conducted using tight conglomerate rock cores to clarify the rules of CO<sub>2</sub> oil displacement in each pore-throat interval. Finally, the three-dimensional pore-throat model was combined with microscopic utilization patterns to quantitatively characterize the reservoir utilization rate of the CO<sub>2</sub> displacement oil and guide on-site dynamic analysis. The research results indicate that the reservoir space of the Wuerhe Formation is mainly composed of residual intergranular pores, accounting for 40.9% of the pores, followed by intragranular dissolution pores and shrinkage pores. The proportion of pore-throat coordination numbers less than 1 is relatively high, reaching 86.3%. The average pore-throat radius calculation model, established using online NMR data from the continuous coring of full-diameter cores, elucidates the characteristics of the average pore-throat radius in the Wuerhe Formation reservoir. Based on gas displacement experiments that explored the pore-throat behavior at the microscale, the calibrated CO<sub>2</sub> injection oil recovery rate was determined to be 43.9%, and the proportion of reserves utilized within the main range during CO<sub>2</sub> displacement amounted to 60.77%. The injection pressure is negatively correlated with the maximum pore-throat radius of the gas injection well group, and negatively correlated with the proportion of the 0.9~2 μm distribution of large pore throats in each gas injection well group. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/990">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/0P6U47VI9L ">Advanced Transport in Porous Media for CO<sub>2</sub> Storage and EOR</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 25 pages, 4211 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/989/pdf?version=1739884732" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Numerical Analysis of the Characteristic Chemical Timescale of a C2H4/O2 Non-Premixed Rotating Detonation Engine" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/989">Numerical Analysis of the Characteristic Chemical Timescale of a C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>/O<sub>2</sub> Non-Premixed Rotating Detonation Engine</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohammed Niyasdeen Nejaamtheen</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Bu-Kyeng Sung</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jeong-Yeol Choi</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 989; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040989">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040989</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> A three-dimensional numerical investigation using ethylene–oxygen was conducted to examine the characteristics of detonation waves in a non-premixed rotating detonation engine (RDE) across three equivalence ratio conditions: fuel-lean, stoichiometric, and fuel-rich. The study aims to identify the distinct timescales associated with detonation wave <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/989/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> A three-dimensional numerical investigation using ethylene–oxygen was conducted to examine the characteristics of detonation waves in a non-premixed rotating detonation engine (RDE) across three equivalence ratio conditions: fuel-lean, stoichiometric, and fuel-rich. The study aims to identify the distinct timescales associated with detonation wave propagation within the combustor and to analyze their impact on detonation wave behavior, emphasizing the influence of equivalence ratio and injector behavior on detonation wave characteristics. The results indicate that the wave behavior varies with mixture concentration, with the ethylene injector demonstrating greater stiffness compared to the oxygen injector. In lean mixtures, characterized by excess oxidizer, waves exhibit less intensity and slower progression toward equilibrium, resulting in prolonged reaction times. Rich mixtures, with excess fuel, also show a delayed approach to equilibrium and an extended chemical reaction timescale. In contrast, the near-stoichiometric mixture achieves efficient combustion with the highest thermicity, rapidly reaching equilibrium and exhibiting the shortest chemical reaction timescale. Overall, the induction timescale is generally 2–3 times longer than its respective chemical reaction timescale, while the equilibrium timescale spans a broad range, reflecting the complex, rapid dynamics inherent in these chemical processes. This study identifies the role of the characteristic chemical timescale in influencing the progression of pre-detonation deflagration in practical RDEs. Prolonged induction times in non-ideal conditions, such as those arising from equivalence ratio variations, promote incomplete reactions, thereby contributing to pre-detonation phenomena and advancing our understanding of the underlying flow physics. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/989">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/FXZWBCG4S9 ">High-Speed Aerodynamics and High Energy and Efficiency Aerospace Propulsion System: Modeling and Optimization</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 3550 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/988/pdf?version=1739884860" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Economic Feasibility of Using Municipal Solid Waste and Date Palm Waste for Clean Energy Production in Qatar" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/988">Economic Feasibility of Using Municipal Solid Waste and Date Palm Waste for Clean Energy Production in Qatar</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ahmad Mohamed S. H. Al-Moftah</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohammad Alnajideen</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Fatima Alafifi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pawel Czyzewski</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hao Shi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mohammad Alherbawi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rukshan Navaratne</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Agustin Valera-Medina</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 988; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040988">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040988</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The transition to clean energy is crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change and achieving sustainable development. Reliance on fossil fuels, which are integral to manufacturing and transportation, remains a major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Biomass gasification presents a renewable <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/988/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The transition to clean energy is crucial for mitigating the impacts of climate change and achieving sustainable development. Reliance on fossil fuels, which are integral to manufacturing and transportation, remains a major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Biomass gasification presents a renewable energy alternative that can significantly reduce emissions. However, proper disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) and agricultural residues, such as date palm waste (DPW), is an increasing global challenge, including in Qatar. This study evaluates the economic feasibility of implementing an MSW and DPW gasification plant for clean electricity generation in Qatar. The country’s growing population and economic development have led to substantial waste production, making it an ideal location for waste-to-energy (WTE) initiatives. Using discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis, the study estimates the capital cost of a 373 MW<sub>th</sub> facility at approximately $12.07 million, with annual operating costs of about $4.09 million and revenue of $26.88 million in 2023. The results indicate a net present value (NPV) of $245.77 million, a return on investment (ROI) of 84.80%, a payback period of approximately 5 years over a 20-year project lifetime and a net reduction of 206,786 tonnes CO<sub>2</sub> annually. These findings demonstrate the economic viability of biomass gasification in Qatar while contributing to reduced GHG emissions and advancing the country’s sustainability goals under Qatar National Vision 2030. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/988">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/VD6I541880 ">Novel and Emerging Energy Systems</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/988/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593920"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593920"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593920" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593920" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593920" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593920-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g001-550.jpg?1739884965" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593920" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593920-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g002-550.jpg?1739884966'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593920-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g003-550.jpg?1739884967'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593920-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g004-550.jpg?1739884969'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593920-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g005-550.jpg?1739884970'><p>Figure 5</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593920-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g001-550.jpg?1739884965" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Qatar’s key metrics for 2022; (<b>a</b>) total energy supply; (<b>b</b>) domestic energy production; (<b>c</b>) total final consumption by fuel source; (<b>d</b>) total final consumption by sector; (<b>e</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from fuel combustion; and (<b>f</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by sector. Data from [<a href="#B31-energies-18-00988" class="html-bibr">31</a>], adjusted by authors.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/988'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g002-550.jpg?1739884966" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Sales revenue computation for MSW and DPW gasification power plant. Adjusted from [<a href="#B73-energies-18-00988" class="html-bibr">73</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/988'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g003-550.jpg?1739884967" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Projected cash flow over 20 years of biomass gasification plant operation in Qatar.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/988'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g004-550.jpg?1739884969" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Return on investment, ROI, of the plant operation over 20 years.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/988'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00988/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00988-g005-550.jpg?1739884970" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Overview of financial indicators: NPV as a function of power plant lifetime and payback period.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/988'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 33 pages, 10355 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/987/pdf?version=1739883862" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Optimizing IoT Energy Efficiency: Real-Time Adaptive Algorithms for Smart Meters with LoRaWAN and NB-IoT" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/987">Optimizing IoT Energy Efficiency: Real-Time Adaptive Algorithms for Smart Meters with LoRaWAN and NB-IoT</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Kanar Alaa Al-Sammak</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sama Hussein Al-Gburi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ion Marghescu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ana-Maria Claudia Drăgulinescu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Cristina Marghescu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alexandru Martian</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nawar Alaa Hussein Al-Sammak</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>George Suciu</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Khattab M. Ali Alheeti</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 987; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040987">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040987</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Real-time monitoring, data-driven decisions, and energy consumption optimization have reached a new level with IoT advancement. However, a significant challenge faced by intelligent nodes and IoT applications resides in their energy requirements in the long term, especially in the case of gas or <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/987/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Real-time monitoring, data-driven decisions, and energy consumption optimization have reached a new level with IoT advancement. However, a significant challenge faced by intelligent nodes and IoT applications resides in their energy requirements in the long term, especially in the case of gas or water smart meters. This article proposes an algorithm for smart meters’ energy consumption optimization based on IoT, LoRaWAN, and NB-IoT using microcontroller-based development boards, PZEM004T energy meters, Dragino LoRaWAN shield, or BG96 NB-IoT modules. The algorithm adjusts the transmission time based on the change in data in real-time. According to the experimental results, the energy consumption and the number of packets transmitted significantly decreased using LoRaWAN or NB-IoT, saving up to 76.11% and 86.81% of the transmitted packets, respectively. Additionally, the outcome highlights a notable percentage reduction in the energy consumption spike frequency, with NB-IoT achieving an 87.3% reduction and LoRaWAN slightly higher at 88.5%. This study shows that adaptive algorithms are very effective in extending the lifetime of IoT nodes, thereby providing a solid baseline for scalable, lightweight, energy-monitoring IoT applications. The results could help shape the development of smart energy metering systems and sustainable IoT. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/987">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Collection <a href=" /journal/energies/topical_collections/electrical_power_energy_system ">Featured Papers in Electrical Power and Energy System</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/987/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593907"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593907"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593907" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593907" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593907" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g001-550.jpg?1739883946" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593907" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g002-550.jpg?1739883947'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g003-550.jpg?1739883947'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g004-550.jpg?1739883951'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g005-550.jpg?1739883953'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g006-550.jpg?1739883955'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g007-550.jpg?1739883957'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g008-550.jpg?1739883958'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g009-550.jpg?1739883960'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g010-550.jpg?1739883962'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g011-550.jpg?1739883963'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g012-550.jpg?1739883964'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g013-550.jpg?1739883966'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g014-550.jpg?1739883967'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g015-550.jpg?1739883969'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1593907-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g016-550.jpg?1739883969'><p>Figure 16</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593907-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g001-550.jpg?1739883946" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Smart meter system utilizing LoRaWAN.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g002-550.jpg?1739883947" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Electricity smart meter utilizing NB-IoT technology.