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<span>Actuation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Actuation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Actuation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Actuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linear_actuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_actuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Linear actuation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_actuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotary_actuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotary_actuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Rotary actuation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rotary_actuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flight_simulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flight_simulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Flight simulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flight_simulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robocrane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robocrane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Robocrane</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robocrane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LIDS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LIDS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>LIDS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LIDS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CAREN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CAREN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>CAREN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CAREN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taylor_Spatial_Frame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taylor_Spatial_Frame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Taylor Spatial Frame</span> </div> </a> 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<ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="پلتفرم استوارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلتفرم استوارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateforme_de_Stewart" title="Plateforme de Stewart – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Plateforme de Stewart" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%81%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0" title="スチュワートプラットフォーム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スチュワートプラットフォーム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%8C%D1%8E_%E2%80%94_%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8E%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Платформа Гью — Стюарта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Платформа Гью — Стюарта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%93%27%D1%8E%E2%80%94%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%8E%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Платформа Г'ю—Стюарта – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Платформа Г'ю—Стюарта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="187" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>An example of a Stewart platform</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMiBA_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AMiBA_1.jpg/220px-AMiBA_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AMiBA_1.jpg/330px-AMiBA_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AMiBA_1.jpg/440px-AMiBA_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/AMiBA" title="AMiBA">AMiBA</a> radio telescope, a <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a> experiment, is mounted on a 6 m <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fibre">carbon fibre</a> hexapod.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/220px--%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="16" data-mwtitle=""Hexapod"_dynamic_platform_during_the_"Armiya_2021"_exhibition.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a1/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg/%22Hexapod%22_dynamic_platform_during_the_%22Armiya_2021%22_exhibition.ogg.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Hexapod during the "<a href="/wiki/Army_(International_Military-Technical_Forum)" title="Army (International Military-Technical Forum)">Army-2021</a>" exhibition.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>Stewart platform</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Parallel_manipulator" title="Parallel manipulator">parallel manipulator</a> that has six <a href="/wiki/Prismatic_joint" title="Prismatic joint">prismatic actuators</a>, commonly <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_jack" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic jack">hydraulic jacks</a> or electric <a href="/wiki/Linear_actuator" title="Linear actuator">linear actuators</a>, attached in pairs to three positions on the platform's baseplate, crossing over to three mounting points on a top plate. All 12 connections are made via <a href="/wiki/Universal_joint" title="Universal joint">universal joints</a>. Devices placed on the top plate can be moved in the <a href="/wiki/Six_degrees_of_freedom" title="Six degrees of freedom">six degrees of freedom</a> in which it is possible for a freely-suspended body to move: three linear movements x, y, z (lateral, longitudinal, and vertical), and the three rotations (pitch, roll, and yaw). </p><p>Stewart platforms are known by various other names. In many applications, including in flight simulators, it is commonly referred to as a <b>motion base</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is sometimes called a <i>six-axis platform</i> or <i>6-DoF platform</i> because of its possible motions and, because the motions are produced by a combination of movements of multiple actuators, it may be referred to as a <i>synergistic motion platform</i>, due to the synergy (mutual interaction) between the way that the actuators are programmed. Because the device has six actuators, it is often called a <i>hexapod</i> (six legs) in common usage, a name which was originally <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarked</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geodetic_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geodetic Technology (page does not exist)">Geodetic Technology</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for Stewart platforms used in <a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">machine tools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg/220px-Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg/330px-Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg/440px-Hexapod_positioner_aka_Stewart_platform_x2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Two hexapod positioners</figcaption></figure> <p>This specialised six-jack layout was first used by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eric_Gough&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eric Gough (page does not exist)">V E (Eric) Gough</a> of the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">UK</a> and was operational in 1954,<sup id="cite_ref-Gough,_1956_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gough,_1956-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the design later being publicised in a 1965 paper by D Stewart to the UK <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="Institution of Mechanical Engineers">Institution of Mechanical Engineers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart,_1965_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart,_1965-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, prior to the publication of Stewart's paper, American engineer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Klaus_Cappel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Klaus Cappel (page does not exist)">Klaus Cappel</a> independently developed the same hexapod. Klaus patented his design and licensed it to the first flight simulator companies, and built the first commercial octahedral hexapod motion simulators.