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id="toc-Military_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategy_for_the_defense_of_Nanjing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy_for_the_defense_of_Nanjing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Strategy for the defense of Nanjing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy_for_the_defense_of_Nanjing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approach_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approach_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Approach of the Imperial Japanese Army</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Approach_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Approach of the Imperial Japanese Army subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Approach_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japanese_war_crimes_on_the_march_to_Nanjing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_war_crimes_on_the_march_to_Nanjing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanjing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_war_crimes_on_the_march_to_Nanjing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retreating_Chinese_Troops'_Scorched-Earth_Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retreating_Chinese_Troops'_Scorched-Earth_Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Retreating Chinese Troops' Scorched-Earth Policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retreating_Chinese_Troops'_Scorched-Earth_Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Establishment of the Nanking Safety Zone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_refugee_camp_at_cement_factory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_refugee_camp_at_cement_factory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Establishment of refugee camp at cement factory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_refugee_camp_at_cement_factory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prince_Asaka_appointed_as_commander" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prince_Asaka_appointed_as_commander"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Prince Asaka appointed as commander</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prince_Asaka_appointed_as_commander-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Nanjing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Nanjing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Battle of Nanjing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Battle_of_Nanjing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Battle of Nanjing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Nanjing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Siege_of_the_city" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_the_city"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Siege of the city</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_the_city-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demand_for_surrender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demand_for_surrender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Demand for surrender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demand_for_surrender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assault_and_capture_of_Nanjing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assault_and_capture_of_Nanjing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Assault and capture of Nanjing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assault_and_capture_of_Nanjing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pursuit_and_"mopping-up_operations"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pursuit_and_"mopping-up_operations""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Pursuit and "mopping-up operations"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pursuit_and_"mopping-up_operations"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civilian_population_and_evacuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civilian_population_and_evacuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Civilian population and evacuation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civilian_population_and_evacuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Massacre</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Massacre-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Massacre subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacre_contest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacre_contest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Massacre contest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacre_contest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Rape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacre_of_civilians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacre_of_civilians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Massacre of civilians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacre_of_civilians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extrajudicial_killing_of_Chinese_prisoners_of_war_and_male_civilians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extrajudicial_killing_of_Chinese_prisoners_of_war_and_male_civilians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Extrajudicial killing of Chinese prisoners of war and male civilians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extrajudicial_killing_of_Chinese_prisoners_of_war_and_male_civilians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Looting_and_arson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Looting_and_arson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Looting and arson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Looting_and_arson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanking_Safety_Zone_and_the_role_of_foreigners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanking_Safety_Zone_and_the_role_of_foreigners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Nanking Safety Zone and the role of foreigners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanking_Safety_Zone_and_the_role_of_foreigners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Matsui's_reaction_to_the_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matsui's_reaction_to_the_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Matsui's reaction to the massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matsui's_reaction_to_the_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>End of the massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recall_of_Matsui_and_Asaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recall_of_Matsui_and_Asaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Recall of Matsui and Asaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recall_of_Matsui_and_Asaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_collection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_collection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Evidence collection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_collection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll_estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll_estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Death toll estimates</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death_toll_estimates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Death toll estimates subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Death_toll_estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Range_and_duration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Range_and_duration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Range and duration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Range_and_duration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes_tribunals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes_tribunals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>War crimes tribunals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_crimes_tribunals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War crimes tribunals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_crimes_tribunals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grant_of_immunity_to_Prince_Asaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grant_of_immunity_to_Prince_Asaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Grant of immunity to Prince Asaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grant_of_immunity_to_Prince_Asaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_and_testimony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_and_testimony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Evidence and testimony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_and_testimony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Matsui's_defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matsui's_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Matsui's defense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matsui's_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verdict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verdict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Verdict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verdict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sentence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Sentence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Other trials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Memorials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memorials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Controversy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Debate_in_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_in_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Debate in Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_in_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denials_of_the_massacre_in_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denials_of_the_massacre_in_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Denials of the massacre in Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denials_of_the_massacre_in_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_on_international_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_international_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Effect on international relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_international_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_component_of_national_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_component_of_national_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>As a component of national identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_component_of_national_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Records</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanjing Massacre</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloedbad_van_Nanjing" title="Bloedbad van Nanjing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bloedbad van Nanjing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%BA" title="مذبحة نانجنغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مذبحة نانجنغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Nank%C3%ADn" title="Masacre de Nankín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Masacre de Nankín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankin_q%C4%B1r%C4%9F%C4%B1n%C4%B1" title="Nankin qırğını – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nankin qırğını" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82_%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="نانجینق قتل‌عامی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نانجینق قتل‌عامی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="নানচিং গণহত্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নানচিং গণহত্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2m-kia%E2%81%BF_To%C4%81-t%C3%B4%CD%98-sat" title="Lâm-kiaⁿ Toā-tô͘-sat – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lâm-kiaⁿ Toā-tô͘-sat" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Нанкінская разня – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нанкінская разня" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Клане в Нанкин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Клане в Нанкин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazhadeg_Nanjing" title="Lazhadeg Nanjing – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Lazhadeg Nanjing" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Nanqu%C3%ADn" title="Massacre de Nanquín – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Massacre de Nanquín" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankingsk%C3%BD_masakr" title="Nankingský masakr – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nankingský masakr" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing-massakren" title="Nanjing-massakren – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nanjing-massakren" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massaker_von_Nanking" title="Massaker von Nanking – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Massaker von Nanking" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjingi_veresaun" title="Nanjingi veresaun – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nanjingi veresaun" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Σφαγή της Ναντσίνγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σφαγή της Ναντσίνγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Nank%C3%ADn" title="Masacre de Nankín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Masacre de Nankín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amasbu%C4%89o_de_Nankino" title="Amasbuĉo de Nankino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Amasbuĉo