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g003-550.jpg?1739883947" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Sample of PZEM004 wiring diagram.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g004-550.jpg?1739883951" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>BG96 Module.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g005-550.jpg?1739883953" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Setup of a smart meter system utilizing LoRaWAN: (<b>a</b>) PZEM004T, LoRaWAN node connected to PPK II; (<b>b</b>) smart meter system during PPK II monitoring process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g006-550.jpg?1739883955" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Setup of a smart meter system utilizing NB-IoT: (<b>a</b>) PZEM004T, NB-IoT node connected to PPK II; (<b>b</b>) smart meter system during PPK II monitoring process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g007-550.jpg?1739883957" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Standard transmission process in LoRaWAN smart meter system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g008-550.jpg?1739883958" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>General overview of smart meter system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g009-550.jpg?1739883960" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Results of current consumption (µA) for LoRaWAN (with and without our algorithm).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g010-550.jpg?1739883962" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Results of current consumption (µA) for NB-IoT (with and without our algorithm).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g011-550.jpg?1739883963" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Number of packets sent for NB-IoT and LoRaWAN (with and without our algorithm).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g012-550.jpg?1739883964" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Spike counts comparison (with and without algorithm); (<b>b</b>) spike frequency reduced (%).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g013-550.jpg?1739883966" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Example of data collected from a smart meter IoT node.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g014-550.jpg?1739883967" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Correlation matrix of the electrical parameters from a smart meter IoT node.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g015-550.jpg?1739883969" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Packets transmission performance: (<b>a</b>) the number of dropped packets across different thresholds in a smart meter IoT; (<b>b</b>) the number of transmitted packets across different thresholds in a smart meter IoT node.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00987/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00987-g016-550.jpg?1739883969" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Percentage reduction in transmission for all the threshold values in a smart meter IoT node.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/987'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 14 pages, 3354 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/986/pdf?version=1739881704" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Simulation and Analysis of Different Bipolar Plate Geometrical Parameters on the Performance of PEM Fuel Cells Applying the Taguchi Method" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/986">Simulation and Analysis of Different Bipolar Plate Geometrical Parameters on the Performance of PEM Fuel Cells Applying the Taguchi Method</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Raquel Busqué</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Matias Bossio</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Enric Rovira</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Albert Brigido</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 986; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040986">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040986</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This study examines the impact of key stamping process parameters on metallic bipolar plates for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) performance using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) combined with thermal and electrochemical simulations and applying the design of experiments based on the Taguchi <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/986/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This study examines the impact of key stamping process parameters on metallic bipolar plates for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) performance using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) combined with thermal and electrochemical simulations and applying the design of experiments based on the Taguchi method. An exhaustive study on this topic is not found in the literature, and this study aims to identify the most influential parameters and their interactions to optimize channel geometries for enhanced PEMFC performance within manufacturing limits. Main effects analysis revealed the BP–GDL contact length-to-pitch ratio as the most influential parameter, achieving the best performance at its higher end (0.4). The external radius showed improved performance at a lower value (0.14 mm), while pitch and channel height had smaller effects, favoring lower values (1 mm and 0.3 mm, respectively). The channel angle exhibited minimal impact but slightly improved performance at 35°. Interaction analysis highlighted a complex relationship between pitch and angle, indicating that their combined effects on current density vary with specific value combinations. A higher pitch (2.5 mm) reduced performance with lower angles, whereas a lower pitch (1 mm) improved performance with reduced angles. Finally, two new geometrical designs derived from these optimized parameter combinations enhanced fuel cell performance by 1.97% and 1.23% over the baseline, demonstrating the Taguchi method’s value in optimizing the geometrical design of metallic bipolar plates in PEMFCs. These findings contribute to advancing more efficient and practical fuel cell technologies. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/986">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/EA97QUQ4M9 ">Hydrogen Energy Technologies: Recent Advances in Production, Storage and Applications—2nd Edition</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/986/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593878"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593878"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593878" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593878" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593878" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g001-550.jpg?1739881843" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593878" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g002-550.jpg?1739881844'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g003-550.jpg?1739881845'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g004-550.jpg?1739881846'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g005-550.jpg?1739881847'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g006-550.jpg?1739881852'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g007-550.jpg?1739881852'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593878-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g008-550.jpg?1739881853'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593878-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g001-550.jpg?1739881843" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Parameters analyzed in the DOE.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g002-550.jpg?1739881844" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Cross-section of 8 geometries simulated.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g003-550.jpg?1739881845" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Polarization curve for the eight geometries simulated.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g004-550.jpg?1739881846" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Temperature distribution along the channel for eight geometries simulated at 0.2 V.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g005-550.jpg?1739881847" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Main effects analysis (graphical method).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g006-550.jpg?1739881852" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Interaction effects analysis (graphical method).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g007-550.jpg?1739881852" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Cross-section of new geometries simulations (case 9 and 10).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00986/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00986-g008-550.jpg?1739881853" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Polarization curve of geometries 1 to 10 and current density values at 0.2 V.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/986'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <a data-dropdown="drop-supplementary-1593879" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1593879" aria-expanded="false" title="Supplementary Material"> <i class="material-icons">attachment</i> </a> <div id="drop-supplementary-1593879" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Supplementary material: <br/> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/985/s1?version=1739881874"> Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 800 KiB) </a><br/> </div> </div> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 23 pages, 8148 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/985/pdf?version=1739881873" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Flexible On-Grid and Off-Grid Control for Electric–Hydrogen Coupling Microgrids" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/985">Flexible On-Grid and Off-Grid Control for Electric–Hydrogen Coupling Microgrids</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhengyao Wang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Fulin Fan</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hang Zhang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Kai Song</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jinhai Jiang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Chuanyu Sun</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rui Xue</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jingran Zhang</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhengjian Chen</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 985; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040985">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040985</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> With the widespread integration of renewable energy into distribution networks, energy storage systems are playing an increasingly critical role in maintaining grid stability and sustainability. Hydrogen, as a key zero-carbon energy carrier, offers unique advantages in the transition to low-carbon energy systems. To <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/985/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> With the widespread integration of renewable energy into distribution networks, energy storage systems are playing an increasingly critical role in maintaining grid stability and sustainability. Hydrogen, as a key zero-carbon energy carrier, offers unique advantages in the transition to low-carbon energy systems. To facilitate the coordination between hydrogen and renewables, this paper proposes a flexible on-grid and off-grid control method for an electric–hydrogen hybrid AC-DC microgrid which integrates photovoltaic panels, battery energy storage, electrolysers, a hydrogen storage tank, and fuel cells. The flexible control method proposed here employs a hierarchical structure. The upper level adopts a power management strategy (PMS) that allocates power to each component based on the states of energy storage. The lower level utilises the master–slave control where master and slave converters are regulated by virtual synchronous generator (VSG) and active and reactive power (PQ) control, respectively. In addition, a pre-synchronisation control strategy which does not rely on traditional phase-locked loops is introduced to enable a smooth transition from the off-grid to on-grid mode. The electric–hydrogen microgrid along with the proposed control method is modelled and tested under various operating modes and scenarios. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed control method achieves an effective power dispatch within microgrid and maintains microgrid stability in on- and off-grid modes as well as in the transition between the two modes. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/985">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/grids">A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/985/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593879"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593879"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593879" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593879" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593879" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g001-550.jpg?1739881973" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593879" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g002-550.jpg?1739881974'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g003-550.jpg?1739881975'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g004-550.jpg?1739881978'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g005-550.jpg?1739881979'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g006-550.jpg?1739881981'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g007-550.jpg?1739881984'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g008a-550.jpg?1739881985'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g008b-550.jpg?1739881986'><p>Figure 8 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g009a-550.jpg?1739881988'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g009b-550.jpg?1739881989'><p>Figure 9 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g010-550.jpg?1739881992'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g011a-550.jpg?1739881995'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1593879-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g011b-550.jpg?1739881997'><p>Figure 11 Cont.</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593879-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g001-550.jpg?1739881973" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Scheme of an electric–hydrogen coupling AC-DC hybrid microgrid.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g002-550.jpg?1739881974" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Equivalent model of BESS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g003-550.jpg?1739881975" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Flowchart of power management of electric–hydrogen AC-DC microgrid.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g004-550.jpg?1739881978" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Control block diagram of the electric–hydrogen coupling AC-DC microgrid.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g005-550.jpg?1739881979" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Vector diagrams of VSG output voltage and grid-side voltage.