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id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Twentieth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Mid-twentieth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purpose-built_ships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose-built_ships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Purpose-built ships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-built_ships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toward_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toward_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Toward standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toward_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twenty-first_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-first_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Twenty-first century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-first_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Container_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Container_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Container standards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Container_standards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Container standards subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Container_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ISO_standard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ISO_standard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>ISO standard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ISO_standard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_freight_containers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_freight_containers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Air freight containers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_freight_containers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_container_system_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_container_system_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Other container system standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_container_system_standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Container_loading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Container_loading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Container loading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Container_loading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Container loading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Container_loading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Full_container_load" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Full_container_load"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Full container load</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Full_container_load-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Less-than-container_load" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Less-than-container_load"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Less-than-container load</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Less-than-container_load-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Hazards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empty_containers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empty_containers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Empty containers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empty_containers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_at_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_at_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Loss at sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_at_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_union_challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_union_challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Trade union challenges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_union_challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_pest_vector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_pest_vector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>As pest vector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_pest_vector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses_for_containers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses_for_containers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other uses for containers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses_for_containers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BBC_tracking_project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BBC_tracking_project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>BBC tracking project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BBC_tracking_project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Containerization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behouering" title="Behouering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Behouering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نظام النقل بالحاويات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام النقل بالحاويات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontejnerizace" title="Kontejnerizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kontejnerizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amlwythiant" title="Amlwythiant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Amlwythiant" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containertransport" title="Containertransport – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Containertransport" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contenedorizaci%C3%B3n" title="Contenedorización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contenedorización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conteneurisation" title="Conteneurisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conteneurisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%A8%ED%85%8C%EC%9D%B4%EB%84%88%EB%A6%AC%EC%A0%9C%EC%9D%B4%EC%85%98" title="컨테이너리제이션 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컨테이너리제이션" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerizzazione" title="Containerizzazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Containerizzazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kont%C3%A9neriz%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Konténerizáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Konténerizáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengkontenaan" title="Pengkontenaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengkontenaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerisatie" title="Containerisatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Containerisatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%86%E3%83%8A%E3%83%AA%E3%82%BC%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="コンテナリゼーション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンテナリゼーション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conteineriza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Conteinerização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conteinerização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Контейнерные перевозки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Контейнерные перевозки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization" title="Containerization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Containerization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontajner_(doprava)" title="Kontajner (doprava) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kontajner (doprava)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO-container" title="ISO-container – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="ISO-container" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konteyner_ta%C5%9F%C4%B1mac%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Konteyner taşımacılığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Konteyner taşımacılığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Контейнерні перевезення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Контейнерні перевезення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4ngten%C6%A1_h%C3%B3a" title="Côngtenơ hóa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Côngtenơ hóa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q428072#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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For the pottery term, see <a href="/wiki/Container_Revolution_(pottery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Container Revolution (pottery)">Container Revolution (pottery)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the virtualization technology, see <a href="/wiki/Containerization_(computing)" title="Containerization (computing)">Containerization (computing)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth,_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg/220px-Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg/330px-Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg/440px-Line3174_-_Shipping_Containers_at_the_terminal_at_Port_Elizabeth%2C_New_Jersey_-_NOAA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shipping_container" title="Shipping container">Shipping containers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Port_Newark-Elizabeth_Marine_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal">Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal</a> in New Jersey, US</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WCML_freight_train.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/WCML_freight_train.jpg/220px-WCML_freight_train.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/WCML_freight_train.jpg/330px-WCML_freight_train.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/WCML_freight_train.jpg/440px-WCML_freight_train.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>A container-goods train on the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line" title="West Coast Main Line">West Coast Main Line</a> near Nuneaton, England</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastbound_at_Shawmut_(16110256449).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg/220px-Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg/330px-Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg/440px-Eastbound_at_Shawmut_%2816110256449%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Double-stack Union Pacific container train crossing the desert at Shawmut, Arizona</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYK_Virgo_(8154929586).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg/220px-NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg/330px-NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg/440px-NYK_Virgo_%288154929586%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2725" /></a><figcaption>An ocean containership close to <a href="/wiki/Cuxhaven" title="Cuxhaven">Cuxhaven</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg/220px-Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg/330px-Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg/440px-Container_ship_loading-700px.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">container ship</a> being loaded by a <a href="/wiki/Portainer" class="mw-redirect" title="Portainer">portainer</a> crane in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> Harbor, Denmark.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Containerization</b> is a system of <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">intermodal freight transport</a> using <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">intermodal containers</a> (also called <b>shipping containers</b>, or <b><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> containers</b>).<sup id="cite_ref-PT_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PT-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Containerization, also referred as <b>container stuffing</b> or <b>container loading</b>, is the process of unitization of cargoes in exports. Containerization is the predominant form of unitization of export cargoes today, as opposed to other systems such as the barge system or palletization.<sup id="cite_ref-DrMariappaBabuBaskar_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrMariappaBabuBaskar-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The containers have <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardized</a> dimensions. They can be loaded and unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred from one <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_transport" title="Mode of transport">mode of transport</a> to another—<a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">container ships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">rail transport</a> <a href="/wiki/Flatcar" title="Flatcar">flatcars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semi-trailer_truck" title="Semi-trailer truck">semi-trailer trucks</a>—without being opened. The handling system is mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes<sup id="cite_ref-PTS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and special <a href="/wiki/Forklift" title="Forklift">forklift</a> trucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems. </p><p>Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed or widely applied until after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when it dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the post-war boom in <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, and was a major element in <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. Containerization eliminated manual sorting of most shipments and the need for dock front warehouses, while displacing many thousands of dock workers who formerly simply handled <a href="/wiki/Break_bulk_cargo" class="mw-redirect" title="Break bulk cargo">break bulk cargo</a>. Containerization reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time, and reduced losses from damage and theft.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Containers can be made from a wide range of materials such as steel, fibre-reinforced polymer, aluminum or a combination. Containers made from <a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">weathering steel</a> are used to minimize <a href="/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Maintenance, repair, and operations">maintenance needs</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Queens_Wharf,_Port_Adelaide,_before_1927.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg/220px-Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg/330px-Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg/440px-Queens_Wharf%2C_Port_Adelaide%2C_before_1927.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="823" /></a><figcaption>Loading assorted break bulk cargo onto ships manually</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_(CJ_Allen,_Steel_Highway,_1928).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg/220px-LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg/330px-LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg/440px-LMS_freight_containers_on_lorry_and_rail_wagon_%28CJ_Allen%2C_Steel_Highway%2C_1928%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Transferring freight containers on the <a href="/wiki/London,_Midland_and_Scottish_Railway" title="London, Midland and Scottish Railway">London, Midland and Scottish Railway</a> 1928</figcaption></figure> <p>Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as <a href="/wiki/Break_bulk_cargo" class="mw-redirect" title="Break bulk cargo">break bulk cargo</a>. