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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Height_above_mean_sea_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Height_above_mean_sea_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Height above mean sea level</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Height_above_mean_sea_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difficulties_in_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties_in_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Difficulties in use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulties_in_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dry_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dry_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dry land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dry_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Local_and_eustatic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_and_eustatic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Local and eustatic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_and_eustatic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short-term_and_periodic_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short-term_and_periodic_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Short-term and periodic changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short-term_and_periodic_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Recent changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aviation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aviation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aviation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aviation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea level</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seevlak" title="Seevlak – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Seevlak" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%89_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="مستوى سطح البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستوى سطح البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livel_d%27a_mar" title="Livel d'a mar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Livel d'a mar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivel_de_la_mar" title="Nivel de la mar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nivel de la mar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%99niz_s%C9%99viyy%C9%99si" title="Dəniz səviyyəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dəniz səviyyəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="دنیز سطحی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دنیز سطحی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B2" title="সমুদ্র সমতল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সমুদ্র সমতল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1i-p%C3%AAng-b%C4%ABn" title="Hái-pêng-bīn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hái-pêng-bīn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nang_dhuwur_laut" title="Nang dhuwur laut – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Nang dhuwur laut" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D2%A3%D0%B3%D0%B5%D2%99_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Диңгеҙ кимәле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Диңгеҙ кимәле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Узровень мора – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Узровень мора" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2" title="समुंद्र तल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="समुंद्र तल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5" title="Морско равнище – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Морско равнище" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivell_mitj%C3%A0_del_mar" title="Nivell mitjà del mar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nivell mitjà del mar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D3%97%D1%81_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B9%D3%97" title="Тинӗс шайӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тинӗс шайӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladina_mo%C5%99e" title="Hladina moře – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hladina moře" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havoverflade" title="Havoverflade – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havoverflade" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeresspiegel" title="Meeresspiegel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meeresspiegel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meretase" title="Meretase – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meretase" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%B8%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Στάθμη θαλάσσης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στάθμη θαλάσσης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivel_del_mar" title="Nivel del mar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nivel del mar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marnivelo" title="Marnivelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Marnivelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsas_maila" title="Itsas maila – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsas maila" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="سطح دریای آزاد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سطح دریای آزاد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niveau_de_la_mer" title="Niveau de la mer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Niveau de la mer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seenivo" title="Seenivo – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Seenivo" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivel_dal_m%C3%A2r" title="Nivel dal mâr – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Nivel dal mâr" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibh%C3%A9al_na_mara" title="Leibhéal na mara – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leibhéal na mara" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivel_medio_do_mar" title="Nivel medio do mar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nivel medio do mar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%88%98%EB%A9%B4" title="해수면 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해수면" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sea level" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B1%D5%A1%D5%AF_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բացարձակ բարձրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բացարձակ բարձրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2" title="समुद्र तल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="समुद्र तल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morska_razina" title="Morska razina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Morska razina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marala_nivelo" title="Marala nivelo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Marala nivelo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantar_ti_baybay" title="Pantar ti baybay – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pantar ti baybay" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permukaan_laut" title="Permukaan laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Permukaan laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivello_del_mar" title="Nivello del mar – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Nivello del