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g006-550.jpg?1739881981" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in off-grid mode under Scenario I: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g007-550.jpg?1739881984" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in on-grid mode under Scenario II: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g008a-550.jpg?1739881985" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in on-grid mode under Scenario III: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g008b-550.jpg?1739881986" title=" <strong>Figure 8 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in on-grid mode under Scenario III: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g009a-550.jpg?1739881988" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in on-grid mode under Scenario IV: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g009b-550.jpg?1739881989" title=" <strong>Figure 9 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in on-grid mode under Scenario IV: (<b>a</b>) active power of PV, BESS, ELs, FCs, and total loads; (<b>b</b>) SOC of BESS and SOHC of HTS; (<b>c</b>) active and reactive power; and (<b>d</b>) frequencies of master and slave converters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g010-550.jpg?1739881992" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in off-grid/on-grid switching under Scenario V: (<b>a</b>) frequencies and (<b>b</b>) active and reactive power of master and slave converters; differences in (<b>c</b>) voltage phase and (<b>d</b>) amplitude between microgrid and upstream grid; and (<b>e</b>) voltage waveforms of grid and microgrid during pre-synchronisation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g011a-550.jpg?1739881995" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in off-grid/on-grid switching under Scenario VI: (<b>a</b>) frequencies and (<b>b</b>) active and reactive power of master and slave converters; differences in (<b>c</b>) voltage phase and (<b>d</b>) amplitude between microgrid and upstream grid; and (<b>e</b>) voltage waveforms of grid and microgrid during pre-synchronisation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00985/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00985-g011b-550.jpg?1739881997" title=" <strong>Figure 11 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Microgrid dynamics in off-grid/on-grid switching under Scenario VI: (<b>a</b>) frequencies and (<b>b</b>) active and reactive power of master and slave converters; differences in (<b>c</b>) voltage phase and (<b>d</b>) amplitude between microgrid and upstream grid; and (<b>e</b>) voltage waveforms of grid and microgrid during pre-synchronisation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/985'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 18 pages, 2461 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/984/pdf?version=1739880588" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Improvement of Mass Transfer Characteristics for the Gas-Liquid System in a Vortex Counterflow Apparatus" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/984">Improvement of Mass Transfer Characteristics for the Gas-Liquid System in a Vortex Counterflow Apparatus</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vsevolod Sklabinskyi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ivan Pavlenko</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Maksym Skydanenko</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sylwia Włodarczak</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andżelika Krupińska</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Marek Ochowiak</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Izabela Kruszelnicka</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 984; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040984">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040984</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This article aims to increase the intensity of mass transfer between gas and liquid in counterflow gas–liquid flow, one of the key problems in designing mass transfer equipment. For this purpose, analytical and experimental studies were carried out to evaluate the main features <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/984/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This article aims to increase the intensity of mass transfer between gas and liquid in counterflow gas–liquid flow, one of the key problems in designing mass transfer equipment. For this purpose, analytical and experimental studies were carried out to evaluate the main features of operating processes in a vortex counterflow apparatus. In particular, the presented research substantiates the possibility of achieving several theoretical stages of concentration change in a single atomizing stage of the vortex counterflow mass transfer apparatus. The corresponding experimental stand was developed to carry out experimental studies. Afterward, the efficiency of the vortex counterflow mass transfer apparatus was evaluated. The model was based on material balance and flow rate equations, allowing for the determination of mass transfer and intensity ratio. After comparing the analytical expressions with the experimental results, the regression dependence for evaluating the main parameter of the proposed mathematical model was obtained. An increase in steam consumption led to increased steam velocities, affecting the droplets. This fact proved an increase in the intensity of mass transfer processes. The studies substantiated the achievement of several theoretical stages of concentration change and increased the efficiency of a vortex counterflow mass transfer apparatus. From a practical viewpoint, the experimental studies confirmed that when the height and radius ratio is less than 0.6–0.7, it is possible to create a plane vortex countercurrent motion of gas and liquid flows with a significant increase in peripheral gas velocities along the radius of the vortex chamber. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/984">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/State-of-the-Art_Energy_Related_Technologies">K: State-of-the-Art Energy Related Technologies</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/984/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593866"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593866"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593866" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593866" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593866" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593866-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g001-550.jpg?1739880746" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593866" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593866-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g002-550.jpg?1739880748'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593866-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g003-550.jpg?1739880749'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593866-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g004-550.jpg?1739880750'><p>Figure 4</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593866-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g001-550.jpg?1739880746" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Flows in a vortex apparatus with a counterflow of phases in the contact area: (<b>a</b>) design scheme of the vortex camera; (<b>b</b>) general view of the vortex apparatus without the top cover; (<b>c</b>) velocity components; (<b>d</b>) the effect of the gas flow on a droplet; <span class="html-italic">v</span>, <span class="html-italic">w</span>—velocities of gas and droplet, respectively; <span class="html-italic">ω</span>—angular velocity, rad/s; <span class="html-italic">r</span>, <span class="html-italic">φ</span>—radial and angular directions of the local coordinate system, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/984'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g002-550.jpg?1739880748" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>A design scheme of the studied counterflow mass transfer apparatus: 1—mass transfer chamber; 2—gas outlet; 3—tangential slots; 4—container for gas removal; 5—gas outlet pipe; 6—gas supply pipe; 7—gas supply chamber; 8—nozzle for liquid supply to the atomizer; 9—atomizer; 10—fluid drainage slots; 11—container for collecting liquid; 12—nozzle for draining liquid.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/984'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g003-550.jpg?1739880749" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>The design scheme of the experimental stand: 1—bottom; 2—lower vortex apparatus; 3—upper vortex apparatus; 4—condenser; 5—rotameters; 6—differential pressure gauges; 7—rotameter to control reflux flow into the bottom; 8—valve for dumping reflux into the bottom; 9—valve for supplying reflux to the lower vortex apparatus; 10—valve for removing reflux from the lower vortex apparatus; 11—vapor sampling refrigerators; 12—refrigerators for sampling the liquid phase.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/984'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00984/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00984-g004-550.jpg?1739880750" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Experimental points and theoretical line for the dependence of the number of theoretical concentration stages on steam consumption.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/984'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 24 pages, 4259 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/983/pdf?version=1739884623" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Comparative Study Between Synchrophasor-Measurement-Based Linear and Nonlinear State Estimation in Power Systems" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/983">A Comparative Study Between Synchrophasor-Measurement-Based Linear and Nonlinear State Estimation in Power Systems</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ali Aljazaeri</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Petr Toman</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Obed Muhayimana</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 983; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040983">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040983</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The evolution of phasor measurement units (PMUs) marked a significant development in the field of electrical engineering. The integration of PMU-based linear state estimators or the augmentation of SCADA measurements with PMU measurements has emerged as a promising solution to address the limitations <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/983/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The evolution of phasor measurement units (PMUs) marked a significant development in the field of electrical engineering. The integration of PMU-based linear state estimators or the augmentation of SCADA measurements with PMU measurements has emerged as a promising solution to address the limitations of conventional state estimation. The utilization of PMU measurements has been demonstrated to effectively address measurement errors, leading to the precise determination of the system’s state within a single iteration. This article provides a comprehensive discussion of both linear and nonlinear state estimation computational processes. A comparative analysis is conducted to assess their performance. PMU-based state estimator models are proposed based on different PMU locations and are further examined under abnormal conditions. The results are compared with the simulated results from a Simulink PSCAD model of the IEEE 14-bus system to ensure validation. The test results demonstrated that the proposed models outperformed the conventional model in terms of robustness and accuracy. The estimated and simulated states matched during both normal and abnormal conditions, demonstrating the model’s capability to track sudden changes in voltage profiles. This article promotes further investigations to develop new control and protection functions using this model. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/983">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/power_electronics">F3: Power Electronics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/983/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593916"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593916"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593916" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593916" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593916" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g001-550.jpg?1739884732" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593916" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g002-550.jpg?1739884733'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g003-550.jpg?1739884734'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g004-550.jpg?1739884734'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g005-550.jpg?1739884736'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g006-550.jpg?1739884737'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g007-550.jpg?1739884738'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g008-550.jpg?1739884739'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g009-550.jpg?1739884740'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g010-550.jpg?1739884741'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g011-550.jpg?1739884743'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g012-550.jpg?1739884744'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g013-550.jpg?1739884745'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g014-550.jpg?1739884746'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g015-550.jpg?1739884748'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g016-550.jpg?1739884750'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g017-550.jpg?1739884752'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g018-550.jpg?1739884754'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1593916-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g019-550.jpg?1739884755'><p>Figure 19</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593916-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g001-550.jpg?1739884732" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Phasor representation: (<b>a</b>) pure sinusoidal and (<b>b</b>) phasor form.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g002-550.jpg?1739884733" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>TVE limits of PMU.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g003-550.jpg?1739884734" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Typical PMU hardware.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g004-550.jpg?1739884734" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Pi transmission line model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g005-550.jpg?1739884736" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>PMU locations of the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g006-550.jpg?1739884737" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated bus voltage magnitudes by three estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g007-550.jpg?1739884738" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated bus voltage angles by three estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g008-550.jpg?1739884739" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of TVE of three estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g009-550.jpg?1739884740" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of MAE of three estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g010-550.jpg?1739884741" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated bus voltage magnitudes by locations A, B, and C estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g011-550.jpg?1739884743" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated bus voltage angles by locations A, B, and C estimation models for the IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g012-550.jpg?1739884744" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of TVE of three estimation models for IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g013-550.jpg?1739884745" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of MAE of three estimation models for IEEE 14-bus system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g014-550.jpg?1739884746" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 1 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g015-550.jpg?1739884748" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 2 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g016-550.jpg?1739884750" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 3 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g017-550.jpg?1739884752" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 4 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g018-550.jpg?1739884754" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 5 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00983/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00983-g019-550.jpg?1739884755" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of estimated and simulated bus 9 voltage phasor by different estimation models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/983'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 15 pages, 4020 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/982/pdf?version=1739881299" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Reliability Evaluation of Improved Sampling Method for Mechanical Test of Cable Insulation" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/982">Reliability Evaluation of Improved Sampling Method for Mechanical Test of Cable Insulation</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Seung-Won Lee</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jin-Wook Choe</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ik-Su Kwon</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jin-Seok Lim</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Byung-Bae Park</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hae-Jong Kim</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 982; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040982">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040982</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Underground and submarine power cables are subjected to mechanical stress during installation and operation, which degrades the cable insulation and reduces the reliability of power transmission. Therefore, tests that can evaluate the mechanical properties of power cable insulation are very important. The purpose <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/982/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Underground and submarine power cables are subjected to mechanical stress during installation and operation, which degrades the cable insulation and reduces the reliability of power transmission. Therefore, tests that can evaluate the mechanical properties of power cable insulation are very important. The purpose of this paper is to introduce an improved sampling method for the test sample, the peeling, for mechanical testing of power cable insulation and to evaluate the reliability of the method. The influence of the sampling method of the test sample on the mechanical property values was analyzed. The tensile strength and elongation of XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) and PP (polypropylene) insulation prepared by the slice method and the peeling method were measured, and the surface of the test samples according to the sampling methods was photographed by SEM. The results show that the mechanical property of the cable insulation increased by more than 10% when the improved peeling method was used, and the precision of the peeling method was relatively better. The SEM analysis showed that the surface of the sliced test sample was rougher than the peeled test sample and was physically damaged. Therefore, the high reliability of the peeling method for mechanical testing of cable insulators was demonstrated. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/982">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/high_voltage">F6: High Voltage</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/982/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593872"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593872"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593872" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593872" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593872" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g001-550.jpg?1739881424" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593872" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g002-550.jpg?1739881425'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g003-550.jpg?1739881428'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g004-550.jpg?1739881431'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g005-550.jpg?1739881435'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g006-550.jpg?1739881436'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g007-550.jpg?1739881437'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g008-550.jpg?1739881439'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g009-550.jpg?1739881440'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593872-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g010-550.jpg?1739881445'><p>Figure 10</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593872-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g001-550.jpg?1739881424" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Mechanical stresses on underground and submarine power cables.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g002-550.jpg?1739881425" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The description of test cables: (<b>a</b>) a commercialized 22.9 kV class XLPE insulation-based cable and (<b>b</b>) a picture of a MV class PP insulation-based cable under development.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g003-550.jpg?1739881428" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Methods of sampling insulation from cables: (<b>a</b>) method of slicing insulation (<b>b</b>) method of peeling insulation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g004-550.jpg?1739881431" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Tensile strength and elongation measurements of cable insulation: (<b>a</b>) before mechanical testing, (<b>b</b>) during mechanical testing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g005-550.jpg?1739881435" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Process for SEM imaging of cable insulator surfaces: (<b>a</b>) insulation surface coating, (<b>b</b>) insulation surface SEM.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g006-550.jpg?1739881436" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Insulation of tensile strength for sampling method by insulation thickness and type: (<b>a</b>) XLPE, (<b>b</b>) PP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g007-550.jpg?1739881437" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Insulation of elongation for sampling method by insulation thickness and type: (<b>a</b>) XLPE, (<b>b</b>) PP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g008-550.jpg?1739881439" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Precision of tensile strength by thickness and insulator by insulation sampling method: (<b>a</b>) XLPE, (<b>b</b>) PP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g009-550.jpg?1739881440" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Precision of elongation by thickness and insulator type by insulation sampling method: (<b>a</b>) XLPE and (<b>b</b>) PP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00982/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00982-g010-550.jpg?1739881445" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>SEM images of the surface depending on the sampling method: (<b>a</b>) peeled XLPE, (<b>b</b>) sliced XLPE, (<b>c</b>) peeled PP, and (<b>d</b>) sliced PP.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/982'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 30 pages, 5107 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/981/pdf?version=1739881972" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Experimental Study and Reaction Pathway Analysis of Solvothermal Directional Conversion of Pyrolysis Crude Oil to Liquid Fuel" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/981">Experimental Study and Reaction Pathway Analysis of Solvothermal Directional Conversion of Pyrolysis Crude Oil to Liquid Fuel</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Qi Wei</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhongyang Luo</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Qian Qian</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jingkang Shi</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Feiting Miao</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 981; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040981">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040981</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The high viscosity and oxygen content of pyrolysis crude oil hinder the advancement of pyrolysis technology. To address the issue, this study conducted hydrodeoxygenation upgrading experiments on pyrolysis crude oil using hydrothermal directional conversion. A variable analysis was performed to assess the differences <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/981/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The high viscosity and oxygen content of pyrolysis crude oil hinder the advancement of pyrolysis technology. To address the issue, this study conducted hydrodeoxygenation upgrading experiments on pyrolysis crude oil using hydrothermal directional conversion. A variable analysis was performed to assess the differences in upgrading effects based on the active metal (Ru, Pt) and the supports (activated carbon, Nb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, MgO) of the supported catalyst, and further investigations were conducted on the catalyst with bimetallic doping modification. Optimal reaction conditions were determined by adjusting the reaction temperature. Additionally, directional conversion studies of model compounds were carried out to elucidate the reaction pathway. The results indicated that the Pt/MgO catalyst achieved the highest yield of stable and combustible compounds (hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, esters, and ketones), with a yield of 17.8 wt%. Upon modification with Ni doping, the yield increased by 49.5%. The upgrading effect improved with an increase in reaction temperature, and the yield of target compounds was 26.7 wt% at 290 °C, with an energy conversion rate of 72.6% and a selectivity of 75.8%. Moreover, the physicochemical properties of the upgraded oil were similar to those of ethanol. All three model compounds underwent 100% conversion. This study provides both experimental support and a theoretical foundation for the further development of biomass conversion technology. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/981">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/RG280P08AX ">Biomass to Liquid Fuels</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/981/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593880"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593880"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593880" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593880" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593880" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g001-550.jpg?1739882117" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593880" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g002-550.jpg?1739882118'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g003-550.jpg?1739882118'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g004-550.jpg?1739882119'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g005-550.jpg?1739882120'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g006-550.jpg?1739882121'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g007-550.jpg?1739882123'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g008-550.jpg?1739882124'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g009-550.jpg?1739882125'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g010-550.jpg?1739882125'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g011-550.jpg?1739882127'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g012-550.jpg?1739882128'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593880-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g0A1-550.jpg?1739882128'><p>Figure A1</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593880-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g001-550.jpg?1739882117" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Selectivity of pyrolysis crude oil and upgraded oils from various catalyst supports.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g002-550.jpg?1739882118" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Product selectivity and yield of upgraded oils from various catalyst loading types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g003-550.jpg?1739882118" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Partial reaction mechanism diagram on Pt–Ni/MgO.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g004-550.jpg?1739882119" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>N<sub>2</sub>-TPD curve and BJH pore size distribution of Pt–Ni/MgO catalyst.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g005-550.jpg?1739882120" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>XRD spectrum of Pt–Ni/MgO catalyst.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g006-550.jpg?1739882121" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>XPS spectrum of Pt–Ni/MgO catalyst: (<b>a</b>) Pt; (<b>b</b>) Ni; (<b>c</b>) Mg.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g007-550.jpg?1739882123" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>SEM images of Pt–Ni/MgO catalysts: (<b>a</b>) 2 µm scale; (<b>b</b>) 1 µm scale; (<b>c</b>) 400 nm scale.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g008-550.jpg?1739882124" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Variation in the quality of gas phase substances with reaction temperature.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g009-550.jpg?1739882125" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Liquid phase product selectivity and yield of various temperatures.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g010-550.jpg?1739882125" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Generation pathway diagram of butyl acetate.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g011-550.jpg?1739882127" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Main conversion pathways of furfural.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g012-550.jpg?1739882128" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>FT-IR spectrum of pyrolysis crude oil and upgraded oil.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00981/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00981-g0A1-550.jpg?1739882128" title=" <strong>Figure A1</strong><br/> <p>Molecular weight distribution of pyrolysis crude oil.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/981'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 23 pages, 3090 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/980/pdf?version=1739871422" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Assessing the Effectiveness of Mycelium-Based Thermal Insulation in Reducing Domestic Cooling Footprint: A Simulation-Based Study" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/980">Assessing the Effectiveness of Mycelium-Based Thermal Insulation in Reducing Domestic Cooling Footprint: A Simulation-Based Study</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shouq Al-Qahtani</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Muammer Koç</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Rima J. Isaifan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 980; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040980">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040980</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Domestic cooling requirements in arid and hot climate regions present a substantial challenge in minimizing energy consumption and reducing carbon emissions, largely due to the extensive dependence on electricity-intensive air conditioning systems. The limitations and inefficiencies of traditional construction and insulation materials, coupled <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/980/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Domestic cooling requirements in arid and hot climate regions present a substantial challenge in minimizing energy consumption and reducing carbon emissions, largely due to the extensive dependence on electricity-intensive air conditioning systems. The limitations and inefficiencies of traditional construction and insulation materials, coupled with their improper application, further intensify the challenges posed by extreme climatic conditions. Considering these challenges, this study thoroughly assesses a novel and unconventional solution recently introduced for improving insulation: mycelium-based thermal insulation. Mycelium is the growth form of filamentous fungi, capable of binding organic matter through a network of hyphal microfilaments. This research utilizes DesignBuilder v7.3.1.003 simulation software to assess the thermal performance of residential buildings that incorporate mycelium as an insulator. The aim is to compare its efficacy with commonly used traditional insulators in Qatar and to investigate the potential of mycelium as an eco-friendly solution for minimizing thermal energy consumption, enhancing thermal comfort, decreasing carbon emissions, and achieving annual thermal energy savings. This study examines various insulation materials and accentuates the unique advantages offered by mycelium-based composites. Simulation results indicate that the placement of mycelium on both the inner and outer surfaces results in significant annual energy savings of 8.11 TWh, accompanied by a substantial reduction in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/980">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/PKN25XX7JG ">Sustainable Energy Environment in Future: New Advances in Air Pollution Control</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/980/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593645"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593645"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593645" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593645" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593645" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g001-550.jpg?1739871501" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593645" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g002-550.jpg?1739871503'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g003-550.jpg?1739871505'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g004-550.jpg?1739871505'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g005-550.jpg?1739871506'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g006-550.jpg?1739871507'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593645-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g007-550.jpg?1739871509'><p>Figure 7</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593645-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g001-550.jpg?1739871501" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic summary of the research methodology.