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory and taken to a port warehouse where they would be offloaded and stored awaiting the next vessel. When the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at several other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo. Delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time-consuming and unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Containerization has its origins in early <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Coal mining in the United Kingdom">coal mining regions in England</a> beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 <a href="/wiki/James_Brindley" title="James Brindley">James Brindley</a> designed the box boat 'Starvationer' with ten wooden containers, to transport coal from <a href="/wiki/Worsley" title="Worsley">Worsley</a> Delph (quarry) to Manchester by <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a>. In 1795, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Outram" title="Benjamin Outram">Benjamin Outram</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/Little_Eaton_Gangway" title="Little Eaton Gangway">Little Eaton Gangway</a>, upon which coal was carried in <a href="/wiki/Wagons" class="mw-redirect" title="Wagons">wagons</a> built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal <a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">barges</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Derby_Canal" title="Derby Canal">Derby Canal</a>, which Outram had also promoted.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1830s, railroads were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway" title="Liverpool and Manchester Railway">Liverpool and Manchester Railway</a> in the UK was one of these, making use of "simple rectangular timber boxes" to convey coal from Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where a crane transferred them to horse-drawn carriages.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the <a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Canal" title="Bridgewater Canal">Bridgewater Canal</a>. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 17 May 1917, <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a> native<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Franklin "B. F." Fitch (1877–1956)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> launched commercial use of "demountable bodies" in <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cincinnati, Ohio">Cincinnati, Ohio</a>, which he had designed as transferable containers. In 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, developed the first draft of the container system in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon. The <a href="/wiki/Polish-Bolshevik_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Bolshevik War">Polish-Bolshevik War</a> stopped development of the container system in Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-L&T_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L&T-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. Post Office contracted with the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad" title="New York Central Railroad">New York Central Railroad</a> to move mail via containers in May 1921. In 1930, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago & Northwestern Railroad">Chicago & Northwestern Railroad</a> began shipping containers between Chicago and Milwaukee. Their efforts ended in the spring of 1931 when the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> disallowed the use of a flat rate for the containers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1926, a regular connection of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris, <a href="/wiki/Golden_Arrow_(train)" title="Golden Arrow (train)">Golden Arrow</a>/<a href="/wiki/La_Fl%C3%A8che_d%E2%80%99Or_(train)" class="mw-redirect" title="La Flèche d’Or (train)">Fleche d'Or</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Southern_Railway_(UK)" title="Southern Railway (UK)">Southern Railway</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Northern_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="French Northern Railway">French Northern Railway</a>, began. For transport of passengers' baggage four containers were used. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and "CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL" in France. At the Second World Motor Transport Congress in Rome, September 1928, Italian senator <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Benigno_Crespi" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvio Benigno Crespi">Silvio Crespi</a> proposed the use of containers for road and railway transport systems, using collaboration rather than competition. This would be done under the auspices of an international organ similar to the Sleeping Car Company, which provided international carriage of passengers in sleeping wagons. In 1928 <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a> (PRR) started regular container service in the northeast U.S. After the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and the subsequent Great Depression, many countries were without any means to transport cargo. The railroads were sought as a possibility to transport cargo, and there was an opportunity to bring containers into broader use. In February 1931 the first container ship was launched. It was called the Autocarrier, owned by Southern Railway UK. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.<sup id="cite_ref-TransportMeans2016_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TransportMeans2016-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-S/S_AUTOCARRIER_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S/S_AUTOCARRIER-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> on September 30, 1931, on one of the platforms of the Maritime Station (Mole di Ponente), practical tests assessed the best construction for European containers as part of an international competition.<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1931, in the U.S., B. F. Fitch designed the two largest and heaviest containers in existence. One measured 17 ft 6 in (5.33 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) with a capacity of 30,000 pounds (14,000 kg) in 890 cubic feet (25 m<sup>3</sup>), and a second measured 20 ft 0 in (6.10 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m), with a capacity of 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) in 1,000 cubic feet (28 m<sup>3</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-Lewandowski_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewandowski-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1932, in <a href="/wiki/Enola,_Pennsylvania" title="Enola, Pennsylvania">Enola, PA</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Container_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Container terminal">container terminal</a> in the world was opened by the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad" title="Pennsylvania Railroad">Pennsylvania Railroad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fitch hooking system was used for reloading of the containers.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewandowski_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewandowski-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of containerization was created in Europe and the U.S. as a way to revitalize rail companies after the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>, which had caused economic collapse and reduction in use of all modes of transport.<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1933 in Europe, under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce, the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Containers" title="Bureau International des Containers">International Container Bureau</a> (French: <i>Bureau International des Conteneurs</i>, B.I.C.) was established. In June 1933, the B.I.C. decided on obligatory parameters for containers used in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations: </p> <ul><li>Clause 1. Containers are, as regards form, either of the closed or the open type, and, as regards capacity, either of the heavy or the light type.</li> <li>Clause 2. The loading capacity of containers must be such that their total weight (load, plus tare) is: 5 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> (4.92 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a>; 5.51 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>) for containers of the heavy type; 2.5 tonnes (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) for containers of the light type; a tolerance of 5 percent excess on the total weight is allowable under the same conditions as for wagon loads.<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Obligatory norms for European containers since 1 July 1933 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Category</th> <th>length [m (ftin)]</th> <th>[m (ftin)]</th> <th>[m (ftin)]</th> <th>Total mass [tons] </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align: center;">Heavy types </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close type 62</td> <td>3.25 m (10 ft 8 in)</td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.20 m (7 ft <span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td> <td rowspan="4" style="text-align: center;">5 t (4.92 long tons; 5.51 short tons) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close type 42</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.20 m (7 ft <span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open type 61</td> <td>3.25 m (10 ft 8 in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.10 m (3 ft <span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open type 41</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.10 m (3 ft <span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align: center;">Light Type </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close type 22</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.05 m (3 ft <span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.20 m (7 ft <span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;">2.5 t (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close type 201</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.05 m (3 ft <span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.10 m (3 ft <span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open type 21</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.05 m (3 ft <span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.10 m (3 ft <span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In April 1935 BIC established a second standard for European containers:<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Obligatory norms for European containers since 1 April 1935 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Category</th> <th>Length [m (ftin)]</th> <th>Width [m (ftin)]</th> <th>High [m (ftin)]</th> <th>Total mass [tons] </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align: center;">Heavy types </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close 62</td> <td>3.25 m (10 ft 8 in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.55 m (8 ft <span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td> <td rowspan="4" style="text-align: center;">5 t (4.92 long tons; 5.51 short tons) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close 42</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.55 m (8 ft <span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open 61</td> <td>3.25 m (10 ft 8 in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.125 m (3 ft <span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open 41</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.125 m (3 ft <span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> in) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align: center;">Light Type </th></tr> <tr> <td>Close 32</td> <td>1.50 m (4 ft 11 in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.55 m (8 ft <span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">2.5 t (2.46 long tons; 2.76 short tons) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Close 22</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.05 m (3 ft <span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.15 m (7 ft <span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in)</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.55 m (8 ft <span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From 1926 to 1947 in the U.S., the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_North_Shore_and_Milwaukee_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway">Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway</a> carried motor carrier vehicles and shippers' vehicles loaded on <a href="/wiki/Flatcar" title="Flatcar">flatcars</a> between Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929, <a href="/wiki/Seatrain_Lines" title="Seatrain Lines">Seatrain Lines</a> carried railroad boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-1930s, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Great_Western_Railway" title="Chicago Great Western Railway">Chicago Great Western Railway</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven Railroad">New Haven Railroad</a> began "<a href="/wiki/Piggyback_(transportation)#Rail" title="Piggyback (transportation)">piggyback</a>" service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. The Chicago Great Western Railway filed a U.S. patent in 1938 on their method of securing trailers to a flatcars using chains and turnbuckles. Other components included wheel chocks and ramps for loading and unloading the trailers from the flatcars.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1953, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago,_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad" title="Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad">Chicago, Burlington and Quincy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_and_Eastern_Illinois_Railroad" title="Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad">Chicago and Eastern Illinois</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Pacific Railroad">Southern Pacific</a> railroads had joined the innovation. Most of the rail cars used were surplus flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggyback trailer service. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II">World War II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During WWII, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">Australian Army</a> used containers to more easily deal with various <a href="/wiki/Break_of_gauge" title="Break of gauge">breaks of gauge</a> in the railroads. These non-stackable containers were about the size of the later <a href="/wiki/Teus" class="mw-redirect" title="Teus">20-foot ISO container</a> and perhaps made mainly of wood.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (June 2013)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG/220px-Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG/330px-Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG/440px-Gueterwagen_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Freight car in railway museum <a href="/wiki/Bochum_Dahlhausen_Railway_Museum" title="Bochum Dahlhausen Railway Museum">Bochum-Dahlhausen</a>, showing four different UIC-590 pa-containers</figcaption></figure> <p>During the same time, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> started to combine items of uniform size, lashing them onto a pallet, <a href="/wiki/Unit_load" title="Unit load">unitizing</a> cargo to speed the loading and unloading of transport ships. In 1947 the <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Corps" title="Transportation Corps">Transportation Corps</a> developed the <i>Transporter</i>, a rigid, corrugated steel container with a 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) carrying capacity, for shipping household goods of officers in the field. It was 8 ft 6 in (2.59 m) long, 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m), and 6 ft 10 in (2.08 m) high, with double doors on one end, mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> the Transporter was evaluated for handling sensitive military equipment and, proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft of material and damage to <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wooden</a> crates convinced the army that steel containers were needed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malcolm_McLean_at_railing,_Port_Newark,_1957_(7312751706).