mar" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%A1varm%C3%A1l" title="Sjávarmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sjávarmál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livello_del_mare" title="Livello del mare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Livello del mare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%91%D7%94_%D7%A4%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9D" title="גובה פני הים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גובה פני הים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%A6%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94" title="ზღვის დონე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზღვის დონე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Абсоліоттік биіктік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Абсоліоттік биіктік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usawa_bahari_wastani" title="Usawa bahari wastani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Usawa bahari wastani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asta_deryay%C3%AA" title="Asta deryayê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Asta deryayê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B8%D0%B7_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Деңиз деңгээли – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Деңиз деңгээли" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maris_aequor" title="Maris aequor – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Maris aequor" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABras_l%C4%ABmenis" title="Jūras līmenis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jūras līmenis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABros_lygis" title="Jūros lygis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jūros lygis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zie%C3%ABniveau" title="Zieëniveau – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Zieëniveau" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivell_del_mar" title="Nivell del mar – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Nivell del mar" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Морско ниво – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Морско ниво" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haavon%27ny_ranomasina" title="Haavon'ny ranomasina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haavon'ny ranomasina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D" title="സമുദ്രനിരപ്പ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സമുദ്രനിരപ്പ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80" title="समुद्रसपाटी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="समुद्रसपाटी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94" title="ზუღაშ დონე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ზუღაშ დონე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aras_laut" title="Aras laut – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Aras laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B2%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Далайн түвшин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Далайн түвшин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပင်လယ်ရေမျက်နှာပြင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeniveau" title="Zeeniveau – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeeniveau" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E9%9D%A2" title="海面 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海面" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="ХӀордан сиз – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="ХӀордан сиз" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siapeegel" title="Siapeegel – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Siapeegel" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havniv%C3%A5" title="Havnivå – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Havnivå" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havniv%C3%A5" title="Havnivå – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Havnivå" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niv%C3%A8l_de_la_mar" title="Nivèl de la mar – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nivèl de la mar" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengiz_sathi" title="Dengiz sathi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dengiz sathi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%AF%DA%BE%D8%B1" title="سمندری پدھر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سمندری پدھر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livel_d%C3%ABl_mar" title="Livel dël mar – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Livel dël mar" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poziom_morza" title="Poziom morza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Poziom morza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADvel_do_mar" title="Nível do mar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nível do mar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivelul_m%C4%83rii" title="Nivelul mării – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nivelul mării" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Уровень моря – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Уровень моря" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Уровень моря – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Уровень моря" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livellu_de_su_mare" title="Livellu de su mare – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Livellu de su mare" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Sea level" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sea level" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladina_mora" title="Hladina mora – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hladina mora" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morska_gladina" title="Morska gladina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Morska gladina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jooga_bada" title="Jooga bada – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Jooga bada" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Ниво светског мора – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ниво светског мора" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razina_mora" title="Razina mora – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Razina mora" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merenpinnan_taso" title="Merenpinnan taso – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Merenpinnan taso" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havsyta" title="Havsyta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Havsyta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கடல் மட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கடல் மட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%82" title="సముద్రమట్టం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సముద్రమట్టం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5" title="ระดับน้ำทะเล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" 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<div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mean_sea_level&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean sea level">Mean sea level</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Geographical reference point from which various heights are measured</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sea level (disambiguation)">Sea level (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG/300px-Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG/450px-Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG/600px-Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>This marker indicating sea level is situated between <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Mean sea level</b> (<b>MSL</b>, often shortened to <b>sea level</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">average</a> surface level of one or more among <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s coastal <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">bodies of water</a> from which heights such as <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a> may be measured. The global MSL is a type of <a href="/wiki/Vertical_datum" title="Vertical datum">vertical datum</a> – a standardised <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_datum" title="Geodetic datum">geodetic datum</a> – that is used, for example, as a <a href="/wiki/Chart_datum" title="Chart datum">chart datum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">marine navigation</a>, or, in aviation, as the <a href="/wiki/Standard_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard sea level">standard sea level</a> at which <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> is measured to <a href="/wiki/Calibration" title="Calibration">calibrate</a> altitude and, consequently, aircraft <a href="/wiki/Flight_level" title="Flight level">flight levels</a>. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead a long-term average of <a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">tide gauge</a> readings at a particular reference location.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geological time scales</a>. Current <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> is mainly caused by human-induced <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When temperatures rise, mountain <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and polar <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> melt, increasing the amount of water in the oceans, while the existing seawater also expands with heat. Because most of human settlement and infrastructure was built in response to a more-normalized sea level with limited expected change, populations affected by sea level rise will need to invest in climate adaptation to mitigate the worst effects or, when populations are at extreme risk, a process of <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">managed retreat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>above sea level</i> generally refers to the <a href="/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level" title="Height above mean sea level">height above mean sea level</a> (AMSL). The term <b>APSL</b> means above present sea level, comparing sea levels in the past with the level today. </p><p>Earth's radius at sea level is 6,378.137 km (3,963.191 mi) at the equator. It is 6,356.752 km (3,949.903 mi) at the poles and 6,371.001 km (3,958.756 mi) on average.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Reference_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference ellipsoid">flattened spheroid</a>, combined with local <a href="/wiki/Gravity_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity anomalies">gravity anomalies</a>, defines the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a> of the Earth, which approximates the local mean sea level for locations in the open ocean. The geoid includes a significant <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Geoid_Low" title="Indian Ocean Geoid Low">depression in the Indian Ocean</a>, whose surface dips as much as 106 m (348 ft) below the global mean sea level (excluding minor effects such as tides and currents).<sup id="cite_ref-Geoid_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geoid-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png/220px-Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png/330px-Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png/440px-Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Sea level measurements from 23 long <a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">tide gauge</a> records in geologically stable environments show a rise of around 200 millimetres (7.9 in) during the 20th century (2 mm/year).</figcaption></figure> <p>Precise determination of a "mean sea level" is difficult because of the many factors that affect sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-USNRC32_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNRC32-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instantaneous sea level varies substantially on several scales of time and space. This is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>, and so forth. The mean sea level at a particular location may be calculated over an extended time period and used as a <a href="/wiki/Datum_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Datum (geodesy)">datum</a>. For example, hourly measurements may be averaged over a full <a href="/wiki/Metonic_19-year_lunar_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Metonic 19-year lunar cycle">Metonic 19-year lunar cycle</a> to determine the mean sea level at an official <a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">tide gauge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Terms_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terms-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Still-water level</i> or <i>still-water sea level</i> (SWL) is the level of the sea with motions such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind waves">wind waves</a> averaged out.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then MSL implies the SWL further averaged over a period of time such that changes due to, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>, also have zero mean. <i>Global MSL</i> refers to a spatial average over the entire ocean area, typically using large sets of tide gauges and/or satellite measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-Terms_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terms-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One often measures the values of MSL with respect to the land; hence a change in <i>relative MSL</i> or (<a href="/wiki/Relative_sea_level" title="Relative sea level">relative sea level</a>) can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates, or both. In the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Datum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance Datum">ordnance datum</a> (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at <a href="/wiki/Newlyn" title="Newlyn">Newlyn</a> in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 1921, the <a href="/wiki/Vertical_datum" title="Vertical datum">vertical datum</a> was MSL at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Dock_(Liverpool)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Dock (Liverpool)">Victoria Dock, Liverpool</a>. Since the times of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and its other former parts, now independent states, the sea level is measured from the zero level of <a href="/wiki/Kronstadt" title="Kronstadt">Kronstadt</a> Sea-Gauge. In Hong Kong, "mPD" is a surveying term meaning "metres above Principal Datum" and refers to height of 0.146 m (5.7 in) above <a href="/wiki/Chart_datum" title="Chart datum">chart datum</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1.304 m (4 ft 3.3 in) below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and offers the longest collated data about the sea level. It is used for a part of continental Europe and the main part of Africa as the official sea level. <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> uses the reference to measure heights below or above sea level at <a href="/wiki/Alicante" title="Alicante">Alicante</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/EUREF#European_Vertical_Reference_System_(EVRS)" class="mw-redirect" title="EUREF">European Vertical Reference System</a> is calibrated to the <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum" title="Amsterdam Ordnance Datum">Amsterdam Peil</a> elevation, which dates back to the 1690s. </p><p>Satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of <a href="/wiki/TOPEX/Poseidon" title="TOPEX/Poseidon">TOPEX/Poseidon</a> in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A joint mission of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">CNES</a>, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by <a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a> in 2001 and the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Surface_Topography_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean Surface Topography Mission">Ocean Surface Topography Mission</a> on the Jason-2 satellite in 2008. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Height_above_mean_sea_level"><span class="anchor" id="Above_mean_sea_level"></span><span class="anchor" id="AMSL"></span> Height above mean sea level</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Height above mean sea level"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level" title="Height above mean sea level">Height above mean sea level</a></div> <p><i>Height above mean sea level</i> (<i>AMSL</i>) is the elevation (on the ground) or altitude (in the air) of an object, relative to a reference datum for mean sea level (MSL). It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to mean sea level (contrast with <a href="/wiki/Flight_level" title="Flight level">flight level</a>), and in the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric sciences">atmospheric sciences</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Land_surveying" class="mw-redirect" title="Land surveying">land surveying</a>. An alternative is to base height measurements on a <a href="/wiki/Reference_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference ellipsoid">reference ellipsoid</a> approximating the entire Earth, which is what systems such as <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> do. In aviation, the reference ellipsoid known as <a href="/wiki/WGS84" class="mw-redirect" title="WGS84">WGS84</a> is increasingly used to define heights; however, differences up to 100 metres (328 feet) exist between this ellipsoid height and local mean sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-Geoid_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geoid-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another alternative is to use a <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>-based vertical <a href="/wiki/Datum_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Datum (geodesy)">datum</a> such as <a href="/wiki/North_American_Vertical_Datum_of_1988" title="North American Vertical Datum of 1988">NAVD88</a> and the global <a href="/wiki/EGM96" class="mw-redirect" title="EGM96">EGM96</a> (part of WGS84). Details vary in different countries. </p><p>When referring to <a href="/wiki/Geographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic">geographic</a> features such as mountains, on a <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">topographic map</a> variations in elevation are shown by <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a>. A mountain's highest point or summit is typically illustrated with the AMSL height in metres, feet or both. In unusual cases where a land location is below sea level, such as <a href="/wiki/Death_Valley,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Death Valley, California">Death Valley, California</a>, the elevation AMSL is negative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Difficulties_in_use">Difficulties in use</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Difficulties in use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoida.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Geoida.svg/220px-Geoida.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Geoida.svg/330px-Geoida.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Geoida.svg/440px-Geoida.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption><div><ol><li>Ocean</li><li><a href="/wiki/Reference_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference ellipsoid">Reference ellipsoid</a></li><li>Local <a href="/wiki/Plumb-bob" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumb-bob">plumb line</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">Geoid</a></li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <p>It is often necessary to compare the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or geodetic datum, called the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a>. In the absence of external forces, the local mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitational</a> field which, in itself, does not conform to a simple sphere or ellipsoid and exhibits <a href="/wiki/Gravity_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity anomalies">gravity anomalies</a> such as those measured by NASA's <a href="/wiki/GRACE_satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="GRACE satellites">GRACE satellites</a>. In reality, the geoid surface is not directly observed, even as a long-term average, due to ocean currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc. The location-dependent but time-persistent separation between local mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (mean) <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">ocean surface topography</a>. It varies globally in a typical range of ±1 m (3 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dry_land">Dry land</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dry land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Sea_level" title="Special:EditPage/Sea level">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BadwaterSL.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BadwaterSL.JPG/190px-BadwaterSL.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BadwaterSL.JPG/285px-BadwaterSL.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BadwaterSL.JPG/380px-BadwaterSL.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Sea level sign seen on cliff (circled in red) at <a href="/wiki/Badwater_Basin" title="Badwater Basin">Badwater Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death_Valley_National_Park" title="Death Valley National Park">Death Valley National Park</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Several terms are used to describe the changing relationships between sea level and dry land. </p> <ul><li>"relative" means change relative to a fixed point in the sediment pile.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"eustatic" refers to global changes in sea level relative to a fixed point, such as the centre of the earth, for example as a result of melting ice-caps.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"steric" refers to global changes in sea level due to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> variations.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"isostatic" refers to changes in the level of the land relative to a fixed point in the earth, possibly due to thermal buoyancy or <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic</a> effects, disregarding changes in the volume of water in the oceans.