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonev_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonev-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the title <i>Stewart platform</i> is commonly used, some have posited that <i>Gough–Stewart platform</i> is a more appropriate name because the original Stewart platform had a slightly different design,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others argue that the contributions of all three engineers should be recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonev_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonev-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Actuation">Actuation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Actuation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear_actuation">Linear actuation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Linear actuation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In industrial applications, linear actuators (hydraulic or electric) are typically used for their simple and unique <a href="/wiki/Inverse_kinematics" title="Inverse kinematics">inverse kinematics</a> closed form solution and their good strength and acceleration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rotary_actuation">Rotary actuation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rotary actuation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For prototyping and low budget applications, typically rotary servo motors are used. A unique closed form solution for the <a href="/wiki/Inverse_kinematics" title="Inverse kinematics">inverse kinematics</a> of rotary actuators also exists, as shown by Robert Eisele <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stewart platforms have applications in flight simulators, machine tool technology, <a href="/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">animatronics</a>, crane technology, underwater research, simulation of earthquakes, air-to-sea rescue, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_bull" title="Mechanical bull">mechanical bulls</a>, satellite dish positioning, the <a href="/wiki/Hexapod-Telescope" title="Hexapod-Telescope">Hexapod-Telescope</a>, robotics, and orthopedic surgery. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flight_simulation">Flight simulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flight simulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg/220px-Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg/330px-Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg/440px-Simulator-flight-compartment.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A Stewart platform in use by Lufthansa</figcaption></figure> <p>The Stewart platform design is extensively used in <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">flight simulators</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Full_flight_simulator" title="Full flight simulator">full flight simulator</a> which requires all 6 degrees of freedom. This application was developed by <a href="/wiki/Thales_Training_%26_Simulation" title="Thales Training & Simulation">Redifon</a>, whose simulators featuring it became available for the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, <a href="/wiki/Sud_Aviation_Caravelle" title="Sud Aviation Caravelle">Sud Aviation Caravelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadair_CL-44" title="Canadair CL-44">Canadair CL-44</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_727" title="Boeing 727">Boeing 727</a>, Comet, <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Viscount" title="Vickers Viscount">Vickers Viscount</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vanguard" title="Vickers Vanguard">Vickers Vanguard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convair_990_Coronado" title="Convair 990 Coronado">Convair CV 990</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules" title="Lockheed C-130 Hercules">Lockheed C-130 Hercules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vickers_VC10" title="Vickers VC10">Vickers VC10</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fokker_F27_Friendship" title="Fokker F27 Friendship">Fokker F-27</a> by 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this role, the payload is a replica cockpit and a visual display system, normally of several channels, for showing the outside-world visual scene to the aircraft crew that are being trained. </p><p>Similar platforms are used in <a href="/wiki/Driving_simulator" title="Driving simulator">driving simulators</a>, typically mounted on large <a href="/wiki/X-Y_table" title="X-Y table">X-Y tables</a> to simulate short term acceleration. Long term acceleration can be simulated by tilting the platform, and an active research area is how to mix the two. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robocrane">Robocrane</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Robocrane"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> (NIST) developed the <a href="/wiki/Robocrane" title="Robocrane">Robocrane</a>, where the platform hangs from six cables instead of being supported by six jacks. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gough-platform.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gough-platform.jpg/220px-Gough-platform.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gough-platform.jpg/330px-Gough-platform.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gough-platform.jpg/440px-Gough-platform.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Eric Gough's Tire Testing Machine, which is a Stewart platform with large jacks</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LIDS">LIDS</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: LIDS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Low_Impact_Docking_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Impact Docking System">Low Impact Docking System</a> developed by NASA uses a Stewart platform to manipulate space vehicles during the docking process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CAREN">CAREN</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: CAREN"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Computer Assisted Rehabilitation Environment developed by Motek Medical uses a Stewart platform coupled with virtual reality to do advanced biomechanical and clinical research.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taylor_Spatial_Frame">Taylor Spatial Frame</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Taylor Spatial Frame"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dr. J. Charles Taylor used the Stewart platform to develop the <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Spatial_Frame" title="Taylor Spatial Frame">Taylor Spatial Frame</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an <a href="/wiki/External_fixation" title="External fixation">external fixator</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">orthopedic surgery</a> for the correction of bone deformities and treatment of complex fractures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_testing">Mechanical testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mechanical testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>First application: Eric Gough was an automotive engineer and worked at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Dunlop" title="Fort Dunlop">Fort Dunlop</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Tyres" title="Dunlop Tyres">Dunlop Tyres</a> factory in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>, England.