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg/200px-Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg/300px-Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg/400px-Malcolm_McLean_at_railing%2C_Port_Newark%2C_1957_%287312751706%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Malcom_McLean" title="Malcom McLean">Malcom McLean</a> at railing, Port Newark, 1957</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mid-twentieth_century">Mid-twentieth century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mid-twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 1951, at <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich_Tiefenbrunnen_railway_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station">Zürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station</a>, the Swiss Museum of Transport and <i><a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Containers" title="Bureau International des Containers">Bureau International des Containers</a></i> (BIC) held demonstrations of container systems, with the aim of selecting the best solution for Western Europe. Present were representatives from France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy and the United States. The system chosen for Western Europe was based on the Netherlands' system for consumer goods and waste transportation called <i>Laadkisten</i> (literally, "loading bins"), in use since 1934. This system used <a href="/wiki/Roller_container" title="Roller container">roller containers</a> that were moved by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to a capacity of 5,500 kg (12,100 lb), and up to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">3.1 by 2.3 by 2 metres (10 ft 2 in × 7 ft <span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> in × 6 ft <span class="frac">6<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) size.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the first post World War II European railway standard <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Railways" title="International Union of Railways">UIC</a> 590, known as "pa-Behälter." It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark.<sup id="cite_ref-PojazdySzynowe2015a_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PojazdySzynowe2015a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the popularization of the larger ISO containers, support for pa containers was phased out by the railways. In the 1970s they began to be widely used for transporting waste.<sup id="cite_ref-PojazdySzynowe2015a_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PojazdySzynowe2015a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1952 the U.S. Army developed the Transporter into the CONtainer EXpress or <a href="/wiki/Conex_box" title="Conex box">CONEX box</a> system. The size and capacity of the Conex were about the same as the Transporter,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the system was made <i>modular</i>, by the addition of a smaller, half-size unit of 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) long, 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) wide and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">6 ft <span class="frac">10<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> in (2.10 m) high.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VanHam_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanHam-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Heinsthesis_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinsthesis-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first major shipment of CONEXes, containing engineering supplies and spare parts, was made by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_San_Francisco" title="Port of San Francisco">Port of San Francisco</a>, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952. Transit times were almost halved. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> the majority of supplies and materials were shipped by CONEX. By 1965 the U.S. military used some 100,000 Conex boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-VanHam_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanHam-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JLRBreport_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JLRBreport-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers.<sup id="cite_ref-Heinsthesis_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinsthesis-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">US Department of Defense</a> standardized an 8-by-8-foot (2.44 by 2.44 m) cross section container in multiples of 10-foot (3.05 m) lengths for military use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1955, former trucking company owner <a href="/wiki/Malcom_McLean" title="Malcom McLean">Malcom McLean</a> worked with engineer <a href="/wiki/Keith_Tantlinger" title="Keith Tantlinger">Keith Tantlinger</a> to develop the modern <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">intermodal container</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson201664–69_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson201664–69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All the containerization pioneers who came before McLean had thought in terms of optimizing particular modes of transport. McLean's "fundamental insight" which made the intermodal container possible was that the core business of the shipping industry "was moving cargo, not sailing ships".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson201670–71_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson201670–71-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He visualized and helped to bring about a world reoriented around that insight, which required not just standardization of the metal containers themselves, but drastic changes to <i>every</i> aspect of cargo handling.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson201670–71_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson201670–71-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1955, McLean and Tantlinger's immediate challenge was to design a <a href="/wiki/Shipping_container" title="Shipping container">shipping container</a> that could efficiently be loaded onto ships and would hold securely on sea voyages. The result was an 8 feet (2.44 m) tall by 8 ft (2.44 m) wide box in 10 ft (3.05 m)-long units constructed from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.5 mm (<span class="frac"><span class="num">13</span>⁄<span class="den">128</span></span> in) thick corrugated steel. The design incorporated a <a href="/wiki/Twistlock" title="Twistlock">twistlock</a> mechanism atop each of the four corners, allowing the container to be <a href="/wiki/Spreader_(container)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spreader (container)">easily secured and lifted</a> using cranes. Several years later, as a <a href="/wiki/Fruehauf_Trailer_Corporation" title="Fruehauf Trailer Corporation">Fruehauf</a> executive, Tantlinger went back to McLean and convinced him to relinquish control of their design to help stimulate the container revolution. On January 29, 1963, McLean's company <a href="/wiki/SeaLand" title="SeaLand">SeaLand</a> released its patent rights, so that Tantlinger's inventions could become "the basis for a standard corner fitting and twist lock".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2016188_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2016188-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tantlinger was deeply involved in the debates and negotiations which in back-to-back votes in September 1965 (on September 16 and 24, respectively) led to the adoption of a modified version of the Sea-Land design as the American and then the international standard for corner fittings for shipping containers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2016191_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2016191-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This began international standardization of shipping containers.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-boxtcb_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-boxtcb-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purpose-built_ships">Purpose-built ships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Purpose-built ships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG/220px-Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG/330px-Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG/440px-Korea_busan_pusan_harbour_cargo_container_terminal.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Containers waiting at the South Korean port of <a href="/wiki/Busan" title="Busan">Busan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">Container ship</a></div> <p>The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers had begun operation in 1926 for the regular connection of the luxury passenger train between London and Paris, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Arrow_(train)" title="Golden Arrow (train)">Golden Arrow</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fleche_d%27Or" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleche d'Or">Fleche d'Or</a>. Four containers were used for the conveyance of passengers' baggage. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to the ports of Dover or Calais.<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1931 the first container ship in the world was launched. It was called the Autocarrier, owned by Southern Railway UK. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.<sup id="cite_ref-TransportMeans2016_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TransportMeans2016-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-S/S_AUTOCARRIER_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S/S_AUTOCARRIER-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next step was in Europe after WW II. Vessels purpose-built to carry containers were used between UK and Netherlands<sup id="cite_ref-PojazdySzynowe2015a_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PojazdySzynowe2015a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in Denmark in 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson200631_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson200631-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, ships began carrying containers in 1951, between <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, Washington and Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-AntonsonHanable1985_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AntonsonHanable1985-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of these services was particularly successful. First, the containers were rather small, with 52% of them having a volume of less than 3 cubic metres (106 cu ft). Almost all European containers were made of wood and used canvas lids, and they required additional equipment for loading into rail or truck bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson200631–32_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson200631–32-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The world's first purpose-built container vessel was <i>Clifford J. Rodgers</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the <a href="/wiki/White_Pass_and_Yukon_Route" title="White Pass and Yukon Route">White Pass and Yukon Corporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia, and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955. In Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built <a href="/wiki/Railroad_car" title="Railroad car">railroad cars</a> for transport north to Yukon, in the first <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">intermodal</a> service using trucks, ships, and railroad cars.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in Yukon and moved by rail, ship, and truck to their consignees without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 until 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first truly successful container shipping company dates to April 26, 1956, when American trucking entrepreneur McLean put 58 <i>trailer vans</i><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later called containers, aboard a refitted tanker ship, the <a href="/wiki/SS_Ideal_X" title="SS Ideal X">SS <i>Ideal X</i></a>, and sailed them from <a href="/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark, New Jersey</a> to <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston, Texas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson20061_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson20061-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independently of the events in Canada, McLean had the idea of using large containers that never opened in transit and that were transferable on an intermodal basis, among trucks, ships, and railroad cars. McLean had initially favored the construction of "trailerships"—taking trailers from large trucks and stowing them in a ship's <a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">cargo</a> hold. This method of stowage, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">roll-on/roll-off</a>, was not adopted because of the large waste in potential cargo space on board the vessel, known as broken <a href="/wiki/Stowage" title="Stowage">stowage</a>. Instead, McLean modified his original concept into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ship; hence the designation "container ship" or "box" ship.<sup id="cite_ref-CudahyB-TRN-2006-Sep-Oct_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CudahyB-TRN-2006-Sep-Oct-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also <a href="/wiki/Pantechnicon_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantechnicon van">pantechnicon van</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trolley_and_lift_van" title="Trolley and lift van">trolley and lift van</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toward_standards">Toward standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Toward standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_(7312784586).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg/220px-Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg/330px-Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg/440px-Maersk_Line_containers_in_1975_%287312784586%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4015" data-file-height="3389" /></a><figcaption>Maersk Line containers in 1975.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Psa_keppel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Psa_keppel.JPG/220px-Psa_keppel.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Psa_keppel.JPG/330px-Psa_keppel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Psa_keppel.JPG/440px-Psa_keppel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Keppel Container Terminal in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the first 20 years of containerization, many container sizes and corner fittings were used. There were dozens of incompatible container systems in the US alone. Among the biggest operators, the <a href="/wiki/Matson_Navigation_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Matson Navigation Company">Matson Navigation Company</a> had a fleet of 24-foot (7.32 m) containers, while <a href="/wiki/Sea-Land_Service,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea-Land Service, Inc">Sea-Land Service, Inc</a> used 35-foot (10.67 m) containers. The standard sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that now exist evolved out of a lengthy and complex series of compromises among international shipping companies, European railroads, US railroads, and US trucking companies. Everyone had to sacrifice something. For example, to McLean's frustration, Sea-Land's 35-foot container was not adopted as one of the standard container sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2016188_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2016188-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end, four important ISO (<a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a>) recommendations standardized containerization globally:<sup id="cite_ref-Rushton_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rushton-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>January 1968: <b><a href="/wiki/ISO_668" title="ISO 668">ISO 668</a></b> defined the terminology, dimensions and ratings.</li> <li>July 1968: <b>R-790</b> defined the identification markings.</li> <li>January 1970: <b>R-1161</b> made recommendations about corner fittings.</li> <li>October 1970: <b>R-1897</b> set out the minimum internal dimensions of general purpose freight containers.