</li></ul> <p>The melting of <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> results in isostatic <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">post-glacial rebound</a>, when land rises after the weight of ice is removed. Conversely, older volcanic islands experience <a href="/wiki/Relative_sea_level" title="Relative sea level">relative sea level</a> rise, due to isostatic <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> from the weight of cooling volcanos. The subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> is another isostatic cause of relative sea level rise. </p><p>On planets that lack a liquid ocean, <a href="/wiki/Planetologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetologist">planetologists</a> can calculate a "mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea level" or <a href="/wiki/Zero-level_elevation" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero-level elevation">zero-level elevation</a>, serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Change"><span class="anchor" id="Change"></span> Change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Past_sea_level" title="Past sea level">Past sea level</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_and_eustatic">Local and eustatic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Local and eustatic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eustatic_sea_level" title="Eustatic sea level">Eustatic sea level</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png/220px-Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png/330px-Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png/440px-Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Water cycles</a> between ocean, <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Local mean sea level (LMSL)</b> is defined as the height of the sea with respect to a land benchmark, averaged over a period of time long enough that fluctuations caused by <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean surface wave">waves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> are smoothed out, typically a year or more. One must adjust perceived changes in LMSL to account for vertical movements of the land, which can occur at rates similar to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level changes</a> (millimetres per year). </p><p>Some land movements occur because of <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostatic</a> adjustment to the melting of <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">last ice age</a>. The weight of the ice sheet depresses the underlying land, and when the ice melts away the <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">land slowly rebounds</a>. Changes in ground-based ice volume also affect local and regional sea levels by the readjustment of the <a href="/wiki/Geoid" title="Geoid">geoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/True_polar_wander" title="True polar wander">true polar wander</a>. <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well. </p><p><b>Eustatic sea level</b> change (global as opposed to local change) is due to change in either the volume of water in the world's oceans or the volume of the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">oceanic basins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oilfield_Glossary_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oilfield_Glossary-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two major mechanisms are currently causing eustatic sea level rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water expands.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Short-term_and_periodic_changes"><span class="anchor" id="Short_term_and_periodic_changes"></span>Short-term and periodic changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Short-term and periodic changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg/220px-Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg/330px-Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg/440px-Global_sea_levels_during_the_last_Ice_Age.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a> caused a much lower global sea level.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_(8742463970).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg/220px-Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg/330px-Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg/440px-Glaciers_and_Sea_Level_Rise_%288742463970%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>Warming temperatures and melting glaciers are currently raising the sea level.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many factors can produce short-term changes in sea level, typically within a few metres, in timeframes ranging from minutes to months: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:lightgrey;">Periodic sea level changes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Diurnal and semidiurnal astronomical tides</td> <td>12–24 h P</td> <td>0.1–10+ m </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long-period tides</td> <td>2-week to 1-year P</td> <td><0.1 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pole tides (<a href="/wiki/Chandler_wobble" title="Chandler wobble">Chandler wobble</a>)</td> <td>14-month P</td> <td>5 mm </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:lightgrey;">Meteorological and oceanographic fluctuations </th></tr> <tr> <td>Atmospheric pressure</td> <td>Hours to months</td> <td>−0.7 to 1.3 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>Winds (<a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a>)</td> <td>1–5 days</td> <td>Up to 5 m </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">Evaporation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> (may also follow long-term pattern)</td> <td>Days to weeks</td> <td><0.1m </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a> (changes in water <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and currents)</td> <td>Days to weeks</td> <td>Up to 1 m </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a>/<a href="/wiki/Southern_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern oscillation">southern oscillation</a></td> <td>6 mo every 5–10 yr</td> <td>Up to 0.6 m </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:lightgrey;">Seasonal variations </th></tr> <tr> <td>Seasonal water balance among oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian)</td> <td>6 months</td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seasonal variations in slope of water surface</td> <td>6 months</td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>River runoff/floods</td> <td>2 months</td> <td>1 m </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seasonal water density changes (temperature and <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>)</td> <td>6 months</td> <td>0.2 m </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:lightgrey;">Seiches </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiches</a> (standing waves)</td> <td>Minutes to hours</td> <td>Up to 2 m </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="background:lightgrey;">Earthquakes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunamis</a> (catastrophic long-period waves)</td> <td>Hours</td> <td>0.1–10+ m </td></tr> <tr> <td>Abrupt change in land level</td> <td>Minutes</td> <td>Up to 10 m </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_changes">Recent changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Recent changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">Ocean heat content</a> and <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1216">: 1216 </span></sup> This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1216">: 1216 </span></sup> The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WMO_20230421_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_WMO_20230421-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> due to human activities is the main cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5, 8">: 5, 8 </span></sup> Between 1993 and 2018, melting <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> accounted for 44% of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>, with another 42% resulting from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1576">: 1576 </span></sup> </p><p>Sea level rise lags behind changes in the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s temperature by many decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What happens after that depends on human <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 slightly over 30 cm (1 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1.0 m (<span class="frac">3<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> ft) or even <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.6 m (<span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> ft) by 2100.