de Nankino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankingo_sarraskia" title="Nankingo sarraskia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nankingo sarraskia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="قتل‌عام نانجینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قتل‌عام نانجینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Nankin" title="Massacre de Nankin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Massacre de Nankin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_Nanjing" title="Masacre de Nanjing – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Masacre de Nanjing" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="南京大屠殺 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="南京大屠殺" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A0m-k%C3%AEn_Thai-th%C3%B9-sat" title="Nàm-kîn Thai-thù-sat – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Nàm-kîn Thai-thù-sat" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%9C%EC%A7%95_%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="난징 대학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="난징 대학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE" title="Նանկինի կոտորած – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նանկինի կոտորած" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नानचिंग नरसंहार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नानचिंग नरसंहार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembantaian_Nanking" title="Pembantaian Nanking – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pembantaian Nanking" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing-fj%C3%B6ldamor%C3%B0in" title="Nanjing-fjöldamorðin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nanjing-fjöldamorðin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacro_di_Nanchino" title="Massacro di Nanchino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Massacro di Nanchino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%91%D7%97_%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="טבח נאנג'ינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טבח נאנג'ינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%B9%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B5%E0%BB%88%E0%BB%9C%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B4%E0%BB%8B%E0%BA%87" title="ການສັງຫານໝູ່ທີ່ໜານຈິ໋ງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການສັງຫານໝູ່ທີ່ໜານຈິ໋ງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C5%86dzjinas_slakti%C5%86%C5%A1" title="Naņdzjinas slaktiņš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Naņdzjinas slaktiņš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankino_%C5%BEudyn%C4%97s" title="Nankino žudynės – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nankino žudynės" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankingi_m%C3%A9sz%C3%A1rl%C3%A1s" title="Nankingi mészárlás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nankingi mészárlás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B2" title="നാൻജിങ് കൂട്ടക്കൊല – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നാൻജിങ് കൂട്ടക്കൊല" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2" title="नान्जिंगची कत्तल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नान्जिंगची कत्तल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembunuhan_beramai-ramai_di_Nanjing" title="Pembunuhan beramai-ramai di Nanjing – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembunuhan beramai-ramai di Nanjing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="နန်ကျင်း အစုလိုက်အပြုံလိုက် သတ်ဖြတ်မှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နန်ကျင်း အစုလိုက်အပြုံလိုက် သတ်ဖြတ်မှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloedbad_van_Nanking" title="Bloedbad van Nanking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bloedbad van Nanking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नानचिङ नरसंहार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नानचिङ नरसंहार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="南京事件 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南京事件" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjingmassakren" title="Nanjingmassakren – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nanjingmassakren" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%AE" title="ਨਾਨਜਿੰਗ ਕਤਲੇਆਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਾਨਜਿੰਗ ਕਤਲੇਆਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نانجنگ قتل عام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نانجنگ قتل عام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AB_%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86%D9%87" title="د نانجینګ ټول وژنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د نانجینګ ټول وژنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_nanki%C5%84ska" title="Masakra nankińska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Masakra nankińska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_Nanquim" title="Massacre de Nanquim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Massacre de Nanquim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacrul_din_Nanking" title="Masacrul din Nanking – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Masacrul din Nanking" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Нанкинская резня – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нанкинская резня" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_e_Nanxhing" title="Masakra e Nanxhing – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Masakra e Nanxhing" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nanjing Massacre" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankinsk%C3%BD_masaker" title="Nankinský masaker – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nankinský masaker" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80" title="Нанкиншки масакр – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нанкиншки масакр" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjingin_veril%C3%B6yly" title="Nanjingin verilöyly – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nanjingin verilöyly" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjingmassakern" title="Nanjingmassakern – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nanjingmassakern" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaker_sa_Nanking" title="Masaker sa Nanking – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Masaker sa Nanking" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="நாங்கிங் படுகொலைகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நாங்கிங் படுகொலைகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%8A%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A4" title="న్యాంజింగు ఊచకోత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="న్యాంజింగు ఊచకోత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="การสังหารหมู่ที่หนานจิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสังหารหมู่ที่หนานจิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankin_Katliam%C4%B1" title="Nankin Katliamı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nankin Katliamı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Різанина в Нанкіні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Різанина в Нанкіні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%84_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نانجنگ قتل عام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نانجنگ قتل عام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%A3m_s%C3%A1t_Nam_Kinh" title="Thảm sát Nam Kinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thảm sát Nam Kinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%B9%8B%E5%B1%A0" title="南京之屠 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="南京之屠" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80" title="南京大屠杀 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="南京大屠杀" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="南京大屠殺 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="南京大屠殺" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA" title="南京大屠殺 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="南京大屠殺" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1937 mass murder of Chinese civilians by the Japanese army</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book by Iris Chang, see <a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)"><i>The Rape of Nanking</i> (book)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Nanjing Massacre</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Battle of Nanking</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/240px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/360px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg/480px-Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="559" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A Japanese soldier pictured with the corpses of Chinese civilians by the <a href="/wiki/Qinhuai_River" title="Qinhuai River">Qinhuai River</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> Province, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">From December 13, 1937, for six weeks<sup id="cite_ref-duration_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duration-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese people</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">Mass murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wartime_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartime rape">wartime rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">200,000 civilians (consensus),<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> estimates range from 40,000 to over 300,000</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data">20,000 to 80,000 women and children raped, 30,000 to 40,000 POWs executed (another 20,000 male civilians falsely accused of being soldiers executed)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yasuhiko_Asaka" title="Prince Yasuhiko Asaka">Prince Yasuhiko Asaka</a> (<i>granted immunity</i>)</li> <li>Gen. <a href="/wiki/Iwane_Matsui" title="Iwane Matsui">Iwane Matsui</a></li> <li>Lt. Col. <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Ch%C5%8D" title="Isamu Chō">Isamu Chō</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Nanjing_Massacre" title="Category:Nanjing Massacre">the series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#B0C4DE"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanjing Massacre</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Battle of Nanking (1937)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Safety_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Safety Zone">Nanjing Safety Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanjing_Safety_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee for the Nanjing Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanjing Safety Zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccf"> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_man_killing_contest" title="Hundred man killing contest">Hundred man killing contest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccf"> <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_toll_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre">Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_denial" title="Nanjing Massacre denial">Nanjing Massacre denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_Memorial_Day" title="Nanjing Massacre Memorial Day">Nanjing Massacre Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Hall_of_the_Victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre_by_Japanese_Invaders" title="Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders">Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbook controversies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccf"> Films</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_China" title="The Battle of China">The Battle of China</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Sun:_The_Nanking_Massacre" title="Black Sun: The Nanking Massacre">Black Sun: The Nanking Massacre</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Life_and_Death" title="City of Life and Death">City of Life and Death</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Cry,_Nanking" title="Don't Cry, Nanking">Don't Cry, Nanking</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Flowers_of_War" title="The Flowers of War">The Flowers of War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/John_Rabe_(film)" title="John Rabe (film)">John Rabe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanking_(2007_film)" title="Nanking (2007 film)">Nanking</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Truth_about_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Truth about Nanjing">The Truth about Nanjing</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccf"> Books</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Goddess_at_the_Rape_of_Nanking" title="American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking">American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Man_of_Nanking" title="The Good Man of Nanking">The Good Man of Nanking</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)">The Rape of Nanking</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_(novel)" title="Tokyo (novel)">Tokyo</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><span style="font-size:91%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War"><span class="wrap">Second Sino-Japanese War</span></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1931–1937 (pre-war skirmishes)</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lytton_Report" title="Lytton Report">Lytton Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangqiao_campaign" title="Jiangqiao campaign">Jiangqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_at_Nenjiang_Bridge" title="Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge">Nenjiang Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinzhou_Operation" title="Jinzhou