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g002-550.jpg?1739871503" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Architectural representation of a 3-story villa in Qatar.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g003-550.jpg?1739871505" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Ground floor plan.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g004-550.jpg?1739871505" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>First floor plan.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g005-550.jpg?1739871506" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Penthouse plan.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g006-550.jpg?1739871507" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of carbon emissions across different insulation materials and their trends over time.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00980/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00980-g007-550.jpg?1739871509" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of energy consumption across different insulation materials over time.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/980'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 15 pages, 3781 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/979/pdf?version=1739870953" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Economic Impact of Energy Accounting Schemes for Commercial Systems on a Broiler Farm with Power Demand and Generation" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/979">Economic Impact of Energy Accounting Schemes for Commercial Systems on a Broiler Farm with Power Demand and Generation</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yi Liang</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Michael Popp</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 979; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040979">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040979</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the on-farm solar photovoltaic (PV) generation to offset grid electricity consumption on a commercial poultry farm in the US. Hourly electricity production by PV systems was estimated using the System Advisor Model <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/979/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the on-farm solar photovoltaic (PV) generation to offset grid electricity consumption on a commercial poultry farm in the US. Hourly electricity production by PV systems was estimated using the System Advisor Model (SAM) of the National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) and compared with the estimated electric load demand of a broiler house. We analyzed the economic benefits of installing solar systems of three capacities under net energy metering and net energy billing pricing scenarios. Results suggested that a smaller PV installation of 35 kW<sub>p</sub>, while substantially short of meeting energy needs, resulted in an 85% self-consumption ratio, whereas the larger 70 kW<sub>p</sub> and 105 kW<sub>p</sub> PV systems, led to 59% and 42% self-consumption ratios, respectively. This is important when analyzing pricing schemes as lesser amounts of PV energy created are sold to the grid with the smallest system, and, thereby, the least pricing effects on profitability occur across pricing scenarios. Although all scenarios lead to positive net present values (NPVs), under either type of the pricing scenarios, farm business owners realize more favorable energy sales with NEM, which would spur PV system adoption. Results of this study thus provide information to both poultry farmers, considering the size of system installations and policy makers interested in affordably increasing renewable energy supplies and/or rural development. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/979">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/solar_energy">A2: Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Systems</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/979/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593622"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593622"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593622" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593622" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593622" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g001-550.jpg?1739871030" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593622" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g002-550.jpg?1739871032'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g003-550.jpg?1739871033'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g004-550.jpg?1739871035'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g005-550.jpg?1739871036'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g006-550.jpg?1739871037'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g007-550.jpg?1739871037'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g008-550.jpg?1739871038'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g009-550.jpg?1739871039'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g010-550.jpg?1739871041'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g011-550.jpg?1739871042'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593622-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g012-550.jpg?1739871042'><p>Figure 12</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593622-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g001-550.jpg?1739871030" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Electrical equipment in a typical broiler house in the US, including feed and water delivery lines, ceiling lights, exhaust and circulation fans, and radiant tube heaters with internal blowers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g002-550.jpg?1739871032" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Two distributed photovoltaics systems of 180 kW (<b>left</b>) and 50 kW (<b>right</b>) installed on commercial poultry farms.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g003-550.jpg?1739871033" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Flow diagram of this study.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g004-550.jpg?1739871035" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>System Advisor Model simulation interface of a photovoltaic system capacity of 70 kW<sub>p</sub>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g005-550.jpg?1739871036" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>System Advisor Model simulates an hourly AC power output (kW) heat map over the first year for a photovoltaic system capacity of 70 kW<sub>p</sub>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g006-550.jpg?1739871037" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Sample diurnal pattern of hourly electric power load of the broiler farm in January and July.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g007-550.jpg?1739871037" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Seasonal trend of hourly electric power load of the broiler farm at midnight and mid-afternoon hours.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g008-550.jpg?1739871038" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Monthly energy balance in the case of 35 kW<sub>p</sub> PV installation with net metering billing arrangement.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g009-550.jpg?1739871039" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Hourly energy demand and PV generation with system size of 70 kw<sub>p</sub> and 35 kW<sub>p</sub> in December. Both PV sizes of 35 and 70 kW<sub>p</sub> produce more electricity than farm electric demand during a sunny day. The 35 kW<sub>p</sub> array will have significantly less export than the 70 kW<sub>p</sub> array. (<b>b</b>) Hourly energy demand and PV generation with system size of 70 kW<sub>p</sub> and 35 kW<sub>p</sub> in June. The 35 kW<sub>p</sub> array will not produce enough in any hour of a day in June, while the 70 kW<sub>p</sub> array has a smaller net export to the grid than in winter months.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g010-550.jpg?1739871041" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Monthly energy balance in the case of 70 kW<sub>p</sub> PV installation with net metering billing arrangement.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g011-550.jpg?1739871042" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Average net annual benefits over a system’s useful life of 25 years as a result of two billing arrangements with three system sizes. NEM, net energy metering; NEB, net energy billing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00979/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00979-g012-550.jpg?1739871042" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Net present values over system’s useful life of 25 years as a result of two billing arrangements with three system sizes. NEM: net energy metering; NEB: net energy billing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/979'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 35 pages, 9472 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/978/pdf?version=1739871304" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="The Safety Engineering of Sodium-Ion Batteries Used as an Energy Storage System for the Military" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/978">The Safety Engineering of Sodium-Ion Batteries Used as an Energy Storage System for the Military</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Agnieszka Iwan</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Krzysztof A. Bogdanowicz</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Robert Pich</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Agnieszka Gonciarz</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jacek Miedziak</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ireneusz Plebankiewicz</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Wojciech Przybyl</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 978; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040978">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040978</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The main idea of this work is based on the latest achievements in the commercialization of sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, which constitute a basis of analysis for military applications as energy storage systems. Technical, engineering, and ecological aspects were analyzed to find the optimal <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/978/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The main idea of this work is based on the latest achievements in the commercialization of sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, which constitute a basis of analysis for military applications as energy storage systems. Technical, engineering, and ecological aspects were analyzed to find the optimal solution for using Na-ion batteries for military purposes. When selecting batteries for military applications, the following criteria are required: (a) they are more durable than standard batteries, (b) resistant to fire, (c) cannot explode, (d) cannot emit heat so as not to reveal their position, (e) equipped with safety elements and protective circuits to ensure safety, and (f) have the highest possible energy density, defined as the ratio of capacity to weight. The advantages and challenges of Na-ion batteries are discussed and compared to typical lithium-ion batteries, and also lithium iron phosphate, Ni-Cd, and Ni-MH batteries. The prospects for expanding the practical applications of Na-ion batteries in the military are presented. The unique properties of Na-ion batteries, such as their lower risk of ignition, more excellent thermal stability, and ability to work in extreme conditions, are essential from the point of view of military operations. Additionally, when considering environmental and logistical aspects, sodium-ion batteries may offer more sustainable and cost-effective solutions for the military. Therefore, this work aims not only to present the technological potential of these systems but also to draw attention to their strategic importance for the future of military operations. Battery discharge can result from leaving current receivers switched on or even from a drop in temperature. The discharge current should not exceed 1/10 of the battery capacity (1C). Discharging below the discharge voltage may result in irreversible damage. Sodium-ion batteries are safer to use than their lithium counterparts and allow for discharge to 0 V, eliminating the possibility of uncontrolled thermal discharge due to a short circuit (explosion, ignition), which is particularly important in the military. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/978">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/Electrochem">D2: Electrochem: Batteries, Fuel Cells, Capacitors</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/978/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593637"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593637"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593637" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593637" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593637" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g001-550.jpg?1739871433" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593637" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g002a-550.jpg?1739871435'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g002b-550.jpg?1739871435'><p>Figure 2 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g003a-550.jpg?1739871437'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g003b-550.jpg?1739871439'><p>Figure 3 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g004-550.jpg?1739871441'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g005-550.jpg?1739871443'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g006-550.jpg?1739871446'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g007-550.jpg?1739871447'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g008-550.jpg?1739871449'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g009-550.jpg?1739871451'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g010-550.jpg?1739871452'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593637-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g011-550.jpg?1739871454'><p>Figure 11</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593637-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g001-550.jpg?1739871433" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the lithium (<b>a</b>) and sodium (<b>b</b>) intercalation–de-intercalation reaction mechanism in a rechargeable lithium (sodium)-ion battery containing solid electrodes and a liquid electrolyte. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B1-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B2-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">2</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g002a-550.jpg?1739871435" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the half (<b>a</b>) and the full (<b>b</b>) cell together with a schematic comparison of the charge–discharge profiles. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B3-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g002b-550.jpg?1739871435" title=" <strong>Figure 2 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the half (<b>a</b>) and the full (<b>b</b>) cell together with a schematic comparison of the charge–discharge profiles. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B3-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g003a-550.jpg?1739871437" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the evaluation metrics between half and full cells together with the wide temperature characteristics of various reactions in Na-ion full cells (NIFC) within the range of −60~800 °C (<b>a</b>), and the schematic GCD (galvanostatic charge/discharge) curves of the full cell, and the schematic relationship of energy density, Coulombic efficiency (CE), and mass ratio of the cathode to the anode in a hypothetical full cell, where HC: hard carbon, rGO: reduced graphene oxide, SE: solid electrolyte interphase, PP: polypropylene, and PVDF: polyvinylidene difluoride (<b>b</b>). Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B3-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g003b-550.jpg?1739871439" title=" <strong>Figure 3 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of the evaluation metrics between half and full cells together with the wide temperature characteristics of various reactions in Na-ion full cells (NIFC) within the range of −60~800 °C (<b>a</b>), and the schematic GCD (galvanostatic charge/discharge) curves of the full cell, and the schematic relationship of energy density, Coulombic efficiency (CE), and mass ratio of the cathode to the anode in a hypothetical full cell, where HC: hard carbon, rGO: reduced graphene oxide, SE: solid electrolyte interphase, PP: polypropylene, and PVDF: polyvinylidene difluoride (<b>b</b>). Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B3-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g004-550.jpg?1739871441" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of a heat generation source along with the thermal runaway process of a Na-ion battery, where Q<sub>r</sub>: reversible heat, Q<sub>p</sub>: polarization heat, Q<sub>s</sub>: side reaction heat, T: temperature, CEI: cathode–electrolyte interphase, and SEI: solid electrolyte interphase. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B4-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g005-550.jpg?1739871443" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Thermal runaway hazard assessment of Na-ion batteries under different heating powers (<b>a</b>) along with TR hazard assessment of Na-ion, LiNi<sub>0.5</sub>Co<sub>0.2</sub>Mn<sub>0.3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (NCM523), and LiFePO<sub>4</sub> (LFP) batteries under 500 W (<b>b</b>). Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B5-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g006-550.jpg?1739871446" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Military applications of sodium-ion batteries.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g007-550.jpg?1739871447" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>A comparison of Li- and Na-ion technologies that share the same family of layered and polyanionic compounds. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B15-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g008-550.jpg?1739871449" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representations of a sodium-ion battery with (<b>a</b>) organic liquid electrolytes, (<b>b</b>) inorganic solid electrolytes, and (<b>c</b>) flexible polymer/plastic electrolytes. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B19-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">19</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g009-550.jpg?1739871451" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Challenges for the use of Na-ion batteries in the military.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g010-550.jpg?1739871452" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Commercialization of different sodium-ion battery chemistries by various companies. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B82-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">82</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00978/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00978-g011-550.jpg?1739871454" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of the synergy between materials and parameters used in order to design Na-ion batteries for practical applications. Own elaboration based on [<a href="#B58-energies-18-00978" class="html-bibr">58</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/978'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 5 pages, 167 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/977/pdf?version=1739868507" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Design, Modeling, and Optimization of Novel Fuel Cell Systems" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Editorial</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/977">Design, Modeling, and Optimization of Novel Fuel Cell Systems</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alexandros Arsalis</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 977; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040977">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040977</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-full inline"> Fuel cells have emerged as a cornerstone in the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions [...] <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/977">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/energies/special_issues/novel_fuel_cell_systems ">Design, Modeling, and Optimization of Novel Fuel Cell Systems</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 35 pages, 11124 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/976/pdf?version=1739868302" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Numerical and Experimental Study of Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Porous Media: A Review Article" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/976">Numerical and Experimental Study of Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Porous Media: A Review Article</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ramin Ranjbarzadeh</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Giuseppe Sappa</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 976; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040976">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040976</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Fluid flow and heat transfer in porous media have been extensively studied due to their importance in numerous industrial and environmental applications. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of numerical and experimental approaches, presenting a multiscale perspective that bridges molecular, pore, and macroscopic <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/976/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Fluid flow and heat transfer in porous media have been extensively studied due to their importance in numerous industrial and environmental applications. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of numerical and experimental approaches, presenting a multiscale perspective that bridges molecular, pore, and macroscopic levels. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying principles governing these processes, as this knowledge is essential for optimizing and innovating applications ranging from energy systems to environmental engineering. The review synthesizes key theoretical frameworks, including Darcy’s law, the Brinkman equation, and volume-averaging methods, offering a robust foundation for interpreting complex interactions in porous media. A novel aspect of this work is the integration of experimental and numerical insights to address challenges such as heterogeneity, anisotropy, and scale effects, demonstrating their complementary roles in advancing this field. Additionally, the review highlights emerging methodologies, including advanced pore-scale modeling, the lattice Boltzmann method, and machine learning, as transformative tools for overcoming existing limitations and exploring future directions. By identifying critical knowledge gaps and proposing innovative solutions, this article serves as a vital resource for researchers and practitioners, fostering interdisciplinary approaches and paving the way for cutting-edge advancements in the study of fluid flow and heat transfer in porous media. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/976">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Collection <a href=" /journal/energies/topical_collections/Advances_Heat_Transfer_Enhancement ">Advances in Heat Transfer Enhancement</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/976/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593548"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593548"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593548" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593548" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593548" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g001-550.jpg?1739868522" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593548" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g002-550.jpg?1739868524'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g003-550.jpg?1739868525'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g004-550.jpg?1739868526'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g005-550.jpg?1739868528'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g006-550.jpg?1739868529'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g007-550.jpg?1739868530'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g008-550.jpg?1739868532'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g009-550.jpg?1739868533'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g010-550.jpg?1739868535'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g011-550.jpg?1739868538'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g012-550.jpg?1739868539'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g013-550.jpg?1739868541'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g014-550.jpg?1739868542'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g015-550.jpg?1739868543'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1593548-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g016-550.jpg?1739868545'><p>Figure 16</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593548-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g001-550.jpg?1739868522" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>A multiscale classification of porous media processes across four scales: the field scale (kilometers to meters) focuses on large-scale applications; the REV scale (meters to millimeters) includes representative volume heterogeneities and sub-REV features; the pore scale (millimeters to micrometers) captures processes such as fluid flow and dissolution–precipitation; and the molecular scale (nanometers) addresses interactions at the atomic level. This framework highlights the interconnected nature of these scales in porous media systems [<a href="#B14-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">14</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g002-550.jpg?1739868524" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>A unified representation of fluid dynamics across scales, from microscopic particle dynamics to macroscopic continuum flow. The diagram illustrates the governing equations—Hamilton’s, Boltzmann, and Navier–Stokes—and their computational approaches.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g003-550.jpg?1739868525" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Typical flow regimes in porous media. Pressure gradient versus velocity in porous media, showing Darcy and non-Darcy flow. The red line represents viscous contribution, while the green line includes inertial effects.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g004-550.jpg?1739868526" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Different porosity amounts of the porous matrix [<a href="#B25-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g005-550.jpg?1739868528" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Porosity and permeability illustration.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g006-550.jpg?1739868529" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>A 2D schematic of tortuous stream tubes through the unsaturated porous rocks [<a href="#B13-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g007-550.jpg?1739868530" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Implementation processes and roles of pore-scale modeling. This figure illustrates the steps from digitalizing porous structures to applying pore-scale modeling methods, such as LBM, to simulate various processes. The results provide pore-scale distributions, which are then used to optimize structure, control processes, and improve performance at the continuum scale [<a href="#B28-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g008-550.jpg?1739868532" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of the closed-loop system for magnetic fluid heat transfer and flow resistance under a magnetic field. The system includes a tank with water and ferromagnetic nanoparticles, a pump, a cooling/heating system maintaining 25 °C, a flow sensor, a test section with thermocouples, and a power supply generating a magnetic field. Measurements of heat transfer and pressure drop are recorded by a data logger [<a href="#B46-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">46</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g009-550.jpg?1739868533" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Experimental setup for studying nanofluid convection in a heated metal foam tube under a magnetic field. The system includes two reservoirs, a cooling unit, a pump, and a test section with electromagnets and temperature sensors. The metal foam, made via casting with space holders, features high porosity, surface area, and permeability, enhancing heat transfer and nanofluid mixing. It is isotropic and homogeneous [<a href="#B47-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g010-550.jpg?1739868535" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>A schematic structure diagram of the test part, consisting of (1) a copper heater, (2) an asbestos board, (3) a stainless-steel plate, (4) mono-size copper balls in a structured simple cubic (SC) configuration, (5) insulation materials, (6) flanges, and (7) threaded holes. The test part measures 550 mm in length and features a packed bed of 13.55 mm diameter copper balls, arranged in a 4 × 4 array with 11 layers along the flow direction [<a href="#B49-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">49</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g011-550.jpg?1739868538" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional display of the pore space image for four ultra-low permeability sandstone core samples (S1, S2, S3, and S4). Pores are color-coded: blue for all pores, green for connected pores, and red for unconnected pores. This figure highlights pore connectivity, heterogeneity, and the role of fractures in influencing permeability [<a href="#B50-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">50</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g012-550.jpg?1739868539" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>A microchannel unit shown as the computational case study with two vertical solid walls, a base, and ribs on the sidewalls [<a href="#B90-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">90</a>]. Geometry parameters, specifications, and different arrangements, including rectangular ribs, elliptical ribs, triangular ribs, forward triangular ribs, and backward triangular ribs, have been investigated.