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1302">: 1302 </span></sup> In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> </p><p>Rising seas affect every coastal and island population on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_wg1-5-5-1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_wg1-5-5-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be through flooding, higher <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_tide" title="King tide">king tides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. There are many knock-on effects. They lead to loss of coastal <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> like <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">Crop yields</a> may reduce because of <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">increasing salt levels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> water. Damage to ports disrupts sea trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC-2001_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC-2001-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Holder-2017_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_Holder-2017-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sea level rise projected by 2050 will expose places currently inhabited by tens of millions of people to annual flooding. Without a sharp reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this may increase to hundreds of millions in the latter decades of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Kulp2019_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_Kulp2019-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local factors like <a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">tidal range</a> or land <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> will greatly affect the severity of impacts. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level rise in the United States">sea level rise in the United States</a> is likely to be two to three times greater than the global average by the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_NOAA-2022_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_NOAA-2022-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, of the 20 countries with the greatest exposure to sea level rise, twelve are in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_AR6_WGII_Chapter10_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_AR6_WGII_Chapter10-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resilience and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptive capacity</a> of ecosystems and countries also varies, which will result in more or less pronounced impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The greatest <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on humans">impact on human populations</a> in the near term will occur in the low-lying <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific islands">Pacific islands</a>. Sea level rise will make many of them uninhabitable later this century.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_AR6_WGII_Chapter15_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_AR6_WGII_Chapter15-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Societies can adapt to sea level rise in multiple ways. <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">accommodating coastal change</a>, or protecting against sea level rise through hard-construction practices like <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">seawalls</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are hard approaches. There are also soft approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">dune rehabilitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a>. Sometimes these adaptation strategies go hand in hand. At other times choices must be made among different strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Thomsen-2012_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_Thomsen-2012-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poorer nations may also struggle to implement the same approaches to adapt to sea level rise as richer states.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aviation">Aviation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Altitude_in_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Altitude in aviation">Altitude in aviation</a></div> <p>Pilots can estimate height above sea level with an <a href="/wiki/Altimeter" title="Altimeter">altimeter</a> set to a defined <a href="/wiki/Barometric_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Barometric pressure">barometric pressure</a>. Generally, the pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over. This pressure is referred to as either <a href="/wiki/QNH" class="mw-redirect" title="QNH">QNH</a> or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> (ATC) or an <a href="/wiki/Automatic_terminal_information_service" title="Automatic terminal information service">automatic terminal information service</a> (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading. <a href="/wiki/Aviation_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation chart">Aviation charts</a> are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated. Once above the transition altitude, the altimeter is set to the <a href="/wiki/International_standard_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="International standard atmosphere">international standard atmosphere</a> (ISA) pressure at MSL which is 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Above_ground_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Above ground level">Above ground level</a> – Height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Ordnance_Datum" title="Amsterdam Ordnance Datum">Amsterdam Ordnance Datum</a>, also known as <i>Normaal Amsterdams Peil</i> – Vertical datum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">Before Present</a> – Time scale used in scientific disciplines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chart_datum" title="Chart datum">Chart datum</a> – Level of water from which depths displayed on a nautical chart are measured</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of Earth">Extreme points of Earth</a> – List of extreme geographical points and other geophysical records on Earth<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopotential_height" title="Geopotential height">Geopotential height</a> – Type of altitude above mean sea level</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_above_average_terrain" title="Height above average terrain">Height above average terrain</a> – Height based on large area surrounding object; often used in U.S. for antenna towers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level" title="List of places on land with elevations below sea level">List of places on land with elevations below sea level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meltwater_pulse_1A" title="Meltwater