Operation">Jinzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Harbin" title="Defense of Harbin">Harbin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">1st Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Inner Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">Rehe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_campaign" title="Suiyuan campaign">Suiyuan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>1937–1939</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Beiping–Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Chahar" title="Operation Chahar">Chahar</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">2nd Shanghai</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Sihang_Warehouse" title="Defense of Sihang Warehouse">Sihang Warehouse</a></li></ul></li> <li>Railway Operation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiping%E2%80%93Hankou_Railway_Operation" title="Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation">Beiping–Hankou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin%E2%80%93Pukou_Railway_Operation" title="Tianjin–Pukou Railway Operation">Tianjin–Pukou</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pingxingguan" title="Battle of Pingxingguan">Pingxingguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xinkou" title="Battle of Xinkou">Xinkou</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Nanking</a></b> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taierzhuang" title="Battle of Taierzhuang">Taierzhuang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_and_Eastern_Henan" title="Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan">North-East Henan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lanfeng" title="Battle of Lanfeng">Lanfeng</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_Operation" title="Amoy Operation">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Chongqing</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/1938_Yellow_River_flood" title="1938 Yellow River flood">Yellow River flood</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Wuhan</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wanjialing" title="Battle of Wanjialing">Wanjialing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Changsha_fire" title="1938 Changsha fire">Wenxi fire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Operation" title="Canton Operation">Canton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_Operation" title="Hainan Island Operation">Hainan</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanchang" title="Battle of Nanchang">Nanchang</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Suixian–Zaoyang</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_Operation" title="Swatow Operation">Swatow</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">1st Changsha</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">South Guangxi</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunlun_Pass" title="Battle of Kunlun Pass">Kunlun Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">Winter Offensive</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Suiyuan" title="Battle of West Suiyuan">West Suiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuyuan" title="Battle of Wuyuan">Wuyuan</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>1940–1942</dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Zaoyang–Yichang</a></b></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments</a></b></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">North Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hubei_Operation" title="Central Hubei Operation">Central Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">South Anhui</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">South Henan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hubei_Operation" title="Western Hubei Operation">West Hubei</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Shanggao</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">South Shanxi</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">2nd Changsha</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">3rd Changsha</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Yunnan%E2%80%93Burma_Road" title="Battle of the Yunnan–Burma Road">Yunnan-Burma Road</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tachiao" title="Battle of Tachiao">Tachiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oktwin" title="Battle of Oktwin">Oktwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toungoo" title="Battle of Toungoo">Toungoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yenangyaung" title="Battle of Yenangyaung">Yenangyaung</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang–Jiangxi</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_Japanese_invasion_of_Sichuan" title="Proposed Japanese invasion of Sichuan">Sichuan (cancelled)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1943–1945</dt></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">West Hubei</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">North Burma and West Yunnan</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Myitkyina" title="Siege of Myitkyina">Myitkyina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">Mount Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></b></li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></b></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1944)" title="Battle of Changsha (1944)">4th Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hengyang" title="Battle of Hengyang">Hengyang</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guilin%E2%80%93Liuzhou" title="Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou">Guilin–Liuzhou</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Henan%E2%80%93North_Hubei" title="Battle of West Henan–North Hubei">West Henan–North Hubei</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Guangxi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Aerial_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Air War</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taihoku_Air_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Taihoku Air Strike">Taihoku</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_campaigns_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Japanese_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Japanese colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_campaigns_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Military campaigns of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan"><span class="wrap">Empire of Japan</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganghwa_Island_incident" title="Ganghwa Island incident">Ganghwa (1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_Disposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryūkyū Disposition">Ryukyu (1879)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan (1894–1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Liaodong Peninsula (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">China (1899–1901)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Manchuria and Korea (1904–1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Korea (1910)</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishō period">Taishō period</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tsingtao" title="Siege of Tsingtao">Tsingtao (1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_German_colonial_possessions" title="Japanese occupation of German colonial possessions">German Pacific possesions (1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberia (1918–1922)</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_(1926%E2%80%931989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōwa (1926–1989)">Shōwa period</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria and Inner Mongolia (1931–1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China (1937–45)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">French Indochina (1940)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia-Pacific (1941–1945)</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the<br />Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/225px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1912–1949</span><br />Mainland rule</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Gov't</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government (China)">Nationalist Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nanjing Massacre</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1945–present</span><br />Taiwan</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_28_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="February 28 Incident">February 28 Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Exodus to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Republic of China in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Lily_student_movement" title="Wild Lily student movement">Wild Lily student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Xinhai_Revolution_and_Republic_of_China" title="100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China">100th anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 Ma–Xi meeting">2015 Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Summer_Universiade" title="2017 Summer Universiade">2017 Summer Universiade</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">History of</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">the PRC</a><br />(1949–present)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a><br />(geographical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taipei" title="History of Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kaohsiung" title="History of Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kuomintang" title="History of the Kuomintang">the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">the Taiwan issue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Nanjing Massacre</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <b>Rape of Nanjing</b> (formerly <a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">romanized</a> as <i>Nanking</i><b><sup id="cite_ref-romanization_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-romanization-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b>) was the mass murder of Chinese civilians in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Republic of China</a>, immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Battle of Nanking</a> and the retreat of the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_DOCS_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO_DOCS-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale_Bartlett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning on December 13, 1937, the massacre lasted six weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-duration_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duration-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The perpetrators also committed other war crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Mass_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass rape">mass rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>. The massacre is considered to be one of the worst <a href="/wiki/Wartime_atrocities" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartime atrocities">wartime atrocities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamamoto_M._2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamamoto_M._2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000backcover_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2000backcover-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Japanese army had pushed quickly through China after <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">capturing Shanghai</a> in November 1937. As the Japanese marched on Nanjing, they committed violent atrocities in a terror campaign, including <a href="/wiki/Hundred_man_killing_contest" title="Hundred man killing contest">killing contests</a> and massacring entire villages.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By early December, their army had reached the outskirts of Nanjing. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">Chinese army</a> withdrew the bulk of its forces since Nanjing was not a defensible position. The civilian government of Nanjing fled, leaving the city under the <i>de facto</i> control of German citizen <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a>, who had founded the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a>. On December 5, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Yasuhiko_Asaka" title="Prince Yasuhiko Asaka">Prince Yasuhiko Asaka</a> was installed as Japanese commander in the campaign. Whether Asaka ordered the massacre is disputed, but he took no action to stop the massacre. </p><p>The massacre officially began on December 13, the day Japanese troops entered the city after a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">ferocious battle</a>. They rampaged through Nanjing almost unchecked. Captured Chinese soldiers were summarily executed in violation of the laws of war, as were numerous male civilians falsely accused of being soldiers. Rape and looting were widespread. Due to multiple factors, death toll estimates vary from 40,000 to over 300,000, with rape cases ranging from 20,000 to over 80,000 cases. However, most scholars support the validity of the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> and its findings, which estimate at least 200,000 murders and at least 20,000 cases of rape. The massacre finally wound down in early 1938. John Rabe's Safety Zone was mostly a success, and is credited with saving at least 200,000 lives. After the war, multiple Japanese military officers and <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dki_Hirota" title="Kōki Hirota">Kōki Hirota</a>, former Prime Minister of Japan and foreign minister during the atrocities, were found guilty of war crimes and executed. Some other Japanese military leaders in charge at the time of the Nanjing Massacre were not tried only because by the time of the tribunals they had either already been killed or committed <i><a href="/wiki/Seppuku" title="Seppuku">seppuku</a></i> (ritual suicide). Prince Asaka, as part of the Imperial Family, was granted immunity and never tried. </p><p>The massacre remains a <a href="/wiki/Wedge_issue" title="Wedge issue">wedge issue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese relations">Sino-Japanese relations</a>. Historical revisionists and nationalists as well as many government officials in Japan have either denied or minimized the massacre. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_situation">Military situation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Battle of Nanking</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> commenced on July 7, 1937, following the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a>, and rapidly escalated into a full-scale war in northern China between the Chinese and Japanese armies.<sup id="cite_ref-JTaylor_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTaylor-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">Chinese Nationalist Forces</a>, however, wanted to avoid a decisive conflict in the northern region and instead opened a second front by launching offensives against Japanese forces in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JTaylor_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JTaylor-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Japan deployed an army led by General <a href="/wiki/Iwane_Matsui" title="Iwane Matsui">Iwane Matsui</a>, to fight the Chinese forces in Shanghai.<sup id="cite_ref-DreaSatoshi_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DreaSatoshi-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1937, the Japanese army <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">invaded Shanghai</a>, where they met strong resistance and suffered heavy casualties. The battle was bloody as both sides faced attrition in urban <a href="/wiki/Hand-to-hand_combat" title="Hand-to-hand combat">hand-to-hand combat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Japanese forces succeeded in forcing the Chinese forces into retreat, the General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo initially decided not to expand the war because they wanted the war to end.<sup id="cite_ref-tokushi_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tokushi-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was a significant disagreement between the Japanese government and its army in China.<sup id="cite_ref-masahiro_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masahiro-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matsui had expressed his intention to advance on Nanjing even before departing for Shanghai. He firmly believed that capturing Nanjing, the Chinese capital, would lead to the collapse of the entire Nationalist Government of China, thereby securing a swift and decisive victory for Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-tokushi_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tokushi-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-masahiro_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-masahiro-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo eventually relented to the demands of the Imperial Japanese Army in China by approving the operation to attack and capture Nanjing.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategy_for_the_defense_of_Nanjing">Strategy for the defense of Nanjing</h3></div> <p>In a press release to foreign reporters, <a href="/wiki/Tang_Shengzhi" title="Tang Shengzhi">Tang Shengzhi</a> announced the city would not surrender and would fight to the death. Tang gathered a garrison force of some 81,500 soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many of whom were untrained conscripts, or troops exhausted from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a>. The Chinese government left for relocation on December 1, and the president left on December 7, leaving the administration of Nanjing to an International Committee led by <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a>, a German national and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> member. </p><p>In an attempt to secure permission for this cease-fire from <a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, Rabe, who was living in Nanjing and had been acting as the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_International_Safety_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking International Safety Zone">Nanking International Safety Zone</a> Committee, boarded the <a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_(PR-5)" title="USS Panay (PR-5)">USS <i>Panay</i> (PR-5)</a> on December 9. From this gunboat, Rabe sent two <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegrams</a>. The first was to Chiang through an American ambassador in Hankow, asking that Chinese forces "undertake no military operations" within Nanjing. The second telegram was sent through Shanghai to Japanese military leaders, advocating for a three-day <a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">ceasefire</a> so that the Chinese could withdraw from the city. </p><p>The following day, on December 10, Rabe got his answer from the Generalissimo. The American ambassador in Hankow replied that although he supported Rabe's proposal for a ceasefire, Chiang did not. Rabe says that the ambassador also "sent us a separate confidential telegram telling us that he has been officially informed by the Foreign Ministry in Hankow that our understanding that General Tang agreed to a three-day armistice and the withdrawal of his troops from Nanjing is mistaken, and moreover that Chiang Kai-shek has announced that he is not in a position to accept such an offer." This rejection of the committee's ceasefire plan, in Rabe's mind, sealed the fate of the city. Nanjing had been constantly bombed for days, causing massive destruction and civilian casualties. </p><p>On December 11, Rabe found that Chinese soldiers were still residing in areas of the Safety Zone, meaning that it became an intended target for Japanese attacks despite the majority being innocent civilians. Rabe commented on how efforts to remove these Chinese troops failed and Japanese soldiers began to lob grenades into the refugee zone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabeWickert199856,_59–60_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabeWickert199856,_59–60-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approach_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army">Approach of the Imperial Japanese Army</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_war_crimes_on_the_march_to_Nanjing">Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanjing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/220px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/330px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg/440px-Contest_To_Cut_Down_100_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>An article on the "<a href="/wiki/Contest_to_kill_100_people_using_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Contest to kill 100 people using a sword">Contest to kill 100 people using a sword</a>" published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Nichi_Nichi_Shimbun" title="Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun">Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun</a></i>. The headline reads, <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Incredible Record' (in the Contest to Cut Down 100 People) – Mukai 106–105 Noda – Both 2nd Lieutenants Go into Extra Innings".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Although the massacre is generally described as having occurred over a six-week period after the fall of Nanjing, the crimes committed by the Japanese army were not limited to that period. Numerous atrocities were committed as the Japanese army advanced from Shanghai to Nanjing, including rape, torture, arson and murder. </p><p>The 170 miles between Shanghai and Nanjing were transformed into "a nightmarish zone of death and destruction."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japanese planes frequently strafed unarmed farmers and refugees "for fun."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civilians were subjected to extreme violence and brutality in a foreshadowing of the upcoming Massacre. For example, the Nanqiantou hamlet was set on fire, with many of its inhabitants locked within the burning houses. Two women, one of them pregnant, were raped repeatedly. Afterwards, the soldiers "cut open the belly of the pregnant woman and gouged out the fetus." A crying two-year-old boy was wrestled from his mother's arms and thrown into the flames, while the mother and remaining villagers were bayoneted and thrown into a creek.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, <a href="/wiki/Jiading,_Shanghai" title="Jiading, Shanghai">Jiading</a> was shelled by Japanese forces, then 8,000 of its civilian residents indiscriminately murdered. Half of <a href="/wiki/Taicang" title="Taicang">Taicang</a> was razed to the ground, and the salt and grain stores looted.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese civilians often committed suicide, such as two girls who deliberately drowned themselves near <a href="/wiki/Pinghu" title="Pinghu">Pinghu</a>, an event witnessed by Japanese First Lieutenant Nishizawa Benkichi.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to Kurosu Tadanobu of the 13th division:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>“We'd take all the men behind the houses and kill them with bayonets and knives. Then we'd lock up the women and children in a single house and rape them at night... Then, before we left the next morning, we'd kill all the women and children, and to top it off, we'd set fire to the houses, so that even if anyone came back, they wouldn't have a place to live.”</p></blockquote><p> According to one Japanese journalist embedded with Imperial forces at the time:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>The reason that the [10th Army] is advancing to Nanjing quite rapidly is due to the tacit consent among the officers and men that they could loot and rape as they wish.</p></blockquote><p>In his novel <i>Ikiteiru Heitai</i> ('Living Soldiers'), <a href="/wiki/Tatsuz%C5%8D_Ishikawa" title="Tatsuzō Ishikawa">Tatsuzō Ishikawa</a> vividly describes how the 16th Division of the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Expeditionary_Army" title="Shanghai Expeditionary Army">Shanghai Expeditionary Force</a> committed atrocities on the march between Shanghai and Nanjing. The novel itself was based on interviews that Ishikawa conducted with troops in Nanjing in January 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg/220px-%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg/330px-%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg/440px-%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%8B%BF%E4%BA%BA%E9%A0%AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="278" /></a><figcaption>A Japanese soldier poses with the severed head of one of his victims</figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the most notorious atrocity was a <a href="/wiki/Contest_to_kill_100_people_using_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Contest to kill 100 people using a sword">killing contest between two Japanese officers</a> as reported in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Nichi_Nichi_Shimbun" title="Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun">Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun</a></i> and the English-language <i>Japan Advertiser</i>. The contest—a race between the two officers to see who could kill 100 people first using only a sword—was covered much like a sporting event with regular updates on the score over a series of days.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Japan, the veracity of the newspaper article about the contest was the subject of ferocious debate for several decades starting in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-Kingston_2008_9_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingston_2008_9-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2000, historian Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi concurred with certain Japanese scholars who had argued that the contest was a concocted story by the Japanese, with the collusion of the soldiers themselves for the purpose of raising the <a href="/wiki/Yamato-damashii" title="Yamato-damashii">national fighting spirit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wakabayashi_Summer_2000_307_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wakabayashi_Summer_2000_307-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2005, a Tokyo district judge dismissed a suit by the families of the lieutenants, stating that "the lieutenants admitted the fact that they raced to kill 100 people" and that the story cannot be proven to be clearly false.