</li></ul> <p>Based on these standards, the first <a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">TEU</a> container ship was the Japanese <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hakone_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hakone Maru (page does not exist)">Hakone Maru</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakone_Maru" class="extiw" title="de:Hakone Maru">de</a>; <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AE%B1%E6%A0%B9%E4%B8%B8_(%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%86%E3%83%8A%E8%88%B9)" class="extiw" title="jp:箱根丸 (コンテナ船)">jp</a>]</span></i> from shipowner NYK, which started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers. </p><p>In the US, containerization and other advances in shipping were impeded by the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> (ICC), which was created in 1887 to keep railroads from using monopolist pricing and rate discrimination, but fell victim to <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">regulatory capture</a>. By the 1960s, ICC approval was required before any shipper could carry different items in the same vehicle or change rates. The fully integrated systems in the US today became possible only after the ICC's regulatory oversight was cut back (and abolished in 1995). Trucking and rail were deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Double-stack_rail_transport" title="Double-stack rail transport">Double-stacked rail transport</a>, where containers are stacked two high on railway cars, was introduced in the US. The concept was developed by Sea-Land and the Southern Pacific railroad. The first standalone double-stack container car (or single-unit 40-ft COFC well car) was delivered in July 1977. The five-unit well car, the industry standard, appeared in 1981. Initially, these double-stack railway cars were deployed in regular train service. Ever since American President Lines initiated in 1984 a dedicated double-stack container train service between Los Angeles and Chicago, transport volumes increased rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects">Effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg/220px-Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg/330px-Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg/440px-Shanghai_Express_Port_of_Rotterdam_17-Apr-2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><i>Shanghai Express</i>, <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Rotterdam" title="Port of Rotterdam">Port of Rotterdam</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Containerization greatly reduced the expense of <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> and increased its speed, especially of consumer goods and commodities. It also dramatically changed the character of port cities worldwide. Prior to highly mechanized container transfers, crews of 20 to 22 <a href="/wiki/Longshoremen" class="mw-redirect" title="Longshoremen">longshoremen</a> would pack individual cargoes into the hold of a ship. After containerization, large crews of longshoremen were not necessary at port facilities, and the profession changed drastically. </p><p>Meanwhile, the port facilities needed to support containerization changed. One effect was the decline of some ports and the rise of others. At the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_San_Francisco" title="Port of San Francisco">Port of San Francisco</a>, the former piers used for loading and unloading were no longer required, but there was little room to build the vast holding lots needed for storing and sorting containers in transit between different transport modes. As a result, the Port of San Francisco essentially ceased to function as a major commercial port, but the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Oakland" title="Port of Oakland">Port of Oakland</a> emerged as the second largest on the US West Coast. A similar fate occurred with the relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_New_York_and_New_Jersey" title="Port of New York and New Jersey">ports of Manhattan and New Jersey</a>. In the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Port_of_London" title="Port of London">Port of London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Liverpool" title="Port of Liverpool">Port of Liverpool</a> declined in importance. Meanwhile, Britain's <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Felixstowe" title="Port of Felixstowe">Port of Felixstowe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Port_of_Rotterdam" title="Port of Rotterdam">Port of Rotterdam</a> in the Netherlands emerged as major ports. </p><p>In general, containerization caused <a href="/wiki/Inland_port" title="Inland port">inland ports</a> on waterways incapable of receiving deep-<a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">draft</a> ship traffic to decline in favor of <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a>, which then built vast container terminals next to deep oceanfront harbors in lieu of the dockfront warehouses and finger piers that had formerly handled break bulk cargo. With intermodal containers, the jobs of packing, unpacking, and sorting cargoes could be performed far from the point of embarkation. Such work shifted to so-called "<a href="/wiki/Dry_port" title="Dry port">dry ports</a>" and gigantic warehouses in rural inland towns, where land and labor were much cheaper than in oceanfront cities. This fundamental transformation of where warehouse work was performed freed up valuable waterfront real estate near the <a href="/wiki/Central_business_district" title="Central business district">central business districts</a> of port cities around the world for <a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">redevelopment</a> and led to a plethora of waterfront revitalization projects (such as <a href="/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts" title="List of warehouse districts">warehouse districts</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hein_Page_821_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hein_Page_821-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of containerization rapidly spread beyond the shipping industry. Containers were quickly adopted by trucking and rail transport industries for cargo transport not involving sea transport. Manufacturing also evolved to adapt to take advantage of containers. Companies that once sent small consignments began grouping them into containers. Many cargoes are now designed to precisely fit containers. The reliability of containers made <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-in-time manufacturing">just in time manufacturing</a> possible as component suppliers could deliver specific components on regular fixed schedules. </p><p>In 2004, global container traffic was 354 million <a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">TEUs</a>, of which 82 percent were handled by the world's top 100 container ports.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Twenty-first_century">Twenty-first century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Twenty-first century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maersk_Virginia,_Fremantle,_2015_(01).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG/220px-Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG/330px-Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG/440px-Maersk_Virginia%2C_Fremantle%2C_2015_%2801%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4880" data-file-height="3190" /></a><figcaption><i>Maersk Virginia</i> departing from <a href="/wiki/Fremantle_Harbour" title="Fremantle Harbour">Fremantle</a>, Australia</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 2009<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, approximately 90% of non-<a href="/wiki/Bulk_cargo" title="Bulk cargo">bulk cargo</a> worldwide is moved by containers stacked on transport ships;<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 26% of all container <a href="/wiki/Transshipment" title="Transshipment">transshipment</a> is carried out in China.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in 2009 there were 105,976,701 transshipments in China (both international and coastal, excluding Hong Kong), 21,040,096 in Hong Kong (which is listed separately), and only 34,299,572 in the United States. In 2005, some 18 million containers made over 200 million trips per year. Some ships can carry over 14,500 <a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">twenty-foot equivalent units</a> (TEU), such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Emma_M%C3%A6rsk" title="Emma Mærsk">Emma Mærsk</a></i>, 396 m (1,299 ft) long, launched in August 2006. It has been predicted that, at some point, container ships will be constrained in size only by the depth of the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Malacca">Straits of Malacca</a>, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes, linking the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This so-called <a href="/wiki/Malaccamax" title="Malaccamax">Malaccamax</a> size constrains a ship to dimensions of 470 m (1,542 ft) in length and 60 m (197 ft) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Few foresaw the extent of the influence of containerization on the <a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Shipping industry">shipping industry</a>. In the 1950s, Harvard University economist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Chinitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benjamin Chinitz (page does not exist)">Benjamin Chinitz</a> predicted that containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship its industrial goods more cheaply to the Southern US than other areas, but he did not anticipate that containerization might make it cheaper to import such goods from abroad. Most economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shipping companies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with containerization, but did not predict that the process of containerization itself would have a more direct influence on the choice of producers and increase the total volume of trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or <a href="/wiki/Swap_body" title="Swap body">swap bodies</a> into standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight <a href="/wiki/Pallet" title="Pallet">pallets</a> that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles. </p><p>Improved cargo security is an important benefit of containerization. Once the cargo is loaded into a container, it is not touched again until it reaches its destination.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cargo is not visible to casual viewers, and thus is less likely to be stolen. Container doors are usually sealed so that tampering is more evident. Some containers are fitted with electronic monitoring devices and can be remotely monitored for changes in air pressure, which happens when the doors are opened. This reduced thefts that had long plagued the shipping industry. Recent developments have focused on the use of intelligent logistics optimization to further enhance security. </p><p>The use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatible <a href="/wiki/Rail_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail gauge">rail gauge</a> sizes. The majority of the rail networks in the world operate on a <span class="nowrap">1,435 mm</span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="nowrap">4 ft <span class="frac">8<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> in</span>) gauge track known as <a href="/wiki/Standard_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard gauge">standard gauge</a>, but some countries (such as Russia, India, Finland, and Lithuania) use <a href="/wiki/Broad_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad gauge">broader gauges</a>, while others in Africa and South America use <a href="/wiki/Narrow_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrow gauge">narrower gauges</a>. The use of container trains in all these countries makes transshipment between trains of different gauges easier. </p><p>Containers have become a popular way to <a href="/wiki/Car_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Car shipping">ship private cars and other vehicles</a> overseas using 20- or 40-foot containers. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">roll-on/roll-off</a> vehicle shipping, personal effects can be loaded into the container with the vehicle, allowing easy international relocation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In July, 2020, The Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA), a non-profit group established to further digitalisation of container shipping technology standards, published standards for the digital exchange of operational vessel schedules (OVS).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contrary to ocean shipping containers owned by the shippers, a persisting trend in the industry is for (new) units to be purchased by leasing companies. Leasing business accounted for 55% of new container purchases in 2017, with their box fleet growing at 6.7%, compared to units of transport operators growing by just 2.4% more TEU, said global shipping consultancy Drewry in their 'Container Census & Leasing and Equipment Insight', leading to a leased share of the global ocean container fleet reaching 54% by 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the average time to unload a container in Asia was 27 seconds, the average time in Northern Europe was 46 seconds, and the average time in North America was 76 seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Container_standards">Container standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Container standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ISO_standard">ISO standard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: ISO standard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal container</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intermodal_train_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Intermodal_train_01.jpg/220px-Intermodal_train_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Intermodal_train_01.jpg/330px-Intermodal_train_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Intermodal_train_01.jpg/440px-Intermodal_train_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2530" /></a><figcaption>40 foot containers on the <a href="/wiki/BNSF_Railway" title="BNSF Railway">BNSF</a> line through <a href="/wiki/La_Crosse,_Wisconsin" title="La Crosse, Wisconsin">La Crosse</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are five common standard lengths: </p> <ul><li>20 ft (6.10 m)</li> <li>40 ft (12.19 m)</li> <li>45 ft (13.72 m)</li> <li>48 ft (14.63 m)</li> <li>53 ft (16.15 m)</li></ul> <p>US domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft (14.63 m) and 53 ft (16.15 m) (rail and truck). Container capacity is often expressed in <a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">twenty-foot equivalent units</a> (TEU, or sometimes <i>teu</i>). An equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (6.10 m) (length) × 8 ft (2.44 m) (width) container. As this is an approximate measure, the height of the box is not considered. For instance, the 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) <i>high cube</i> and the 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) <i>half height</i> 20 ft (6.10 m) containers are also called one TEU. 48' containers have been phased out over the last ten years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> in favor of 53' containers. </p><p>The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.10 m) dry cargo container was initially set at 24,000 kg (53,000 lb), and 30,480 kg (67,200 lb)for a 40 ft (12.19 m) container (including the 9 ft 6 in or 2.90 m high cube) . Allowing for the <a href="/wiki/Tare_weight" title="Tare weight">tare mass</a> of the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to approximately 22,000 kg (49,000 lb) for 20 ft (6.10 m), and 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) for 40 ft (12.19 m) containers.