pulse 1A">Meltwater pulse 1A</a> – Period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metres_above_the_Adriatic" title="Metres above the Adriatic">Metres above the Adriatic</a> – Vertical datum used in parts of Europe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_height" title="Normal height">Normal height</a> – Altitude above quasigeoid or mean sea level</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalh%C3%B6hennull" title="Normalhöhennull"><i>Normalhöhennull</i></a> – Vertical datum used in Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalnull" title="Normalnull"><i>Normalnull</i></a> – Outdated official vertical datum used in Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a> – Facility that monitors physical, sedimentological and ecological variables for the North Sea area</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnance_datum" title="Ordnance datum">Ordnance datum</a> – Vertical datum used as the basis for deriving altitudes on maps (UK and Ireland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthometric_height" title="Orthometric height">Orthometric height</a> – Altitude above geoid or mean sea level</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a>, also known as Marine terrace – Emergent coastal landform</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Reference_Frame_Sub-Commission_for_Europe" title="Regional Reference Frame Sub-Commission for Europe">Regional Reference Frame Sub-Commission for Europe</a> – sub-commission of the International Association of Geodesy<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a> – Drop relative to land rebounding from weight of ice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level equation">Sea level equation</a> – Rise of land masses after glacial period<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a> – Geodetic reference system</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psmsl.org/train_and_info/faqs/#1"><i>What is "Mean Sea Level"?</i></a> Liverpool, UK: <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanography_Centre" title="National Oceanography Centre">National Oceanography Centre</a>. 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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US, pp. 3−32, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009157896.001">10.1017/9781009157896.001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWCRP_Global_Sea_Level_Budget_Group2018" class="citation journal cs1">WCRP Global Sea Level Budget Group (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fessd-10-1551-2018">"Global sea-level budget 1993–present"</a>. <i>Earth System Science Data</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 1551–1590. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ESSD...10.1551W">2018ESSD...10.1551W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fessd-10-1551-2018">10.5194/essd-10-1551-2018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F287786">20.500.11850/287786</a></span>. <q>This corresponds to a mean sea-level rise of about 7.5 cm over the whole altimetry period. More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr<sup>2</sup>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+System+Science+Data&rft.atitle=Global+sea-level+budget+1993%E2%80%93present&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1551-1590&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11850%2F287786&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fessd-10-1551-2018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018ESSD...10.1551W&rft.au=WCRP+Global+Sea+Level+Budget+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5194%252Fessd-10-1551-2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASea+level" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine2011" class="citation book cs1">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12877/chapter/3">"Synopsis"</a>. <i>Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPCC%27s+New+Estimates+for+Increased+Sea-Level+Rise&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yaleclimateconnections.org%2F2013%2F10%2Fipccs-new-estimates-for-increased-sea-level-rise%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASea+level" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sea_level_rise_Thomsen-2012-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_Thomsen-2012_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsenSmithKeys2012" class="citation journal cs1">Thomsen, Dana C.; Smith, Timothy F.; Keys, Noni (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5751%2Fes-04953-170320">"Adaptation or Manipulation? Unpacking Climate Change Response Strategies"</a>. <i>Ecology and Society</i>. <b>17</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5751%2Fes-04953-170320">10.5751/es-04953-170320</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10535%2F8585">10535/8585</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269087">26269087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+and+Society&rft.atitle=Adaptation+or+Manipulation%3F+Unpacking+Climate+Change+Response+Strategies&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10535%2F8585&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26269087%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5751%2Fes-04953-170320&rft.aulast=Thomsen&rft.aufirst=Dana+C.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Timothy+F.&rft.au=Keys%2C+Noni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5751%252Fes-04953-170320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASea+level" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a>, Code of Federal Regulations <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFar.nsf/3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocument">Sec. 91.121</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090426130539/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFar.nsf/3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocument">Archived</a> 26 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sea_level&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sea_level" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sea level">Sea level</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.csiro.au/slrwavescoast/sea-level/">Sea Level Rise:Understanding the past – Improving projections for the future</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100310181956/http://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/">Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090708014832/http://www.agu.org/revgeophys/dougla01/dougla01.html">Global sea level change: Determination and interpretation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090710124721/http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.html">Environment Protection Agency Sea level rise reports</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721060035/http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/index.htm">Properties of isostasy and eustasy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/">Measuring Sea Level from Space</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016104450/http://www.scivee.tv/node/8324">Rising Tide Video: Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends.shtml">Sea Levels Online: National Ocean Service (CO-OPS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonel.org/">Système d'Observation du Niveau des Eaux Littorales (SONEL)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120603123140/http://ice.tsu.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=138">Sea level rise – How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries?</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a 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