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The judge also ruled against the <a href="/wiki/Civil_claim" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil claim">civil claim</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiffs</a> because the original article was more than 60 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historicity of the event remains disputed in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Retreating_Chinese_Troops'_Scorched-Earth_Policy"><span id="Retreating_Chinese_Troops.27_Scorched-Earth_Policy"></span>Retreating Chinese Troops' Scorched-Earth Policy</h3></div> <p>The Nanjing <a href="/wiki/Garrison_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Garrison force">garrison force</a> set fire to buildings and houses in the areas close to Xiaguan to the north as well as in the environs of the eastern and southern city gates. Targets within and outside of the city walls—such as military barracks, private homes, the Chinese Ministry of Communication, forests and even entire villages—were completely burnt down, at an estimated value of <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US</a>$20–30 million (1937).<sup id="cite_ref-doomed_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doomed-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone">Establishment of the Nanking Safety Zone</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="Nanking Safety Zone">Nanking Safety Zone</a></div> <p>Many Westerners were living in the city at that time, conducting trade or on missionary trips. As the Japanese army approached Nanjing, most of them fled the city, leaving 27 foreigners. Five of these were journalists who remained in the city a few days after it was captured, leaving the city on December 16. Fifteen of the remaining 22 foreigners formed a committee, called the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a> in the western quarter of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German businessman <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a> was elected as its leader, in part because of his status as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> and the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Germany–Japan relations">German-Japanese</a> bilateral <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a>. The Japanese government had previously agreed not to attack parts of the city that did not contain Chinese military forces, and the members of the Committee managed to persuade the Chinese government to move their troops out of the area. The Nanking Safety Zone was demarcated through the use of <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">Red Cross Flags</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 1, 1937, Nanjing Mayor <a href="/wiki/Ma_Chaochun" title="Ma Chaochun">Ma Chaochun</a> ordered all Chinese citizens remaining in Nanjing to move into the Safety Zone. Many fled the city on December 7, and the International Committee took over as the <i>de facto</i> government of Nanjing. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Minnie_Vautrin" title="Minnie Vautrin">Minnie Vautrin</a> was a Christian missionary who established <a href="/wiki/Ginling_Girls_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginling Girls College">Ginling Girls College</a> in Nanking, which was within the established Safety Zone. During the massacre, she worked tirelessly in welcoming thousands of female refugees to stay in the college campus, sheltering up to 10,000 women.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_refugee_camp_at_cement_factory">Establishment of refugee camp at cement factory</h3></div> <p>At the age of 26, a <a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Dane</a> named <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Arp_Sindberg" title="Bernhard Arp Sindberg">Bernhard Arp Sindberg</a> began his role as a guard at a cement factory in Nanjing in December 1937, days before the Japanese invasion of Nanjing.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the massacre began, Sindberg and Karl Gunther, a German colleague, converted the cement factory into a makeshift refugee camp where they offered refuge and medical assistance to approximately 6,000 to 10,000 Chinese civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowing that Imperial Japan was not hostile towards <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, thus showing respect for their flags, Sindberg painted a large <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Denmark" title="Flag of Denmark">Danish flag</a> on the cement factory roof to deter the Japanese army from bombing the factory.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To keep Japanese troops away from the factory, he and Gunther strategically placed the Danish flag and the German <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a> around the site.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whenever the Japanese approached the gate, Sindberg would display the Danish flag and step out to converse with them, and eventually, they would leave.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prince_Asaka_appointed_as_commander">Prince Asaka appointed as commander</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg/170px-Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg/255px-Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg/340px-Prince_Asaka_Yasuhiko_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1905" data-file-height="2857" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yasuhiko_Asaka" title="Prince Yasuhiko Asaka">Prince Yasuhiko Asaka</a> in 1935.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a memorandum for the palace rolls, Hirohito singled <a href="/wiki/Prince_Yasuhiko_Asaka" title="Prince Yasuhiko Asaka">Prince Yasuhiko Asaka</a> out for <a href="/wiki/Censure" title="Censure">censure</a> as the one imperial kinsman whose attitude was "not good." He assigned Asaka to Nanjing as an opportunity to make amends.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 5, Asaka left Tokyo by plane and arrived at the front three days later. He met with division commanders, lieutenant-generals <a href="/wiki/Kesago_Nakajima" title="Kesago Nakajima">Kesago Nakajima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heisuke_Yanagawa" title="Heisuke Yanagawa">Heisuke Yanagawa</a>, who informed him that the Japanese troops had almost completely surrounded 300,000 Chinese troops in the vicinity of Nanjing and that preliminary negotiations suggested that the Chinese were ready to surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prince Asaka issued an order to "kill all captives," thus providing official sanction for the crimes which took place during and after the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_World_War_II_Database_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_World_War_II_Database-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors record that Prince Asaka signed the order for Japanese soldiers in Nanjing to "kill all captives".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others assert that lieutenant colonel <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Ch%C5%8D" title="Isamu Chō">Isamu Chō</a>, Asaka's <a href="/wiki/Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aide-de-camp</a>, sent this order under the Prince's <a href="/wiki/Royal_sign-manual" title="Royal sign-manual">sign-manual</a> without the Prince's knowledge or assent.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, even if Chō took the initiative, Asaka was nominally the officer in charge and gave no orders to stop the carnage. While the extent of Prince Asaka's responsibility for the massacre remains a matter of debate, the ultimate sanction for the massacre and the crimes committed during the invasion of China were issued in Emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a>'s ratification of the Japanese army's proposition to remove the constraints of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> on the treatment of Chinese prisoners on August 5, 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Battle_of_Nanjing">Battle of Nanjing</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanking" title="Battle of Nanking">Battle of Nanking</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_the_city">Siege of the city</h3></div> <p>The Japanese military continued to move forward, breaching several lines of Chinese resistance, and arrived outside the city gates of Nanjing on December 9. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demand_for_surrender">Demand for surrender</h3></div> <p>In the meantime, members of the Committee contacted Tang and proposed a plan for three-day cease-fire, during which the Chinese troops could withdraw without fighting while the Japanese troops would stay in their present position. </p><p>John Rabe boarded the U.S. gunboat <a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_(PR-5)" title="USS Panay (PR-5)"><i>Panay</i></a> on December 9 and sent two telegrams, one to Chiang Kai-shek by way of the American ambassador in Hankow (<a href="/wiki/Hankou" title="Hankou">Hankou</a>), and one to the Japanese military authority in Shanghai. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assault_and_capture_of_Nanjing">Assault and capture of Nanjing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg/220px-Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg/330px-Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg/440px-Iwane_Matsui_rides_into_Nanjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iwane_Matsui" title="Iwane Matsui">Iwane Matsui</a> enters Nanjing.</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite resisting the assault fiercely, the Chinese defenders were hampered by rising casualties and Japanese strengths in firepower and numbers. Combined with fatigue and a breakdown in communications, the garrison was gradually overwhelmed in the four day battle for the city, and finally collapsed on the night of December 12.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 12, under heavy artillery fire and aerial bombardment, General Tang Sheng-chi ordered his men to retreat. Conflicting orders and a breakdown in discipline turned the events that followed into a disaster. While some Chinese units managed to escape across the river, many more were caught up in the general chaos erupting across the city. Some Chinese soldiers stripped civilians of their clothing in a desperate attempt to blend in, and many others were shot by the Chinese supervisory unit as they tried to flee.<sup id="cite_ref-doomed_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doomed-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 13 December, the 6th and the 116th Divisions of the Japanese Army were the first to enter the city. Simultaneously, the 9th Division entered nearby Guanghua Gate, and the 16th Division entered the Zhongshan and Taiping gates. That same afternoon, two small <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Japanese Navy</a> fleets arrived on both sides of the Yangtze River. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pursuit_and_"mopping-up_operations""><span id="Pursuit_and_.22mopping-up_operations.22"></span>Pursuit and "mopping-up operations"</h3></div> <p>The conflict in Nanjing persisted beyond the night of December 12–13, following the Japanese Army's capture of the remaining gates and entrance into the city. The Japanese army continued to encounter sporadic resistance from remaining Chinese forces for several additional days. The Japanese military determined that they needed to eliminate any remaining Chinese soldiers hidden within the city. However, the search process used an arbitrary criteria for identifying former Chinese soldiers. Chinese males who were deemed to be in good health were automatically presumed to be a soldier. During this operation, Japanese forces committed atrocities against the Chinese population.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rounding-up and mass killings of male civilians and captured POWs were referred to euphemistically as "mopping-up operations" in Japanese communiqués, in a manner "just like the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germans</a> were to talk about '<a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">processing</a>' or 'handling' Jews."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civilian_population_and_evacuation">Civilian population and evacuation</h2></div> <p>With the relocation of the capital of China, constant bombing raids, and reports of Japanese brutality, much of Nanjing's civilian population had fled out of fear. Wealthy families were the first to flee, leaving Nanjing in automobiles, followed by the evacuation of the middle class and then the poor. Those that remained were mainly the destitute lowest class such as the ethnic <a href="/wiki/Tanka_people" title="Tanka people">Tanka boat people</a>, and those with assets that could not be easily moved, like shopkeepers.<sup id="cite_ref-A_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of Nanjing's population, estimated to be over one million before the Japanese invasion, half had already fled Nanjing before the Japanese arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Massacre">Massacre</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de"><b>Nanjing Massacre</b></th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">南京大屠殺</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">南京大屠杀</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Nánjīng Dàtúshā</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Nan<sup>2</sup>-ching<sup>1</sup> Ta<sup>4</sup>-t'u<sup>2</sup>-sha<sup>1</sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">1. 南京大虐殺 <br /> 2. 南京事件</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Traditional Hepburn</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">1. Nankin Daigyakusatsu (Nanjing Massacre)<br /> 2. Nankin Jiken (Nanjing Incident, name used in Japanese media)<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From December 13, 1937, the Japanese Army engaged in random murder, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wartime_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartime rape">wartime rape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>. Such crime continued from three to six weeks depending on the types of crime. The first three weeks were more intense.