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was increased to 30,480 kg for the 20' in 2005, then further increased to a max of 36,000 kg for all sizes by the amendment 2 (2016) of the ISO standard 668 (2013). </p><p>The original choice of 8-foot (2.44 m) height for ISO containers was made in part to suit a large proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to be modified. The current standard is eight feet six inches (2.59 m) high. With the arrival of even taller hi-cube containers at nine feet six inches (2.90 m) and <a href="/wiki/Double-stack_rail_transport" title="Double-stack rail transport">double stacking</a> rail cars, further enlargement of the rail <a href="/wiki/Loading_gauge" title="Loading gauge">loading gauge</a> is proving necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_freight_containers">Air freight containers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Air freight containers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LD-air-freight-containers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/LD-air-freight-containers.jpg/220px-LD-air-freight-containers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/LD-air-freight-containers.jpg/330px-LD-air-freight-containers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/LD-air-freight-containers.jpg/440px-LD-air-freight-containers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>A number of LD-designation <a href="/wiki/Unit_Load_Device" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit Load Device">Unit Load Device</a> containers</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unit_load_device" title="Unit load device">Unit load device</a></div> <p>While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their aircraft and associated ground handling equipment the <a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">IATA</a> has created a set of standard aluminium container sizes of up to 11.52 m<sup>3</sup> (407 cu ft) in volume. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_container_system_standards">Other container system standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other container system standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some other container systems (in date order) are: </p> <ul><li>(1922) <a href="/wiki/NYC_container" title="NYC container">NYC container</a><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1924) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Von-Haus-zu-Haus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Von-Haus-zu-Haus (page does not exist)">von-Haus-zu-Haus</a> (<i>house to house</i>; Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Japanese railway containers: Containers used by the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Freight_Railway_Company" title="Japan Freight Railway Company">Japan Freight Railway Company</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>(1925) <a href="/wiki/Mack_Trucks" title="Mack Trucks">Mack</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1927) <a href="/w/index.php?title=English_Railway_container&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="English Railway container (page does not exist)">English Railway container</a><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1928) <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Railways" title="Victorian Railways">Victorian Railways</a> – refrigerated container<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1929) International Competition<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1930) <a href="/wiki/GWR_Container" title="GWR Container">GWR Container</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1931) International Chamber of Commerce<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1933) <a href="/wiki/International_Container_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="International Container Bureau">International Container Bureau</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-logistica2014a_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-logistica2014a-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1936) <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Railways" title="South Australian Railways">South Australian Railways</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolseley,_South_Australia" title="Wolseley, South Australia">Wolseley</a> <a href="/wiki/Break_of_gauge" title="Break of gauge">break of gauge</a><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1946) <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Rail" title="Queensland Rail">Queensland Railways</a> milk container, 2,000 imperial gallons (9,100 L; 2,400 US gal), road-rail<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1974) <a href="/wiki/RACE_(container)" title="RACE (container)">RACE</a> (Australia) – slightly wider than ISO containers to fit slightly wider Australian Standard <a href="/wiki/Pallet" title="Pallet">pallets</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1994) <a href="/wiki/Roller_container#ACTS" title="Roller container">ACTS</a> roller containers for <a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">intermodal transport</a> by rail and road (Central Europe)</li> <li>(1998) <a href="/wiki/PODS_(company)" title="PODS (company)">PODS</a></li> <li>(2005?) <a href="/wiki/SECU_(container)" title="SECU (container)">SECU</a> (Sweden, Finland, UK) – big 95 t (93 long tons; 105 short tons) container.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container#Pallet_wide_containers" title="Intermodal container">Pallet-wide containers</a> are used in Europe and have length (45, 40 or 20 ft or 13.72, 12.19 or 6.10 m) and height like ISO-containers, but they are <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.484 m (8 ft <span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) wide externally and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2.420 m (7 ft <span class="frac">11<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> in) internally to fit <a href="/wiki/EUR-pallet" title="EUR-pallet">EUR-pallet</a> better.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are meant for transport inside Europe and are often accepted in ships.</li> <li>(2014) The IPPC's <a href="/wiki/Sea_Container_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea Container Task Force">Sea Container Task Force</a> (SCTF) finalises the <a href="/wiki/Cargo_Transport_Units_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo Transport Units Code">Cargo Transport Units Code</a> (CTU Code).<sup id="cite_ref-SCTF-final_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCTF-final-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(2021) The National Standard of the People's Republic of China is <a href="/wiki/GB/T_39919-2021" class="mw-redirect" title="GB/T 39919-2021">GB/T 39919-2021</a> <i>Code of practice for the plant quarantine of exit freight containers</i> as of November 1, 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-SCTF-final_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCTF-final-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Container_loading">Container loading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Container loading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Full_container_load">Full container load</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Full container load"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A full container load (FCL)<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an <a href="/wiki/ISO_standard" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO standard">ISO standard</a> container that is loaded and unloaded under the risk and account of one shipper and one consignee. In practice, it means that the whole container is intended for one consignee. FCL container shipment tends to have lower <a href="/wiki/Freight_rate" title="Freight rate">freight rates</a> than an equivalent weight of <a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">cargo</a> in bulk. FCL is intended to designate a container loaded to its allowable maximum weight or volume, but FCL in practice on <a href="/wiki/Ocean_freight" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean freight">ocean freight</a> does not always mean a full payload or capacity – many companies will prefer to keep a 'mostly' full container as a single container load to simplify logistics and increase security compared to sharing a container with other goods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Less-than-container_load">Less-than-container load</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Less-than-container load"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Less-than-carload" class="mw-redirect" title="Less-than-carload">less-than-carload</a></div> <p>Less-than-container load (LCL) is a <a href="/wiki/Shipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Shipment">shipment</a> that is not large enough to fill a standard <a href="/wiki/Cargo_container" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo container">cargo container</a>. The abbreviation LCL formerly applied to "less than (railway) car load" for quantities of material from different shippers or for delivery to different destinations carried in a single <a href="/wiki/Railway_carriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway carriage">railway car</a> for efficiency. LCL freight was often sorted and redistributed into different railway cars at intermediate <a href="/wiki/Railway_terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway terminal">railway terminals</a> en route to the final destination.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Groupage</b> is the process of filling a container with multiple shipments for efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>LCL is "a quantity of <a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">cargo</a> less than that required for the application of a carload rate. A quantity of cargo less than that which fills the visible or rated capacity of an inter-modal container."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It can also be defined as "a consignment of cargo which is inefficient to fill a shipping container. It is grouped with other consignments for the same destination in a container at a container <a href="/wiki/Freight_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Freight station">freight station</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hazards">Hazards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hazards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Containers have been used to <a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">smuggle</a> <a href="/wiki/Contraband" title="Contraband">contraband</a> or <a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_theft" title="Motor vehicle theft">stolen cars</a>. The vast majority of containers are never subjected to scrutiny due to their large numbers. In recent years there have been increased concerns that containers might be used to transport <a href="/wiki/Terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist">terrorists</a> or terrorist materials into a country undetected. The US government has advanced the <a href="/wiki/Container_Security_Initiative" title="Container Security Initiative">Container Security Initiative</a> (CSI), intended to ensure that high-risk cargo is examined or scanned, preferably at the port of departure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empty_containers">Empty containers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Empty containers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for a new destination soon after emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used is considered to be higher than the worth of the used container. <a href="/wiki/Shipping_line" title="Shipping line">Shipping lines</a> and container leasing companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers from areas of low or no demand, such as the US West Coast, to areas of high demand, such as China. Repositioning within the port hinterland has also been the focus of recent logistics optimization work. Damaged or retired containers may be recycled in the form of <a href="/wiki/Shipping_container_architecture" title="Shipping container architecture">shipping container architecture</a>, or the steel content salvaged. In the summer of 2010, a worldwide shortage of containers developed as shipping increased after the recession, while new container production had largely ceased.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_at_sea">Loss at sea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Loss at sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Im_Orkan,_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg/220px-Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg/330px-Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg/440px-Im_Orkan%2C_Container_%C3%BCber_Bord_-_Nordatlantik_im_Winter_1980.jpg 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption><small>In a <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a> containers falling overboard – <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> in winter 1980</small></figcaption></figure> <p>Containers occasionally fall from ships, usually during storms. According to media sources, between 2,000<sup id="cite_ref-TTlost_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TTlost-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 10,000 containers are lost at sea each year.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Shipping_Council" title="World Shipping Council">World Shipping Council</a> states in a survey among freight companies that this claim is grossly excessive and calculated an average of 350 containers to be lost at sea each year, or 675 if including catastrophic events.<sup id="cite_ref-WSClost_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSClost-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the Outer Banks of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of <a href="/wiki/Doritos" title="Doritos">Doritos Chips</a>. Containers lost in rough waters are smashed by cargo and waves, and often sink quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-TTlost_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TTlost-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although not all containers sink, they seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided <a href="/wiki/Oceanographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanographer">oceanographers</a> with unexpected opportunities to track global <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a>, notably a cargo of <a href="/wiki/Friendly_Floatees" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendly Floatees">Friendly Floatees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007 the <a href="/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shipping" title="International Chamber of Shipping">International Chamber of Shipping</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Shipping_Council" title="World Shipping Council">World Shipping Council</a> began work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parametric_rolling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parametric rolling (page does not exist)">parametric rolling</a>, safer stacking, the marking of containers, and security for above-deck cargo in heavy swell.<sup id="cite_ref-lash_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lash-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011, the <a href="/wiki/MV_Rena" title="MV Rena">MV Rena</a> ran aground off the coast of New Zealand. As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_union_challenges">Trade union challenges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Trade union challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some of the biggest battles in the container revolution were waged in Washington, D.C.. Intermodal shipping got a huge boost in the early 1970s, when carriers won permission to quote combined rail-ocean rates. Later, non-vessel-operating <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carriers</a> won a long court battle with a US Supreme Court decision against contracts that attempted to require that union labor be used for stuffing and stripping containers at off-pier locations.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Pests"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_pest_vector">As pest vector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: As pest vector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Containers are often <a href="/wiki/Infestation" title="Infestation">infested</a> with <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">pests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPPC-khapra_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPPC-khapra-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IPPC_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPPC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pest <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introductions</a> are significantly clustered around ports, and containers are a common source of such successful pest transfers.