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g013-550.jpg?1739868541" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Visualization of fluid and solid-phase temperature distributions in a composite porous-fluid system at different Reynolds numbers and penetration gamma angles. (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Non-dimensional fluid temperature contours show the development of penetrating cooling length, semi-cooled and non-cooled segments, and the wake region downstream of the porous interface. (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>) Non-dimensional solid temperature contours illustrate heat dissipation within the stochastic open-cell metal foam. Higher Reynolds numbers enhance turbulence, resulting in better penetration of cooling into the porous medium and increased thermal mixing [<a href="#B93-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">93</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g014-550.jpg?1739868542" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Geometry of a channel partially filled with a porous medium (ε = 0.74), where a cold Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>–water nanofluid flows under a uniform vertical magnetic field. The channel has heated top and bottom walls at constant temperature, with a specified inlet velocity profile. The porous medium consists of non-ordered solid particles of varying sizes and shapes. The channel aspect ratio is AC/AB = 4 [<a href="#B94-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">94</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g015-550.jpg?1739868543" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Two- and three-dimensional visualizations of binary (<b>top row</b>) and normalized EDT (<b>bottom row</b>) subvolumes derived from registered HR, MR, and LR images (left to right). The transition from HR to LR illustrates the increasing voxel size and loss of fine pore details, emphasizing the resolution trade-off in the multiscale CNN model [<a href="#B96-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">96</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00976/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00976-g016-550.jpg?1739868545" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Geometries of the (<b>a</b>) regular SC-packed and (<b>b</b>) irregular randomly packed porous structures. Fluid flows in the x-direction, and constant velocity (yellow) and pressure (blue) boundary conditions are considered at the inlet and outlet boundaries, respectively [<a href="#B97-energies-18-00976" class="html-bibr">97</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/976'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 31 pages, 7385 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/975/pdf?version=1739867846" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Gas Production and Storage Using Hydrates Through the Replacement of Multicomponent Gases: A Critical Review" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Review</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/975">Gas Production and Storage Using Hydrates Through the Replacement of Multicomponent Gases: A Critical Review</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhiyuan Zhu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Xiaoya Zhao</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sijia Wang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lanlan Jiang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hongsheng Dong</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pengfei Lv</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 975; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040975">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040975</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> With the continuous growth of global energy demand and the gradual depletion of traditional fossil energy reserves, natural gas hydrates have attracted widespread attention as a potential clean energy source due to their vast reserves and wide distribution. Although various extraction methods, including <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/975/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> With the continuous growth of global energy demand and the gradual depletion of traditional fossil energy reserves, natural gas hydrates have attracted widespread attention as a potential clean energy source due to their vast reserves and wide distribution. Although various extraction methods, including depressurization, thermal stimulation, chemical inhibitors, and displacement methods, have been proposed, there are still challenges, such as low extraction efficiency, poor sustainability, and high costs, making it difficult to achieve large-scale engineering applications. Among these, the use of gases such as CO<sub>2</sub> for displacement extraction of natural gas hydrates can both develop hydrate resources and sequester CO<sub>2</sub>, achieving a win–win situation for resource development and greenhouse gas reduction. This paper provides a detailed review of the multi-gas displacement extraction technology for natural gas hydrates, systematically summarizes the latest progress in thermodynamic and kinetic studies, analyzes the technical advantages and feasibility of combining displacement methods with traditional techniques, and explores the effects of multi-gas mixtures, such as N<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub>, and H<sub>2</sub>, and their ratios on hydrate extraction efficiency. Finally, this paper summarizes the technical challenges faced by displacement extraction methods for hydrates and offers future research directions to promote the development of multi-gas displacement technology for natural gas hydrates. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/975">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Topic <a href="/topics/32C29LI6Y7">Formation, Exploration and Development of Natural Gas Hydrate</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/975/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593529"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593529"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593529" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593529" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593529" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g001-550.jpg?1739867991" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593529" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g002-550.jpg?1739867993'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g003-550.jpg?1739867994'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g004-550.jpg?1739867995'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g005-550.jpg?1739867998'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g006-550.jpg?1739868000'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g007-550.jpg?1739868002'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g008-550.jpg?1739868003'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g009-550.jpg?1739868005'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g010-550.jpg?1739868006'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g011-550.jpg?1739868007'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g012-550.jpg?1739868008'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g013-550.jpg?1739868010'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g014-550.jpg?1739868011'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1593529-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g015-550.jpg?1739868013'><p>Figure 15</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593529-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g001-550.jpg?1739867991" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of discovered gas hydrate deposits. BSR stands for the deposit located by seismic refraction. By core refers to the areas where the presence of natural gas hydrates has been confirmed through core sampling. Production indicates the areas where natural gas hydrate extraction has already taken place [<a href="#B5-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g002-550.jpg?1739867993" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The development history of the research on replacement method [<a href="#B22-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">24</a>,<a href="#B25-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">26</a>,<a href="#B27-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g003-550.jpg?1739867994" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Phase diagram of CO<sub>2</sub> replacement hydrate. A–D represent the different regions enclosed by the thermodynamic equilibrium curves of pure CH<sub>4</sub> and pure CO<sub>2</sub> hydrates, as well as the gas-liquid phase equilibrium curve of CO<sub>2</sub> [<a href="#B42-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">42</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g004-550.jpg?1739867995" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of two CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate replacement mechanisms: (<b>a</b>,<b>e</b>) contact between CO<sub>2</sub> molecules and the CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate; (<b>b</b>) partial hydrogen bond fracture of the CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate cage (not necessary); (<b>c</b>) CH<sub>4</sub> molecules leave the hydrate cage, and CO<sub>2</sub> molecules enter hydrate cage; (<b>d</b>,<b>h</b>) CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate formation; the replacement process is complete; (<b>f</b>) complete dissociation of the CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate cage; (<b>g</b>) the two objects are interchangeable [<a href="#B46-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">46</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g005-550.jpg?1739867998" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Carbon dioxide replacement of methane hydrate process. (<b>A</b>) Snapshot of carbon dioxide replacement of methane hydrate in the model with free water. (<b>B</b>) Snapshot of carbon dioxide replacement of methane hydrate without the free water model. (<b>C</b>) NHB variation with time during the replacement process of the free water model: (I) the destruction of the methane hydrate cage structure by the edge of carbon dioxide and (II) the generation of the carbon dioxide hydrate cage structure along the source direction [<a href="#B51-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">51</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g006-550.jpg?1739868000" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Variations in water volume (top) and sectional water saturation (bottom) distributions at vertical locations in porous media during the hydrate formation process [<a href="#B53-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">53</a>]. Figure (<b>a</b>–<b>f</b>) show the variation in the distribution of pore water volume at different vertical positions in the sand layer under varying pressure, temperature, initial water saturation, and initial gas saturation conditions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g007-550.jpg?1739868002" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Utilization efficiency vs. time curves for different inlet pressures. (<b>b</b>) Utilization efficiency vs. time curves for different outlet and confining pressures. (<b>c</b>) Maximum utilization efficiency in different experimental groups [<a href="#B58-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">58</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g008-550.jpg?1739868003" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of hydrate exploitation simulation experiment. (<b>b</b>) The variation of CH<sub>4</sub> recovery percentage during the replacement recovery processes of three enhanced modes [<a href="#B64-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">64</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g009-550.jpg?1739868005" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Raman spectroscopy of the points A (hydrate phase point), B (gas hydrate interface point), and C (gas phase point) after CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate formation. (<b>b</b>) <sup>1</sup>H NMR spectrum of the hydrate phase after replacement. (<b>c</b>) The changes of Raman spectroscopy for CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate (<b>d</b>) The changes of Raman spectroscopy for CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate [<a href="#B27-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">27</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g010-550.jpg?1739868006" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Hydrate phase equilibrium conditions for H<sub>2</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> mixtures. (<b>b</b>) Comparison of the effect of CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub> at different ratios on CH<sub>4</sub> recovery and CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration rates [<a href="#B72-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g011-550.jpg?1739868007" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of sI CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate recovery yield by using pure CO<sub>2</sub> (left) and CO<sub>2</sub> + N<sub>2</sub> mixture (right). sI-L represents 5<sup>12</sup>6<sup>2</sup> cages, and sI-S represents 5<sup>12</sup> cages [<a href="#B30-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">30</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g012-550.jpg?1739868008" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Images of hydrate phase equilibrium at different N<sub>2</sub> ratios [<a href="#B72-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">72</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g013-550.jpg?1739868010" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Raman spectra of the initial C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate and replaced C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate with CO<sub>2</sub>/N<sub>2</sub> gas. (<b>b</b>) PXRD patterns of the CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate, initial C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate, and replaced C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate with CO<sub>2</sub>/N<sub>2</sub> gas. Asterisks indicate hexagonal ice. (<b>c</b>) Guest composition and standard deviation of the initial C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate and replaced C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> + CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate with CO<sub>2</sub>/N<sub>2</sub> gas [<a href="#B82-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">82</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g014-550.jpg?1739868011" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Role of H<sub>2</sub> dosing in the flue gas of high N<sub>2</sub> concentration on the recovery of CH<sub>4</sub> from gas hydrates via CO<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>4</sub> recovery. (<b>d</b>–<b>g</b>) Role of high volume H<sub>2</sub> dosing in flue gas of high N<sub>2</sub> concentration on the recovery of CH<sub>4</sub> from gas hydrates via CO<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>4</sub> recovery [<a href="#B83-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">83</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00975/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00975-g015-550.jpg?1739868013" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of N<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub> boosting the hydrate phase equilibrium pressure to promote CH<sub>4</sub> hydrate decomposition [<a href="#B72-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Proposed schematic showing H<sub>2</sub>’s role in increasing CO<sub>2</sub> hydrate formation in the presence of N<sub>2</sub> [<a href="#B29-energies-18-00975" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/975'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <a data-dropdown="drop-supplementary-1593524" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1593524" aria-expanded="false" title="Supplementary Material"> <i class="material-icons">attachment</i> </a> <div id="drop-supplementary-1593524" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Supplementary material: <br/> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/974/s1?version=1739868174"> Supplementary File 1 (ZIP, 1969 KiB) </a><br/> </div> </div> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 5327 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/974/pdf?version=1739868174" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Universal Highly Concentrated Electrolyte for Improved Cycling Stability in Li(Ni1-x-yMnxCoy)O2-NMC-Based Batteries" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/974">A Universal Highly Concentrated Electrolyte for Improved Cycling Stability in Li(Ni<sub>1-x-y</sub>Mn<sub>x</sub>Co<sub>y</sub>)O<sub>2</sub>-NMC-Based Batteries</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jun Ji Nicholas Lim</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yi Cai</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Madhavi Srinivasan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 974; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040974">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040974</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> While 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> has been widely adopted as the standard electrolyte in current LIBs, its chemical instability has reduced the battery’s cycling stability by, for instance, accelerating the dissolution of transition metals from electrode materials, particularly in high-voltage cathodes. Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/974/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> While 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> has been widely adopted as the standard electrolyte in current LIBs, its chemical instability has reduced the battery’s cycling stability by, for instance, accelerating the dissolution of transition metals from electrode materials, particularly in high-voltage cathodes. Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) has emerged as a promising alternative salt for next-generation high-voltage energy-dense LIB electrolytes. However, despite extensive research, the optimal concentration and formulation of LiFSI remain unresolved, with variations typically tested across different Li(Ni<sub>1-x-y</sub>Mn<sub>x</sub>Co<sub>y</sub>)O<sub>2</sub> (NMC) series cathodes. Herein, 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC (in molar ratio) is proposed as a universal electrolyte for high-voltage NMC series cathodes. The 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte decomposes to form a uniform cathode–electrolyte interface with abundant inorganic species, resulting in a lower interface resistance. By adopting the 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte, NMC series Li-ion half-cells are all able to stably cycle up to 200 cycles at a cut-off voltage of 4.4 V. Especially for high Ni content (NMC 811) cathode, the capacity retention was improved from 43.6% to 87.5% when charged to 4.4 V at 1C rate. This work provides a feasible universal electrolyte formulation for developing next-generation high-voltage LIBs. <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/974">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/energy_storage">D: Energy Storage and Application</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/974/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593524"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593524"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593524" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593524" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593524" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g001-550.jpg?1739868309" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593524" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g002-550.jpg?1739868310'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g003-550.jpg?1739868314'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g004-550.jpg?1739868315'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g005-550.jpg?1739868316'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g006-550.jpg?1739868318'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g007-550.jpg?1739868320'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g008-550.jpg?1739868321'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g009-550.jpg?1739868323'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g010-550.jpg?1739868324'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1593524-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g011-550.jpg?1739868325'><p>Figure 11</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593524-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g001-550.jpg?1739868309" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Cycling performances of (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811 half-cells at 1 C rate using 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> and different-concentration LiFSI electrolytes. The 1st and 200th cycle charge/discharge curves with 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> and 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolytes in (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 half-cells are shown.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g002-550.jpg?1739868310" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Nyquist plots of (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811 half-cells after 200 cycles using 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> and different-concentration LiFSI electrolytes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g003-550.jpg?1739868314" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>TEM images of the CEI layers with 3:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811; with 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes; and with 7:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>g</b>) NMC 111, (<b>h</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>i</b>) NMC 811 cathodes (Yellow dashed lines were used as the default colour to outline the interfaces, however, at area where the use of yellow dashed lines did not provide good contrast, red dashed lines were used as a replacement).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g004-550.jpg?1739868315" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>XPS wide scan composition of the CEI layers (in atomic%) due to presence of 3:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811; due to presence of 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes; and due to presence of 7:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>g</b>) NMC 111, (<b>h</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>i</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g005-550.jpg?1739868316" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>XPS O 1s spectra of CEI layers with 3:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811; 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes; and 7:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>g</b>) NMC 111, (<b>h</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>i</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g006-550.jpg?1739868318" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>XPS F 1s spectra of CEI layers with 3:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811; 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes; and 7:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>g</b>) NMC 111, (<b>h</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>i</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g007-550.jpg?1739868320" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>TEM images of the interfaces cycled with 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811 and with 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes (Yellow dashed lines were used as the default colour to outline the interfaces, however, at area where the use of yellow dashed lines did not provide good contrast, red dashed lines were used as a replacement).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g008-550.jpg?1739868321" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>XPS wide scan composition of the CEI layers (in atomic%) with 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811 and with 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g009-550.jpg?1739868323" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>XPS O 1s spectra of CEI layers with 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811, and 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g010-550.jpg?1739868324" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>XPS F 1s spectra of CEI layers with 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> electrolyte on (<b>a</b>) NMC 111, (<b>b</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>c</b>) NMC 811, and with 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolyte on (<b>d</b>) NMC 111, (<b>e</b>) NMC 622, and (<b>f</b>) NMC 811 cathodes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00974/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00974-g011-550.jpg?1739868325" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of 1 M LiPF<sub>6</sub> and 6:4.5:8.3 LiFSI/EC/DMC electrolytes’ impacts on the different cathodes’ interfaces and the corresponding cycling stabilities of the LIBs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/974'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 1768 KiB   </span> <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/973/pdf?version=1739862541" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Novel Integrated Biorefinery for the Valorization of Residual Cardoon Biomass: Overview of Technologies and Process Simulation" data-journal="energies"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/1996-1073/18/4/973">A Novel Integrated Biorefinery for the Valorization of Residual Cardoon Biomass: Overview of Technologies and Process Simulation</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Vittoria Fatta</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Aristide Giuliano</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Maria Teresa Petrone</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Francesco Nanna</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Antonio Villone</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Donatella Barisano</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Roberto Albergo</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Federico Liuzzi</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Diego Barletta</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Isabella De Bari</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Energies</em> <b>2025</b>, <em>18</em>(4), 973; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040973">https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040973</a> - 18 Feb 2025 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Lignocellulosic biomass is currently widely used in many biorefining processes. The full exploitation of biomass from uncultivated or even marginal lands for the production of biobased chemicals has deserved huge attention in the last few years. Among the sustainable biomass-based value chains, cardoon <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/973/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Lignocellulosic biomass is currently widely used in many biorefining processes. The full exploitation of biomass from uncultivated or even marginal lands for the production of biobased chemicals has deserved huge attention in the last few years. Among the sustainable biomass-based value chains, cardoon crops could be a feedstock for biorefineries as they can grow on marginal lands and be used as raw material for multipurpose exploitation, including seeds, roots, and epigeous lignocellulosic solid residue. This work focused on the technical analysis of a novel integrated flowsheet for the exploitation of the lignocellulosic fraction through the assessment of thermochemical, biochemical, and extractive technologies and processes. In particular, high-yield thermochemical processes (gasification), innovative biotechnological processes (syngas fermentation to ethanol), and extractive/catalyzed processes for the valorization of cardoon roots to FDCA and residual solid biomass were modeled and simulated. Inulin conversion to 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid was the main conversion route taken into consideration. Finally, the novel process flowsheet, treating 130,000 t/y of residual biomass and integrating all proposed technologies, was modeled and assessed using process simulation tools to achieve overall mass and energy balances for comparison with alternative options. The results indicated that cardoon biorefining through the proposed flowsheet can produce, per 1000 tons of input dry biomass, 211 kg of 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid and 140 kg of ethanol through biomass gasification followed by syngas fermentation. Furthermore, a pre-feasibility analysis was conducted, revealing significant and potentially disruptive results in terms of environmental impact (with 40 kt<sub>CO2eq</sub> saved) and economic feasibility (with an annual gross profit of EUR 30 M/y). <a href="/1996-1073/18/4/973">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/energies/sections/bio_energy">A4: Bio-Energy</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/4/973/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1593444"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1593444"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1593444" data-cycle-prev="#prev1593444" data-cycle-progressive="#images1593444" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1593444-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g001-550.jpg?1739862659" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1593444" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1593444-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g002-550.jpg?1739862663'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1593444-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g003-550.jpg?1739862666'><p>Figure 3</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1593444-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g001-550.jpg?1739862659" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Flowsheet of cardoon lignocellulosic residues’ valorization process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/973'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g002-550.jpg?1739862663" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Flowsheet of the ethanol purification section.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/973'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/energies/energies-18-00973/article_deploy/html/images/energies-18-00973-g003-550.jpg?1739862666" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Final microorganism concentration upon varying initial microorganism (<span class="html-italic">X<sub>IN</sub></span>), CO, and H<sub>2</sub> concentrations. Blue bars correspond to an hydrogen concentration of 0.01 mmol/L, orange ones 0.05 mmol/L, grey ones 0.10 mmol/L, yellow ones 0.20 mmol/L, sky blue ones 0.30 mmol/L.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/1996-1073/18/4/973'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="generic-item last-item"> <a class="bold" href="/search?q=&journal=energies&sort=pubdate&page_count=50">More Articles...</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 large-pull-6 medium-3 medium-pull-6 small-12 columns"> <div id="js-large-main-top-container"> <div id="js-main-top-container" class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/energies"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/energies-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" alt="energies-logo" title="Energies" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border" style="position: relative;"> <div 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false); var hash = $(location).attr('hash'); if ("#share" === hash) { if (1 === $("#main-share-modal").length) { $('#main-share-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open'); } } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/lib.js?b86ef680a60436c6?1739885660"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/mdpi.js?c267ce58392b15da?1739885660"></script> <script>var banners_url = 'https://serve.mdpi.com';</script> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/ifvisible.min.js?c621d19ecb761212?1739885660'></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?ac4ea55275297c15?1739885660"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/clipboard.min.js?3f3688138a1b9fc4?1739885660"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $(document).ready(function() { var helpFunctions = $(".middle-column__help__fixed"); var leftColumnAffix = $(".left-column__fixed"); var middleColumn = $("#middle-column"); var clone = null; helpFunctions.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return middleColumn.offset().top - 8 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 30 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 74 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); if (leftColumnAffix.length > 0) { clone = leftColumnAffix.clone(); clone.addClass("left-column__fixed__affix"); clone.insertBefore(leftColumnAffix); clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); clone.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return leftColumnAffix.offset().top - 30 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 50 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 92 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); } $(window).on("resize", function() { if (clone !== null) { clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); } }); new ClipboardJS('.js-clipboard-copy'); }); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> $(document).ready(function() { // create the left hand menu dynamically from the content var items = $("#middle-column h1, #middle-column h2"); if ($("#dynamic-menu").length == 1 && items.length > 1) { // menu container div var div = $("div#dynamic-menu"); div.addClass("generic-item"); // menu header var header = $("<h2></h2>"); header.text("Menu"); div.append(header); // menu list var ul = $("<ul></ul>"); ul.addClass("side-menu-ul"); div.append(ul); // menu list items (create additional anchors for page) items.each(function() { var header_title = $(this).text(); var link_title = header_title.replace(/ |-/gi, "_").toLowerCase(); var li = $("<li></li>"); li.addClass("side-menu-li"); ul.append(li); var a = $("<a></a>"); a.html(header_title); a.prop("href", "#" + link_title); li.append(a); var a = $("<a></a>"); a.prop("name", link_title); $(this).prepend(a); }); div.append(ul); div.show(); } }); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1739885660"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1739885660"> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-ui-1.13.2.min.js?1e2047978946a1d2?1739885660"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/magnific-popup.min.js?2be3d9e7dc569146?1739885660"></script> <script> var mainColumn1 = "#right-column"; var extendingReady = true; $(document).ready(function() { $("#journal-browser-go").toggleClass("button--grey", "" === $("#journal-browser-volume").val()); $("#journal-browser-go").toggleClass("button--color", "" !== $("#journal-browser-volume").val()); $("#journal-browser-volume").change(function(e) { $('#journal-browser-issue').find('option').not('.volume-0').hide(); $('#journal-browser-issue').find('.volume-' + $(this).val()).show(); $('#journal-browser-issue').find('option:first').prop('selected', 'selected'); $("#journal-browser-issue").trigger("chosen:updated"); 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