<sup id="cite_ref-duration_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duration-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A group of foreign <a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">expatriates</a> headed by Rabe had formed a 15-man <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a> on November 22 and mapped out the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="Nanking Safety Zone">Nanking Safety Zone</a> in order to safeguard civilians in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_12_(The_%22Shame%22_Album).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/220px-Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/330px-Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/440px-Photo_12_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>Chinese children murdered by Japanese soldiers, their bodies dumped into a pond</figcaption></figure> <p>In a diary entry from Minnie Vautrin on December 15, 1937, she wrote about her experiences in the Safety Zone: </p> <blockquote><p>The Japanese have looted widely yesterday and today, have destroyed schools, have killed citizens, and raped women. One thousand disarmed Chinese soldiers, whom the International Committee hoped to save, were taken from them and by this time are probably shot or bayoneted. In our South Hill House Japanese broke the panel of the storeroom and took out some old fruit juice and a few other things.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes">Causes</h3></div> <p>The Nanjing Massacre's occurrence and nature were influenced by several factors. The Japanese population was taught militaristic and <a href="/wiki/Racist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racist">racist</a> ideologies. The Japanese government's <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascist</a> doctrine further propagated the belief in Japanese superiority over all other peoples. Other factors include the <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanization</a> of Japanese soldiers by their commanders and the challenging combat environment in China.<sup id="cite_ref-dixon_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dixon-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Nanjing Massacre happened during Japan's invasion of China. The extreme cruelty witnessed in Nanjing, including extensive killing, torture, sexual violence, and looting, was not an isolated occurrence, but rather a reflection of Japan's behavior throughout the war in China. This violence cannot be separated from the underlying contempt for other Asians that was deeply ingrained in Japanese society before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To demonstrate the profound effects of ethnic prejudice, Japanese author Tsuda Michio gives an example: </p> <blockquote><p>During the war in south China, a Japanese sergeant who had raped and killed numerous Chinese women became 'impotent' as soon as he found out to his shock that one of his victims was actually a Japanese woman who had married a Chinese man and emigrated to China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Shiro_Azuma" title="Shiro Azuma">Shiro Azuma</a>, a former Japanese soldier, testified in a 1998 interview: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When I tried to cut off the first one, either the farmer moved or I mis-aimed. I ended up slicing off just part of his skull. Blood spurted upwards. I swung again... and this time I killed him... We were taught that we were a superior race since we lived only for the sake of a human god—our emperor. But the Chinese were not. So we held nothing but contempt for them... There were many rapes, and the women were always killed. When they were being raped, the women were human. But once the rape was finished, they became pig's flesh.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Jonathan Spence</a>, a British-American <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">sinologist</a> and historian, wrote:</p><blockquote><p>[T]here is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found. The Japanese soldiers, who had expected easy victory, instead had been fighting hard for months and had taken infinitely higher casualties than anticipated. They were bored, angry, frustrated, tired. The Chinese women were undefended, their menfolk powerless or absent. The war, still undeclared, had no clear-cut goal or purpose. Perhaps all Chinese, regardless of sex or age, seemed marked out as victims.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Jennifer M. Dixon, Associate Professor in the Department of Political Science at <a href="/wiki/Villanova_University" title="Villanova University">Villanova University</a>, stated:</p><blockquote><p> In addition, the Battle of Shanghai which preceded the capture of Nanjing, was more difficult and prolonged than the Japanese side had anticipated, which contributed to a desire among Japanese officers and soldiers to exact revenge on the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-dixon_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dixon-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a>, who presided over the Second Sino-Japanese War,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHotta201331,_47_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHotta201331,_47-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> justified the massacre as retaliation against persistent Kuomintang aggression,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHotta201332_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHotta201332-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and advocated for the regime's destruction in January 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the fall of Nanjing, Konoe rejected Chiang Kai-Shek's offer of negotiation through a German ambassador.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHotta201332_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHotta201332-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massacre_contest">Massacre contest</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contest_to_kill_100_people_using_a_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Contest to kill 100 people using a sword">Contest to kill 100 people using a sword</a></div> <p>In 1937, the <i><a href="/wiki/Osaka_Mainichi_Shimbun" class="mw-redirect" title="Osaka Mainichi Shimbun">Osaka Mainichi Shimbun</a></i> and its sister newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Nichi_Nichi_Shimbun" title="Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun">Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun</a></i>, covered a contest between two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda of the Japanese 16th Division. The two men were described as vying to be the first to kill 100 people with a sword before the capture of Nanjing. From <a href="/wiki/Jurong,_Jiangsu" title="Jurong, Jiangsu">Jurong</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tangshan" title="Tangshan">Tangshan</a> (two cities in <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu Province</a>, China), Mukai had killed 89 people while Noda had killed 78. The contest continued because neither had killed 100 people. By the time they had arrived at <a href="/wiki/Zijin_Mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Zijin Mountain">Zijin Mountain</a>, Noda had killed 105 people while Mukai had killed 106 people. Both officers supposedly surpassed their goal during the heat of battle, making it impossible to determine which officer had actually won the contest. Therefore, according to journalists Asami Kazuo and Suzuki Jiro, writing in the <i>Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun</i> of December 13, they decided to begin another contest to kill 150 people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakabayashi2000319_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakabayashi2000319-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rape">Rape</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/220px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/330px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg/440px-Chinese_old_woman_raped_and_killed_by_Japanese_at_Tai%27erzhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Photo taken in <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>, showing the body of a woman who was profaned in a way similar to the teenager described in case 5 of <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a>'s film</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horrible_death,_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/220px-Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/330px-Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/440px-Horrible_death%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>Case 5 of <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a>'s film: on December 13, 1937, about 30 Japanese soldiers murdered all but two of 11 Chinese in the house at No. 5 Xinlukou. A woman and her two teenaged daughters were raped, and Japanese soldiers rammed a bottle and a cane into her vagina. An eight-year-old girl was stabbed, but she and her younger sister survived. They were found alive two weeks after the killings by the elderly woman shown in the photo. Bodies of the victims can also be seen in the photo.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabeWickert1998281–282_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabeWickert1998281–282-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> estimated that in the first month of the occupation, Japanese soldiers committed approximately 20,000 cases of rape in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some estimates claim 80,000 cases of rape.<sup id="cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale_Bartlett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, rapes of all ages, including children and elderly women, were commonplace, and there were many instances of sadistic and violent behavior related to these rapes. Following the rapes, many women were killed and their bodies were mutilated.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large number of rapes were done <a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">systematically</a> by the Japanese soldiers as they went from door to door, searching for girls, with many women being captured and gang-raped.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese soldier Takokoro Kozo recalled: </p> <blockquote><p> Women suffered most. No matter how young or old, they all could not escape the fate of being raped. We sent out coal trucks to the city streets and villages to seize a lot of women. And then each of them was allocated to fifteen to twenty soldiers for sexual intercourse and abuse. After raping we would also kill them.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The women were often killed immediately after being raped, often through explicit <a href="/wiki/Mutilation" title="Mutilation">mutilation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as by penetrating vaginas with <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonets</a>, long sticks of <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>, or other objects. For example, a six-months pregnant woman was stabbed sixteen times in the face and body, one stab piercing and killing her unborn child. A young woman had a beer bottle rammed up her vagina after being raped, and was then shot. Edgar Snow wrote how "discards were often bayoneted by drunken Japanese soldiers."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 19 December 1937, the <a href="/wiki/The_Reverend" title="The Reverend">Reverend</a> James M. McCallum wrote in his diary:<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>I know not where to end. Never I have heard or read such brutality. Rape! Rape! Rape! We estimate at least 1,000 cases a night and many by day. In case of resistance or anything that seems like disapproval, there is a bayonet stab or a bullet.... People are hysterical... Women are being carried off every morning, afternoon and evening. The whole Japanese army seems to be free to go and come as it pleases, and to do whatever it pleases.</p></blockquote><p>A fifteen-year-old girl was locked naked in a barracks housing two hundred to three hundred Japanese soldiers and raped multiple times daily. American correspondent Edgar Snow wrote how "Frequently mothers had to watch their babies beheaded, and then submit to raping." YMCA head Fitch reported that a woman "had her five-months infant deliberately smothered by the brute to stop it crying while he raped her."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/220px-A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/330px-A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/440px-A_seven-year-old_child_bayoneted_dead_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Original caption by <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a>: "This is the corpse of a boy about seven years old who died three days after his admission into the University Hospital. He had received five bayonet wounds in the abdomen, one of them perforating the stomach."</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/300px-A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/450px-A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/A_16-year-old_girl_raped_by_Japanese_soldiers_during_the_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>A girl who was raped by Japanese soldiers<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure><p> On March 7, 1938, <a href="/wiki/Robert_O._Wilson" title="Robert O. Wilson">Robert O. Wilson</a>, a surgeon at the university hospital in the Safety Zone administrated by the United States, wrote in a letter to his family, "a conservative estimate of people slaughtered in cold blood is somewhere about 100,000, including of course thousands of soldiers that had thrown down their arms."