<sup id="cite_ref-IPPC-khapra_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPPC-khapra-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IPPC_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPPC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPPC <a href="/wiki/Sea_Container_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea Container Task Force">Sea Container Task Force</a> (SCTF) promulgates the <a href="/wiki/Cargo_Transport_Units_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo Transport Units Code">Cargo Transport Units Code</a> (CTU), prescribed <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> and other standards (see <a href="#Other_container_system_standards">§ Other container system standards</a>) and recommendations for use in container decontamination, inspection and quarantine.<sup id="cite_ref-SCTF-final_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCTF-final-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SCTF also provides the English translation of the National Standard of China (<a href="/wiki/GB/T_39919-2021" class="mw-redirect" title="GB/T 39919-2021">GB/T 39919-2021</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-SCTF-final_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCTF-final-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_uses_for_containers">Other uses for containers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other uses for containers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Container_wendy_house.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Container_wendy_house.JPG/170px-Container_wendy_house.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Container_wendy_house.JPG/255px-Container_wendy_house.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Container_wendy_house.JPG/340px-Container_wendy_house.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A converted container used as an office at a building site</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Shipping_container_architecture" title="Shipping container architecture">Shipping container architecture</a> is the use of containers as the basis for housing and other functional buildings for people, either as temporary or a permanent housing, and either as a main building or as a cabin or as a workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storage areas in industry and commerce. </p><p>Tempo Housing in Amsterdam stacks containers for individual housing units. </p><p>Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data centers, although these are normally specialized containers. </p><p>There is now a high demand for containers to be converted in the domestic market to serve specific purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, a number of container-specific accessories have become available for a variety of applications, such as racking for archiving, lining, heating, lighting, powerpoints to create purpose-built secure offices, canteens and drying rooms, condensation control for furniture storage, and ramps for storage of heavier objects. Containers are also converted to provide equipment enclosures, pop-up cafes, exhibition stands, security huts and more. </p><p>Public containerised transport<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the concept, not yet implemented, of modifying motor vehicles to serve as personal containers in non-road passenger transport. </p><p>The ACTS roller container standards have become the basis of <a href="/wiki/Roller_container#Containerized_firefighting_equipment" title="Roller container">containerized firefighting equipment</a> throughout Europe. </p><p>Containers have also been used for weapon systems, such as the Russian <a href="/wiki/3M-54_Kalibr#Launch_platforms" class="mw-redirect" title="3M-54 Kalibr">Club-K</a>, which allow the conversion of an ordinary container system into a missile boat, capable of attacking surface and ground targets, and the CWS (Containerized Weapon System)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed for the US Army that allow for the rapid deployment of a remote controlled machine gun post from a container. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="BBC_tracking_project">BBC tracking project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: BBC tracking project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Box_(BBC_container)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Box (BBC container)">The Box (BBC container)</a></div> <p>On September 5, 2008, the BBC embarked on a year-long project to study international trade and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> by tracking a shipping container on its journey around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCBoxlaunch_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCBoxlaunch-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflat" title="Conflat">Conflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_terminal_design_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Container terminal design process">Container terminal design process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-stack_rail_transport" title="Double-stack rail transport">Double-stack rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Robinson_Palmer" title="Henry Robinson Palmer">Henry Robinson Palmer</a> described an early principle of containerization.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-box_connector" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-box connector">Inter-box connector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cargo_types" title="List of cargo types">List of cargo types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world%27s_busiest_container_ports" class="mw-redirect" title="List of world's busiest container ports">List of world's busiest container ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Eaton_Gangway" title="Little Eaton Gangway">Little Eaton Gangway</a> 1798</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimodal_transport" title="Multimodal transport">Multimodal transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NYC_container" title="NYC container">NYC container</a> 1922</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_portal" title="Shipping portal">Shipping portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stowage_plan_for_container_ships" title="Stowage plan for container ships">Stowage plan for container ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanktainer" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanktainer">Tanktainers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_load" title="Unit load">Unit load</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> (8’6" length, 6’3" width and 6’10½" height, and 9000 lbs capacity),<sup id="cite_ref-Heinsthesis_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinsthesis-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006127_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006127-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Some sources also mention a 12-foot version.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a third version, the <i>Conex III</i> of 8 by 8 by 6.5 feet (2.44 m × 2.44 m × 1.98 m), and a capacity of 13,000 lbs was being developed. Connecting devices were intended to join three Conex-III containers together into one 20-feet long unit, a standard recommended by the American Standards Association, for use in commercial rail, highway, and water shipping.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Containerization&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PT-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PT_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdmonds2017" class="citation web cs1">Edmonds, John (2017-03-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.indiegogo.com/blog/2017/03/freight-essentials.html">"The Freight Essentials: Getting Your Products Across The Ocean"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Freight+Essentials%3A+Getting+Your+Products+Across+The+Ocean.&rft.date=2017-03-03&rft.aulast=Edmonds&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.indiegogo.com%2Fblog%2F2017%2F03%2Ffreight-essentials.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DrMariappaBabuBaskar-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DrMariappaBabuBaskar_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskar2021" class="citation book cs1">Baskar, Mariappa Babu (2021). <i>Blue Book of Container Stuffing – The Container Stuffing Management in International Logistics: The Economics Behind</i> (I ed.). Auckland: Massey Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1703213027" title="Special:BookSources/978-1703213027"><bdi>978-1703213027</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blue+Book+of+Container+Stuffing+%E2%80%93+The+Container+Stuffing+Management+in+International+Logistics%3A+The+Economics+Behind&rft.place=Auckland&rft.edition=I&rft.pub=Massey+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1703213027&rft.aulast=Baskar&rft.aufirst=Mariappa+Babu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PTS-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PTS_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewandowski2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lewandowski, Krzysztof (2016). "Growth in the Size of Unit Loads and Shipping Containers from Antique to WWI". <i>Packaging Technology and Science</i>. <b>29</b> (8–9): 451–478. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpts.2231">10.1002/pts.2231</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1099-1522">1099-1522</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113982441">113982441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Packaging+Technology+and+Science&rft.atitle=Growth+in+the+Size+of+Unit+Loads+and+Shipping+Containers+from+Antique+to+WWI.&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=8%E2%80%939&rft.pages=451-478&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A113982441%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1099-1522&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpts.2231&rft.aulast=Lewandowski&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevinson2006">Levinson 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ripley, David (1993). <i>The Little Eaton Gangway and Derby Canal</i> (Second ed.). Oakwood Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85361-431-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85361-431-8">0-85361-431-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Essery, R. J, Rowland. D. P. & Steel W. O. <i>British Goods Wagons from 1887 to the Present Day</i>. Augustus M. Kelly Publishers. New York. 1979 p. 92 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYp5AAAAMAAJ&q=Fitch"><i>Queen City Heritage</i></a>. Vol. 43–44. The Journal of the Cincinnati Historical Society. 1985. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queen+City+Heritage&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=The+Journal+of+the+Cincinnati+Historical+Society&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWYp5AAAAMAAJ%26q%3DFitch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1920" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Latimer J. (July 1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LioDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31"><i>The Motor-Truck Helps the Railroad</i></a>. 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The Forgotten Pioneer of Containerization in Poland"</a>. <i>Logistics and Transport</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 73–78. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1734-2015">1734-2015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Logistics+and+Transport&rft.atitle=Stanis%C5%82aw+Rodowicz%2C+Eng.+The+Forgotten+Pioneer+of+Containerization+in+Poland&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=73-78&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1734-2015&rft.aulast=Lewandowski&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F268153158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1996" class="citation book cs1">Grant, H. 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Education and Experience"</a> <i>Benjamin Franklin Fitch the Forgotten Developer of the Container System in US of America</i> by Krzysztof Lewandowski, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland. 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohowski2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mohowski, Robert E. (Spring 2011). 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(June 2013)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_HamRijsenbrij2012" class="citation book cs1">Van Ham, Hans; Rijsenbrij, Joan (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA8"><i>Development of Containerization</i></a>. Amsterdam: <a href="/wiki/IOS_Press" title="IOS Press">IOS Press</a>. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1614991465" title="Special:BookSources/978-1614991465"><bdi>978-1614991465</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Shipping+Container+and+the+Globalization+of+American+Infrastructure&rft.inst=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Heins&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeepblue.lib.umich.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2027.42%2F102480%2Fmheins_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinson2006127-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevinson2006127_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevinson2006">Levinson 2006</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150721230641/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/877965.pdf">Logistic Support in the Vietnam Era</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Vol. 7: Containerization. US DoD Joint Logistics Review Board. 15 December 1970. p. 10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/877965.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 July 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2015</span>. <q>The dimensions of the CONEX II are 75 by 82½ by 102 in. The CONEX container is a metal reusable shipping box. The most common type has a 295-cu. ft. capacity, is about 8½ by 6 by 7 ft, and can carry 9,000 lbs. The dimensions of the Half-CONEX or CONEX I container are 75 by 82¼ by 51 in.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Logistic+Support+in+the+Vietnam+Era&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=US+DoD+Joint+Logistics+Review+Board&rft.date=1970-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2F877965.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VanHam-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VanHam_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VanHam_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Development of Containerization // J. van Ham, J. Rijsenbrij: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CgQmkTczzPwC&pg=PA8">Steel containers</a> (page 8)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Falloff // Robert Flanagan: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nuTu4FIZdhoC&pg=PA7">Fleeing G.o.D.</a> (page 7)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_J._Everhart2014" class="citation web cs1">Michael J. Everhart (7 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://everhartfamily.com/vietnam1970.html">"My Vietnam Tour – 1970"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2015</span>. <q>.. CONEX ... container that ... was about 7' high by 8' wide and about 12' long...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=My+Vietnam+Tour+%E2%80%93+1970&rft.date=2014-07-07&rft.au=Michael+J.+Everhart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feverhartfamily.com%2Fvietnam1970.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150727162017/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0831121">"Reusable Metal Shipping Container (Conex III)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Defense_Technical_Information_Center" title="Defense Technical Information Center">Defense Technical Information Center</a>. 1968. 