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed his "Universal Tyre-Testing Machine" (also called the "Universal Rig") in the 1950s and his platform was operational by 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-Gough,_1956_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gough,_1956-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rig was able to mechanically test tyres under combined loads. Dr. Gough died in 1972 but his testing rig continued to be used up until the late 1980s when the factory was closed down and then demolished. His rig was saved and transported to the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum, London</a> storage facility at Wroughton near Swindon.</li> <li>Recent applications: the rebirth of interest for a mechanical testing machine based on Gough-Stewart platform occurred in the mid '90s.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are often biomedical applications (for example spinal study<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) because of the complexity and large amplitude of the motions needed to reproduce human or animal behaviour. Such requirements are also encountered in the civil engineering field for seism simulation. Controlled by a full-field kinematic measurement algorithm, such machines can also be used to study complex phenomena on stiff specimens (for example the curved propagation of a crack through a concrete block<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) that need high load capacities and displacement accuracy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motion_compensation">Motion compensation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Motion compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/220px--AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="92" data-mwtitle="AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm/AmpelmannDemonstrationVideo.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Personnel transfer from an offshore construction via an Ampelmann system</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ampelmann_system" title="Ampelmann system">Ampelmann system</a> is a motion-compensated gangway using a Stewart platform. This allows access from a moving <a href="/wiki/Platform_supply_vessel" title="Platform supply vessel">platform supply vessel</a> to <a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">offshore constructions</a> even in high wave conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceleration_onset_cueing" title="Acceleration onset cueing">Acceleration onset cueing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actuator" title="Actuator">Actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_actuator" title="Linear actuator">Linear actuator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_manipulator" title="Parallel manipulator">Parallel manipulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_kinematics" title="Robot kinematics">Robot kinematics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBecerra-VargasMorgado_Belo2012" class="citation journal cs1">Becerra-Vargas, Mauricio; Morgado Belo, Eduardo (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1678-58782012000200011">"Application of H∞ theory to a 6 DOF flight simulator motion base"</a>. <i>Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 193–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1678-58782012000200011">10.1590/S1678-58782012000200011</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Brazilian+Society+of+Mechanical+Sciences+and+Engineering&rft.atitle=Application+of+H%E2%88%9E+theory+to+a+6+DOF+flight+simulator+motion+base&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=193-204&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2FS1678-58782012000200011&rft.aulast=Becerra-Vargas&rft.aufirst=Mauricio&rft.au=Morgado+Belo%2C+Eduardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252FS1678-58782012000200011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStewart+platform" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parallel Robots - Second Edition by J.P. 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"A Platform with Six Degrees of Freedom". <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers</i>. <b>180</b> (1, No 15): 371–386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1243%2Fpime_proc_1965_180_029_02">10.1243/pime_proc_1965_180_029_02</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Institution+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.atitle=A+Platform+with+Six+Degrees+of+Freedom&rft.volume=180&rft.issue=1%2C+No+15&rft.pages=371-386&rft.date=1965%2F1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1243%2Fpime_proc_1965_180_029_02&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStewart+platform" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonev-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bonev_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bonev_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonev" class="citation web cs1">Bonev, Ilian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parallemic.org/Reviews/Review007.html">"The True Origins of Parallel Robots"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Measurement of a spinal motion segment stiffness matrix". <i>Journal of Biomechanics</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 517–521. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.492.7636">10.1.1.492.7636</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0021-9290%2801%2900221-4">10.1016/s0021-9290(01)00221-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11934421">11934421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biomechanics&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+a+spinal+motion+segment+stiffness+matrix&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=517-521&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.492.7636%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11934421&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0021-9290%2801%2900221-4&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Ian+A.&rft.au=Gardner-Morse%2C+Mack&rft.au=Churchill%2C+David&rft.au=Laible%2C+Jeffrey+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStewart+platform" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJailinCarpiucKazymyrenkoPoncelet2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jailin, Clément; Carpiuc, Andreea; Kazymyrenko, Kyrylo; Poncelet, Martin; Leclerc, Hugo; Hild, François; Roux, Stéphane (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01549224/file/JMPS2017b-ccsd.pdf">"Virtual hybrid test control of sinuous crack"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids</i>. <b>102</b>: 239–256. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JMPSo.102..239J">2017JMPSo.102..239J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmps.2017.03.001">10.1016/j.jmps.2017.03.001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Mechanics+and+Physics+of+Solids&rft.atitle=Virtual+hybrid+test+control+of+sinuous+crack&rft.volume=102&rft.pages=239-256&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jmps.2017.03.001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017JMPSo.102..239J&rft.aulast=Jailin&rft.aufirst=Cl%C3%A9ment&rft.au=Carpiuc%2C+Andreea&rft.au=Kazymyrenko%2C+Kyrylo&rft.au=Poncelet%2C+Martin&rft.au=Leclerc%2C+Hugo&rft.au=Hild%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Roux%2C+St%C3%A9phane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01549224%2Ffile%2FJMPS2017b-ccsd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStewart+platform" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bonev, I.A., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parallemic.org/Reviews/Review007.html">The True Origins of Parallel Robots</a>", ParalleMIC online review</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stewart_platform&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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