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here are two excerpts from his letters of 15 and 18 December 1937 to his family:<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p><blockquote><p>The slaughter of civilians is appalling. I could go on for pages telling of cases of rape and brutality almost beyond belief. Two bayoneted corpses are the only survivors of seven street cleaners who were sitting in their headquarters when Japanese soldiers came in without warning or reason and killed five of their number and wounded the two that found their way to the hospital. Let me recount some instances occurring in the last two days. Last night, the house of one of the Chinese staff members of the university was broken into and two of the women, his relatives, were raped. Two girls, about 16, were raped to death in one of the refugee camps. In the University Middle School where there are 8,000 people the Japs came in ten times last night, over the wall, stole food, clothing, and raped until they were satisfied. They bayoneted one little boy of eight who [had] five bayonet wounds including one that penetrated his stomach, a portion of <a href="/wiki/Greater_omentum" title="Greater omentum">omentum</a> was outside the <a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>. I think he will live.</p></blockquote><p> In his diary kept during the aggression against the city and its occupation by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>, the leader of the Safety Zone, <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a>, wrote many comments about Japanese atrocities. For 17 December:<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Two Japanese soldiers have climbed over the garden wall and are about to break into our house. When I appear they give the excuse that they saw two Chinese soldiers climb over the wall. When I show them my party badge, they return the same way. In one of the houses in the narrow street behind my garden wall, a woman was raped, and then wounded in the neck with a bayonet. I managed to get an ambulance so we can take her to Kulou Hospital ... Last night up to 1,000 women and girls are said to have been raped, about 100 girls at <a href="/wiki/Ginling_College" title="Ginling College">Ginling College</a>...alone. You hear nothing but rape. If husbands or brothers intervene, they're shot. What you hear and see on all sides is the brutality and bestiality of the Japanese soldiers.</p></blockquote> <p>In a documentary film about the Nanjing Massacre, <i>In the Name of the Emperor</i>, a former Japanese soldier named <a href="/wiki/Shiro_Azuma" title="Shiro Azuma">Shiro Azuma</a> spoke candidly about the process of rape and murder in Nanjing.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p> At first we used some kinky words like Pikankan. Pi means "hip," kankan means "look." Pikankan means, "Let's see a woman open up her legs." Chinese women didn't wear under-pants. Instead, they wore trousers tied with a string. There was no belt. As we pulled the string, the buttocks were exposed. We "pikankan." We looked. After a while we would say something like, "It's my day to take a bath," and we took turns raping them. It would be all right if we only raped them. I shouldn't say all right. But we always stabbed and killed them. Because dead bodies don't talk.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Iris Chang</a>, author of the book <i><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of Nanking (book)">Rape of Nanjing</a></i>, wrote one of the most comprehensive accounts of Japanese war atrocities in China.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her book, she estimated that the number of Chinese women raped by Japanese soldiers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000. Chang also states that not all rape victims were women. Some Chinese men were <a href="/wiki/Sodomized" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodomized">sodomized</a> and forced to perform "repulsive sex acts".<sup id="cite_ref-RapeOfNanking95a_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RapeOfNanking95a-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RapeOfNanking89_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RapeOfNanking89-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also accounts of Japanese troops coercing families into committing <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incestuous</a> acts; sons were <a href="/wiki/Forced_to_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced to rape">forced to rape</a> their mothers, fathers their daughters, and brothers their sisters. Other family members would be forced to look on.<sup id="cite_ref-RapeOfNankingP95_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RapeOfNankingP95-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of punishing the Japanese troops who were responsible for wholesale rape, "'The Japanese expeditionary Force in Central China issued an order to set up <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort houses</a> during this period of time,' <a href="/wiki/Yoshimi_Yoshiaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoshimi Yoshiaki">Yoshimi Yoshiaki</a>, a prominent history professor at Chuo University, observes, 'because Japan was afraid of criticism from China, the United States of America and Europe following the case of massive rapes between battles in Shanghai and Nanjing.'"<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massacre_of_civilians">Massacre of civilians</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boy_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Boy_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg/170px-Boy_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Boy_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A boy killed by a Japanese soldier with the butt of a rifle, reportedly because he did not take off his hat</figcaption></figure> <p>For about three weeks since December 13, 1937,<sup id="cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> entered the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Safety_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Safety Zone">Nanking Safety Zone</a> to search for former Chinese soldiers hidden among refugees. Many innocent men were misidentified and killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg/220px-Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg/330px-Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg/440px-Chinese_burned_by_Japanese_in_Nanjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>The corpse of a Chinese man burned to death by kerosene</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_looting_near_a_gate,_Nanking_massacre.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG/220px-Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG/330px-Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG/440px-Japanese_looting_near_a_gate%2C_Nanking_massacre.JPG 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>Dead civilians by one of Nanjing's gates</figcaption></figure> <p>John Rabe summarized the behavior of Japanese troops in Nanjing in his diaries: </p> <blockquote> <p>I've written several times in this diary about the body of the Chinese soldier who was shot while tied to his bamboo bed and who is still lying unburied near my house. My protests and pleas to the Japanese embassy finally to get this corpse buried, or give me permission to bury it, have thus far been fruitless. The body is still lying in the same spot as before, except that the ropes have been cut and the bamboo bed is now lying about two yards away. I am totally puzzled by the conduct of the Japanese in this matter. On the one hand, they want to be recognized and treated as a great power on a par with European powers, on the other, they are currently displaying a crudity, brutality, and bestiality that bears no comparison except with the hordes of Genghis Khan. I have stopped trying to get the poor devil buried, but i hereby record that he, though very dead, still lies above the earth!<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote><p> The death toll of civilians is difficult to precisely calculate due to the many bodies deliberately burnt, buried in mass graves, or dumped into the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ChristianScienceMonitor_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChristianScienceMonitor-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IMTftFE_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMTftFE-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_O._Wilson" title="Robert O. Wilson">Robert O. Wilson</a>, a physician, testified that cases of gun wounds "continued to come in [to the hospital of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nanking" title="University of Nanking">University of Nanjing</a>] for a matter of some six or seven weeks following the fall of the city on December 13, 1937. The capacity of the hospital was normally one hundred and eighty beds, and this was kept full to overflowing during this entire period.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bradley Campbell described the Nanjing Massacre as a <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, given the fact that residents were still slaughtered <i>en masse</i> during the aftermath, despite the successful and certain outcome in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Jean-Louis Margolin does not believe that the Nanjing atrocities should be considered a genocide because only prisoners of war were executed in a systematic manner and the targeting of civilians was sporadic and done without orders by individual actors.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 December 1937, John Rabe wrote in his diary:</p><blockquote><p>It is not until we tour the city that we learn the extent of destruction. We come across corpses every 100 to 200 yards. The bodies of civilians that I examined had bullet holes in their backs. These people had presumably been fleeing and were shot from behind. The Japanese march through the city in groups of ten to twenty soldiers and loot the shops.... I watched with my own eyes as they looted the café of our German baker Herr Kiessling. Hempel's hotel was broken into as well, as [was] almost every shop on Chung Shang and Taiping Road.<sup id="cite_ref-woods_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>American vice consul James Espy arrived in Nanjing on January 6, 1938, to reopen the American embassy. He gave a summarized description of what happened in the city: </p> <blockquote> <p>The picture that they painted of Nanking was one of a reign of terror that befell the city upon its occupation by the Japanese military forces. Their stories and those of the German residents tell of the city having fallen into the hands of the Japanese as captured prey, not merely taken in the course of organized warfare but seized by an invading army whose members seemed to have set upon the prize to commit unlimited depredations and violence. Fuller data and our own observations have not brought out facts to discredit their information. The civilian Chinese population remaining in the city crowded the streets of the so-called "safety zone" as refugees, many of whom are destitute. Physical evidences are almost everywhere to the killing of men, women and children, of the breaking into and looting of property and of the burning and destruction of houses and buildings. </p><p> It remains, however, the Japanese soldiers swarmed over the city in thousands and committed untold depredations and atrocities. It would seem according to stories told us by foreign witnesses that the soldiers were let loose like a barbarian horde to desecrate the city. Men, women and children were killed in uncounted numbers throughout the city. Stories are heard of civilians being shot or bayoneted for no apparent reason.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On 10 February 1938, <a href="/wiki/Legation" title="Legation">Legation</a> Secretary of the German Embassy, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Rosen_(1895%E2%80%931961)" title="Georg Rosen (1895–1961)">Georg Rosen</a>, wrote to his Foreign Ministry about a film made in December by Reverend <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a> to recommend its purchase. </p> <blockquote><p>During the Japanese reign of terror in Nanjing—which, by the way, continues to this day to a considerable degree—the Reverend John Magee, a member of the American Episcopal Church Mission who has been here for almost a quarter of a century, took motion pictures that eloquently bear witness to the atrocities committed by the Japanese.... One will have to wait and see whether the highest officers in the Japanese army succeed, as they have indicated, in stopping the activities of their troops, which continue even today.<sup id="cite_ref-woods_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 13, about 30 soldiers came to a Chinese house at No. 5 Hsing Lu Koo in the southeastern part of Nanjing and demanded entrance. The door was open by the landlord, a <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Mohammedan</a> named Ha. They killed him immediately with a revolver and also Mrs. Ha, who knelt before them after Ha's death, begging them not to kill anyone else. Mrs. Ha asked them why they killed her husband and they shot her. Mrs. Hsia was dragged out from under a table in the guest hall where she had tried to hide with her 1-year-old baby. After being stripped and raped by one or more men, she was bayoneted in the chest and then had a bottle thrust into her vagina. The baby was killed with a bayonet. Some soldiers then went to the next room, where Mrs. Hsia's parents, aged 76 and 74, and her two daughters aged 16 and 14 [were]. They were about to rape the girls when the grandmother tried to protect them. The soldiers killed her with a revolver. The grandfather grasped the body of his wife and was killed. The two girls were then stripped, the elder being raped by 2–3 men and the younger by 3. The older girl was stabbed afterwards and a cane was rammed in her vagina. The younger girl was bayoneted also but was spared the horrible treatment that had been meted out to her sister and mother. The soldiers then bayoneted another sister of between 7–8, who was also in the room. The last murders in the house were of Ha's two children, aged 4 and 2 respectively. The older was bayoneted and the younger split down through the head with a sword.