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font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Containerization" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Containerization">Containerization</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroeze2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Broeze" title="Frank Broeze">Broeze, Frank</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x49HDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Globalisation of the Oceans: Containerisation from the 1950s to the Present</i></a>. Research in Maritime History, issue 23. St. John's, Newfoundland: International Maritime Economic History Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0973007338" title="Special:BookSources/0973007338"><bdi>0973007338</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1188-3928">1188-3928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Globalisation+of+the+Oceans%3A+Containerisation+from+the+1950s+to+the+Present&rft.place=St.+John%27s%2C+Newfoundland&rft.series=Research+in+Maritime+History%2C+issue+23&rft.pub=International+Maritime+Economic+History+Association&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1188-3928&rft.isbn=0973007338&rft.aulast=Broeze&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx49HDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – a history of containerization in the second half of the twentieth century</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCudahy2006" class="citation book cs1">Cudahy, Brian J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boxboats00bria"><i>Box Boats: How Container Ships Changed the World</i></a>. New York: Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0823225682" title="Special:BookSources/0823225682"><bdi>0823225682</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Box+Boats%3A+How+Container+Ships+Changed+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0823225682&rft.aulast=Cudahy&rft.aufirst=Brian+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboxboats00bria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – how container ships changed the world</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonovanBonney2006" class="citation book cs1">Donovan, Arthur; Bonney, Joseph (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CqYeAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Box that Changed the World: Fifty Years of Container Shipping - an Illustrated History</i></a>. East Windsor, NJ: Commonwealth Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1891131958" title="Special:BookSources/1891131958"><bdi>1891131958</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Box+that+Changed+the+World%3A+Fifty+Years+of+Container+Shipping+-+an+Illustrated+History&rft.place=East+Windsor%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Commonwealth+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1891131958&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Bonney%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCqYeAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rose_George" title="Rose George">George, Rose</a> (2013). <a href="/wiki/Ninety_Percent_of_Everything" title="Ninety Percent of Everything"><i>Ninety Percent of Everything: Inside Shipping, the Invisible Industry That Puts Clothes on Your Back, Gas in Your Car, and Food on Your Plate</i></a>. New York: Metropolitan Books / Henry Holt and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780805092639" title="Special:BookSources/9780805092639"><bdi>9780805092639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ninety+Percent+of+Everything%3A+Inside+Shipping%2C+the+Invisible+Industry+That+Puts+Clothes+on+Your+Back%2C+Gas+in+Your+Car%2C+and+Food+on+Your+Plate&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Books+%2F+Henry+Holt+and+Co.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780805092639&rft.aulast=George&rft.aufirst=Rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2007" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, William (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spookcountry00gibs"><i>Spook Country</i></a>. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780399154300" title="Special:BookSources/9780399154300"><bdi>9780399154300</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spook+Country&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780399154300&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspookcountry00gibs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – novel set in U.S., in which mystery surrounding a containerized shipment serves as the <a href="/wiki/MacGuffin" title="MacGuffin">MacGuffin</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, Marc (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130122131825/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html">"(See Chapter 1 here)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Box:_How_the_Shipping_Container_Made_the_World_Smaller_and_the_World_Economy_Bigger" class="mw-redirect" title="The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger"><i>The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691123241" title="Special:BookSources/0691123241"><bdi>0691123241</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%28See+Chapter+1+here%29&rft.btitle=The+Box%3A+How+the+Shipping+Container+Made+the+World+Smaller+and+the+World+Economy+Bigger&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0691123241&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs9383.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2016" class="citation book cs1">——————— (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vi7FCgAAQBAJ"><i>The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger</i></a> (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400880751" title="Special:BookSources/9781400880751"><bdi>9781400880751</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvcszztg">j.ctvcszztg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Box%3A+How+the+Shipping+Container+Made+the+World+Smaller+and+the+World+Economy+Bigger&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvcszztg%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9781400880751&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvi7FCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollak2004" class="citation book cs1">Pollak, Richard (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c7HD5GlQnMAC"><i>The Colombo Bay: At Sea in a Dangerous Universe</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/074320073X" title="Special:BookSources/074320073X"><bdi>074320073X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Colombo+Bay%3A+At+Sea+in+a+Dangerous+Universe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=074320073X&rft.aulast=Pollak&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc7HD5GlQnMAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaggart1999" class="citation magazine cs1">Taggart, Stewart (October 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.10/ports.html">"The 20-Ton Packet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1078-3148">1078-3148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+20-Ton+Packet&rft.date=1999-10-01&rft.issn=1078-3148&rft.aulast=Taggart&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fwired%2Farchive%2F7.10%2Fports.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASTM" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM">ASTM</a> D 5728 Standard Practice for Securement of Cargo in Intermodal and Unimodal Surface Transport</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030604103214/http://export911.com/e911/ship/dimen.htm">"Container Dimensions and Capacity"</a>. Export 911. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.export911.com/e911/ship/dimen.htm">the original</a> on 2003-06-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2003-06-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Container+Dimensions+and+Capacity&rft.pub=Export+911&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.export911.com%2Fe911%2Fship%2Fdimen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.containerhandbuch.de/chb_e/">"Container Handbook"</a>. German Insurance Association. 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Container+Handbook&rft.pub=German+Insurance+Association&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.containerhandbuch.de%2Fchb_e%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060208045754/http://hazmat.dot.gov/pubs/erg/erg2004.pdf">"Emergency Response Guidebook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Transport Canada, the U.S. Department of Transportation, and the Secretariat of Communications and Transport of Mexico. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hazmat.dot.gov/pubs/erg/erg2004.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2006-02-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Emergency+Response+Guidebook&rft.pub=Transport+Canada%2C+the+U.S.+Department+of+Transportation%2C+and+the+Secretariat+of+Communications+and+Transport+of+Mexico&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhazmat.dot.gov%2Fpubs%2Ferg%2Ferg2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – a guidebook for first responders during the initial phase of a dangerous goods/hazardous materials incident</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100906204716/http://www.walshsurveyor.com/ships/articles/container-transportation/index.htm">"Introduction to Container Transportation"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walshsurveyor.com/ships/articles/container-transportation/index.htm">the original</a> on 2010-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Container+Transportation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.walshsurveyor.com%2Fships%2Farticles%2Fcontainer-transportation%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – A good pictorial introduction to containers</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aapa-ports.org/Industry/content.cfm?ItemNumber=900">"Port Industry Statistics"</a>. American Association of Port Authorities.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Port+Industry+Statistics&rft.pub=American+Association+of+Port+Authorities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aapa-ports.org%2FIndustry%2Fcontent.cfm%3FItemNumber%3D900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/containe/inhalt1.htm">"Transport Information Service : containers"</a>. German Insurance Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transport+Information+Service+%3A+containers&rft.pub=German+Insurance+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tis-gdv.de%2Ftis_e%2Fcontaine%2Finhalt1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AContainerization" class="Z3988"></span> – types, inspection, climate, stowage, securing, capacity</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intermodal_containers" title="Template:Intermodal containers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intermodal_containers" title="Template talk:Intermodal containers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intermodal_containers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intermodal containers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intermodal_containers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal containers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Containerization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_freight_transport" title="Intermodal freight transport">Intermodal freight transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Containers" title="Bureau International des Containers">Bureau International des Containers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_6346" title="ISO 6346">ISO 6346 (BIC code)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unit" title="Twenty-foot equivalent unit">Twenty-foot equivalent unit</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Container_01_KMJ.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red 40 ft shipping container"><img alt="Red 40 ft shipping container" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Container_01_KMJ.jpg/80px-Container_01_KMJ.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Container_01_KMJ.jpg/120px-Container_01_KMJ.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Container_01_KMJ.jpg/160px-Container_01_KMJ.jpg 2x" data-file-width="854" data-file-height="654" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Container_chassis" title="Container chassis">Chassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">Container ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-stack_rail_transport" title="Double-stack rail transport">Double-stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drayage" title="Drayage">Drayage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatcar#Intermodal_freight_use" title="Flatcar">Flatcar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_car" title="Well car">Well car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Handling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Container_port" title="Container port">Container port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_crane" title="Container crane">Container crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reach_stacker" title="Reach stacker">Reach stacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tyred_gantry_crane" title="Rubber tyred gantry crane">Rubber tyred gantry crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidelifter" title="Sidelifter">Sidelifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straddle_carrier" title="Straddle carrier">Straddle carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_tractor" title="Terminal tractor">Terminal tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistlock" title="Twistlock">Twistlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_spreader" title="Container spreader">Container spreader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerated_container" title="Refrigerated container">Refrigerated container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SECU_(container)" title="SECU (container)">SECU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_container" title="Tank container">Tank container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_rack_container" title="Flat rack container">Flat rack container</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Box_(Levinson_book)" title="The Box (Levinson book)">The Box</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Box" title="BBC Box">BBC Box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_(board_game)" title="Container (board game)"><i>Container</i> (board game)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Shipping_Council" title="World Shipping Council">Container Shipping Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_container_architecture" title="Shipping container architecture">Shipping container architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Modular_Datacenter" title="Sun Modular Datacenter">Sun Modular Datacenter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Transport" title="Portal:Transport">Transport portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rail_transport_freight_rolling_stock" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Freight_cars" title="Template:Freight cars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Freight_cars" title="Template talk:Freight cars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Freight_cars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Freight cars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rail_transport_freight_rolling_stock" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail transport</a> freight rolling stock</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enclosed equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autorack" title="Autorack">Autorack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxcar" title="Boxcar">Boxcar</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_railway_milk_tank_wagon" title="British railway milk tank wagon">British railway milk tank wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_wagon" title="Cattle wagon">Cattle wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coil_car" title="Coil car">Coil car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermodal_container#Rail" title="Intermodal container">Intermodal car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covered_goods_wagon" title="Covered goods wagon">Covered goods wagon</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covered_hopper" class="mw-redirect" title="Covered hopper">Covered hopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock_wagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Livestock wagon">Livestock wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_car" title="Milk car">Milk car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerator_car" title="Refrigerator car">Refrigerator car</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerated_van" title="Refrigerated van">Refrigerated van</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RoadRailer" class="mw-redirect" title="RoadRailer">RoadRailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_car_(rail)" title="Stock car (rail)">Stock car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_car" title="Tank car">Tank car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_with_opening_roof" title="Wagon with opening roof">Wagon with opening roof</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogie_bolster_wagon" title="Bogie bolster wagon">Bogie bolster wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldron" title="Chaldron">Chauldron wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_U_special_wagon" title="Class U special wagon">Class U special wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflat" title="Conflat">Conflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_car" title="Well car">Double-stack car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatcar" title="Flatcar">Flatcar</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_wagon" title="Flat wagon">Flat wagon</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondola_(rail)" title="Gondola (rail)">Gondola</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopper_car" title="Hopper car">Hopper car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangourou_wagon" title="Kangourou wagon">Kangourou wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowmac" title="Lowmac">Lowmac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minecart" title="Minecart">Minecart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_wagon" title="Mineral wagon">Mineral wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modalohr" title="Modalohr">Modalohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_wagon" title="Open wagon">Open wagon</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_wagon" title="Pocket wagon">Pocket wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry_tub" title="Quarry tub">Quarry tub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollbock" title="Rollbock">Rollbock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_car_dumper" title="Rotary car dumper">Rotary car dumper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnabel_car" title="Schnabel car">Schnabel car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_wagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Slate wagon">Slate wagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatcar#Specialized_types" title="Flatcar">Specialized flatcars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transporter_wagon" title="Transporter wagon">Transporter wagon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-revenue equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_cleaner" title="Ballast cleaner">Ballast cleaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_regulator" title="Ballast regulator">Ballast regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brake_van" title="Brake van">Brake van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caboose" title="Caboose">Caboose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_car" title="Clearance car">Clearance car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_(rail)" title="Crane (rail)">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crew_car" title="Crew car">Crew car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excavator" title="Excavator">Excavator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_adhesion_car" title="Rail adhesion car">Rail adhesion car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_train" title="Money train">Revenue collection car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_shovel" title="Power shovel">Power shovel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_snowplow" title="Rotary snowplow">Rotary snowplow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_test_car" title="Scale test car">Scale test car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoneblower" title="Stoneblower">Stoneblower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamping_machine" title="Tamping machine">Tamping machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_geometry_car" title="Track geometry car">Track geometry car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_train" title="Work train">Work trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Modern_merchant_ships" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_merchant_ships" title="Template:Modern merchant ships"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modern_merchant_ships" title="Template talk:Modern merchant ships"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modern_merchant_ships" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modern merchant ships"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Modern_merchant_ships" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Modern <a href="/wiki/Merchant_ship" title="Merchant ship">merchant ships</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">Cargo ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo" title="Cargo">Cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport">Maritime transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freight_transport" title="Freight transport">Freight transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_marine" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchant marine">Merchant marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_line" title="Shipping line">Shipping line</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A reefer"><img alt="A reefer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/80px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/120px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG/160px-CMM_-_Model_ch%C5%82odniowca_typu_B-360-2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2394" data-file-height="924" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cargo_ship" title="Cargo ship">Dry cargo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">Barge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_carrier" title="Bulk carrier">Bulk carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_float" title="Car float">Car float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_boat" title="Chain boat">Chain boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_trading_vessel" title="Coastal trading vessel">Coastal trading vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">Collier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_ship" title="Container ship">Container ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy-lift_ship" title="Heavy-lift ship">Heavy-lift ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopper_barge" title="Hopper barge">Hopper barge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_freighter" title="Lake freighter">Lake freighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighter_aboard_ship" title="Lighter aboard ship">Lighter aboard ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock_carrier" title="Livestock carrier">Livestock carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reefer_ship" title="Reefer ship">Reefer ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">Roll-on/roll-off (RORO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train_ferry" title="Train ferry">Train ferry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tanker_(ship)" title="Tanker (ship)">Tankers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_tanker" title="Chemical tanker">Chemical tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_production_storage_and_offloading" title="Floating production storage and offloading">Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_carrier" title="Gas carrier">Gas carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_tanker" title="Hydrogen tanker">Hydrogen tanker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LNG_carrier" title="LNG carrier">LNG carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_tanker" title="Oil tanker">Oil tanker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passenger_ship" title="Passenger ship">Passenger</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_ferry" title="Cable ferry">Cable ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_liner" title="Cargo liner">Cargo liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_ship" title="Cruise ship">Cruise ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruiseferry" title="Cruiseferry">Cruiseferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferry" title="Ferry">Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrowboat" title="Narrowboat">Narrowboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">Ocean liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off" title="Roll-on/roll-off">Roll-on/roll-off (RORO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train_ferry" title="Train ferry">Train ferry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor_handling_tug_supply_vessel" title="Anchor handling tug supply vessel">Anchor handling tug supply vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_tow_vessel" title="Emergency tow vessel">Emergency tow vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireboat" title="Fireboat">Fireboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platform_supply_vessel" title="Platform supply vessel">Platform supply vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pusher_(boat)" title="Pusher (boat)">Pusher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_tug" title="Salvage tug">Salvage tug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship%27s_tender" title="Ship's tender">Tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugboat" title="Tugboat">Tugboat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_layer" title="Cable layer">Cable layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_vessel" title="Crane vessel">Crane vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">Dredger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drillship" title="Drillship">Drillship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_vessel" title="Fishing vessel">Fishing vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_restaurant" title="Floating restaurant">Floating restaurant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">Icebreaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_submarine" title="Merchant submarine">Merchant submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narco-submarine" title="Narco-submarine">Narco-submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipe-laying_ship" title="Pipe-laying ship">Pipe-laying ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_vessel" title="Research vessel">Research vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverboat" title="Riverboat">Riverboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-submersible" title="Semi-submersible">Semi-submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snagboat" title="Snagboat">Snagboat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_operations" title="Nautical operations">Nautical operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affreightment" title="Affreightment">Affreightment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Shipping" title="International Chamber of Shipping">International Chamber of Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_merchant_navy_capacity_by_country" title="List of merchant navy capacity by country">List of merchant navy capacity by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_container_shipping_companies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Container_shipping_companies" title="Template:Container shipping companies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Container_shipping_companies" title="Template talk:Container shipping companies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Container_shipping_companies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Container shipping companies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_container_shipping_companies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_container_shipping_companies" title="List of largest container shipping companies">Major container shipping companies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2M Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maersk_Line" title="Maersk Line">Maersk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P%26O_Nedlloyd" title="P&O Nedlloyd">P&O Nedlloyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_S%C3%BCd" title="Hamburg Süd">Hamburg Süd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safmarine" title="Safmarine">Safmarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaLand" title="SeaLand">SeaLand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Shipping_Company" title="Mediterranean Shipping Company">MSC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CMA_CGM" title="CMA CGM">CMA CGM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_National_Line" title="Australian National Line">ANL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_President_Lines" title="American President Lines">APL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_Marocaine_de_Navigation" title="Compagnie Marocaine de Navigation">Comanav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delmas_(shipping_company)" title="Delmas (shipping company)">Delmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_Orient_Lines" title="Neptune Orient Lines">NOL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSCO_Shipping_Lines" title="COSCO Shipping Lines">COSCO</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COSCO_Shipping_Development" title="COSCO Shipping Development">CSCL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OOCL" title="OOCL">OOCL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evergreen_Marine_Corporation" title="Evergreen Marine Corporation">Evergreen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italia_Marittima" title="Italia Marittima">Italia Marittima</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">THE Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hapag-Lloyd" title="Hapag-Lloyd">Hapag-Lloyd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CP_Ships" title="CP Ships">CP Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSAV" title="CSAV">CSAV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapag-Lloyd#United_Arab_Shipping_Company_(UASC)" title="Hapag-Lloyd">UASC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Afrika-Linien/John_T._Essberger_Group_of_Companies" title="Deutsche Afrika-Linien/John T. Essberger Group of Companies">DAL/JTE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMM_(company)" title="HMM (company)">HMM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Network_Express" title="Ocean Network Express">Ocean Network Express</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nippon_Yusen" title="Nippon Yusen">NYK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsui_O.S.K._Lines" title="Mitsui O.S.K. Lines">MOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K_Line" title="K Line">K Line</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Ming_Marine_Transport_Corporation" title="Yang Ming Marine Transport Corporation">Yang Ming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkas_Container_Transport" title="Arkas Container Transport">Arkas Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">IRISL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matson,_Inc." title="Matson, Inc.">Matson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_International_Lines" title="Pacific International Lines">Pacific International Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Navigation_Company" title="China Navigation Company">Swire Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wan_Hai_Lines" title="Wan Hai Lines">Wan Hai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Press_Feeders" title="X-Press Feeders">X-Press Feeders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZIM_(shipping_company)" title="ZIM (shipping company)">ZIM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hanjin_Shipping" title="Hanjin Shipping">Hanjin Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Lines" title="United States Lines">United States Lines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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