<sup id="cite_ref-woods_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LI_Xiuying_in_hospital,_Nanking_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/LI_Xiuying_in_hospital%2C_Nanking_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="129" /></a><figcaption>Original caption by <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a>: "This nineteen year old woman was a refugee at the American School in the Refugee Zone. She was six and one-half months pregnant with her first child. She resisted rape and was therefore stabbed many times by a Japanese soldier. She has nineteen cuts on her face, eight on her legs, and a cut two inches deep in her abdomen. This caused a miscarriage the day after her entrance into the University Hospital. She recovered from her wounds."</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_(Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo)_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg/170px-Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg/255px-Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg/340px-Bodies_of_Chinese_massacred_by_Japanese_troops_along_a_river_in_Nanjing_%28Murase_Moriyasa%27s_photo%29_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="708" /></a><figcaption>Bodies of Chinese massacred by Japanese troops along a river in Nanjing</figcaption></figure> <p>Pregnant women were targeted for murder, as their stomachs were often bayoneted, sometimes after rape. Tang Junshan, survivor and witness to one of the Japanese army's systematic mass killings, testified:<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The seventh and last person in the first row was a pregnant woman. The soldier thought he might as well rape her before killing her, so he pulled her out of the group to a spot about ten meters away. As he was trying to rape her, the woman resisted fiercely.... The soldier abruptly stabbed her in the belly with a bayonet. She gave a final scream as her intestines spilled out. Then the soldier stabbed the fetus, with its umbilical cord clearly visible, and tossed it aside.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Navy veteran Sho Mitani, "The Army used a trumpet sound that meant 'Kill all Chinese who run away'."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands were led away and mass-executed in an excavation known as the "Ten-Thousand-Corpse Ditch", a trench measuring about 300 m long and 5 m wide. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding the number of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a>, a minority Chinese group, the majority of them <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>, suffered as well during the massacre. One mosque was found destroyed and others found to be "filled with dead bodies." Hui volunteers and <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imams</a> buried over a hundred of their dead following Muslim ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Japanese massacred <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui Muslims</a> in their mosques in Nanjing and destroyed Hui mosques in other parts of China.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extrajudicial_killing_of_Chinese_prisoners_of_war_and_male_civilians">Extrajudicial killing of Chinese prisoners of war and male civilians</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/170px-Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/255px-Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/340px-Chinese_to_be_beheaded_in_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese POW about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer using a <a href="/wiki/Shin-gunt%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Shin-guntō">shin-guntō</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Soon after the fall of the city, Japanese troops made a thorough search for Chinese soldiers and summarily arrested thousands of young Chinese men. Many were taken to the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>, where they were machine-gunned to death. What was probably the single largest massacre of Chinese troops, the Straw String Gorge Massacre, occurred along the banks of the Yangtze River on December 18. For most of the morning, Japanese soldiers tied the POWs' hands together. At dusk, the soldiers divided POWs into four columns and opened fire. Unable to escape, the POWs could only scream and thrash desperately. It took an hour for the sounds of death to stop and even longer for the Japanese to bayonet each individual. The majority of the bodies were dumped directly into the Yangtze River.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese troops gathered 1,300 Chinese soldiers and civilians at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Taiping_Gate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taiping Gate (page does not exist)">Taiping Gate</a> and murdered them. The victims were blown up with <a href="/wiki/Landmine" class="mw-redirect" title="Landmine">landmines</a>, then doused with petrol and set on fire. The survivors were killed with bayonets.<sup id="cite_ref-Taiping_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taiping-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> A soldier from the IJA's 13th division described killing survivors in his diary:<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"I figured that I'd never get another chance like this, so I stabbed thirty of the damned Chinks. Climbing atop the mountain of corpses, I felt like a real devil-slayer, stabbing again and again, with all my might. 'Ugh, ugh,' the Chinks groaned. There were old folks as well as kids, but we killed them lock, stock, and barrel. I also borrowed a buddy's sword and tried to decapitate some. I've never experienced anything so unusual."</p></blockquote><p>U.S. news correspondents <a href="/wiki/F._Tillman_Durdin" title="F. Tillman Durdin">F. Tillman Durdin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Steele" title="Archibald Steele">Archibald Steele</a> reported seeing corpses of massacred Chinese soldiers forming mounds six feet high at the Nanjing Yijiang gate in the north. Durdin, who worked for <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, toured Nanjing before his departure from the city. He heard waves of machine-gun fire and witnessed the Japanese soldiers gun down some two hundred Chinese within ten minutes. He would later state that he had seen tank guns used on bound soldiers. </p><p>Two days later, in his report to <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, Durdin stated that the alleys and streets were filled with the dead, amongst them women and children. Durdin stated "[i]t should be said that certain Japanese units exercised restraint and that certain Japanese officers tempered power with generosity and commission," but continued "the conduct of the Japanese army as a whole in Nanjing was a blot on the reputation of their country"."<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_11_(The_%22Shame%22_Album).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/220px-Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/330px-Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg/440px-Photo_11_%28The_%22Shame%22_Album%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Japanese soldiers behead a Chinese man</figcaption></figure> <p>Ralph L. Phillips, a <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a>, testified to the U.S. State Assembly Investigating Committee, that he was "forced to watch while the Japs <a href="/wiki/Disembowelment" title="Disembowelment">disemboweled</a> a Chinese soldier" and "roasted his heart and liver and ate them."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just after Christmas, the Japanese set up public stages where they called upon former Chinese soldiers to confess, claiming they would not be harmed. When over 200 former soldiers did come forward, they were promptly executed. When former soldiers stopped identifying themselves, the Japanese began rounding up groups of young men who "aroused suspicion."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the dutiful records of the Safety Zone committee, the post-war International Military Tribunal found that some 20,000 Chinese male civilians were killed on false accusations of being soldiers, while some 30,000 genuine former combatants were executed and their bodies thrown in the river.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Looting_and_arson">Looting and arson</h3></div> <p>"In the first days of the occupation the soldiers [...] took a great deal of bedding, cooking utensils and food from the refugees. Practically every building in the city was entered many, many times by these roving gangs of soldiers throughout the first six or seven weeks of the occupation".<sup id="cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "[T]here was no burning until the Japanese troops had been in the city five or six days. Beginning, I believe, on the 19th or 20th of December, burning was carried on regularly for six weeks."<sup id="cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stationed in Nanjing, an eyewitness, journalist F. Tillman of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, sent an article to his newspaper where he described the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a>'s entry into <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> in December 1937: "The plunder carried out by the Japanese reached almost the entire city. Almost all buildings were entered by Japanese soldiers, often in the sight of their officers, and the men took whatever they wanted. Japanese soldiers often forced Chinese to carry the loot."<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One-third of the city was destroyed as a result of arson. According to reports, Japanese troops torched newly built government buildings as well as the homes of many civilians. There was considerable destruction to areas outside the city walls. Soldiers pillaged from the poor and the wealthy alike. The lack of resistance from Chinese troops and civilians in Nanjing meant that the Japanese soldiers were free to divide up the city's valuables as they saw fit. This resulted in widespread looting and burglary.<sup id="cite_ref-RapeOfNankingP162_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RapeOfNankingP162-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 December, chairman <a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a> wrote a complaint to Kiyoshi Fukui, second secretary of the Japanese Embassy. The following is an excerpt: </p> <blockquote><p>In other words, on the 13th when your troops entered the city, we had nearly all the civilian population gathered in a Zone in which there had been very little destruction by stray shells and no looting by Chinese soldiers even in full retreat.... All 27 Occidentals in the city at that time and our Chinese population were totally surprised by the reign of robbery, raping and killing initiated by your soldiers on the 14th. All we are asking in our protest is that you restore order among your troops and get the normal city life going as soon as possible. In the latter process we are glad to cooperate in any way we can. But even last night between 8 and 9 p.m. when five Occidental members of our staff and Committee toured the Zone to observe conditions, we did not find any single Japanese patrol either in the Zone or at the entrances!<sup id="cite_ref-GoodMan(271-274)_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoodMan(271-274)-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanking_Safety_Zone_and_the_role_of_foreigners">Nanking Safety Zone and the role of foreigners</h3></div> <p>The Japanese troops did respect the Zone to an extent; until the Japanese occupation, no shells entered that part of the city except a few stray shots. During the chaos following the attack of the city, some were killed in the Safety Zone, but the crimes that occurred in the rest of the city were far greater by all accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rabe wrote that, from time to time, the Japanese would enter the Safety Zone at will, carry off a few hundred men and women, and either summarily execute them or rape and then kill them.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By February 5, 1938, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a> had forwarded to the Japanese embassy a total of 450 cases of murder, rape, torture and general disorder by Japanese soldiers that had been reported after the American, British and German diplomats had returned to their embassies:<sup id="cite_ref-Woods275-278_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods275-278-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>"Case 5 – On the night of December 14th, there were many cases of Japanese soldiers entering houses and raping women or taking them away. This created panic in the area and hundreds of women moved into the Ginling College campus yesterday."</li> <li>"Case 10 – On the night of December 15th, a number of Japanese soldiers entered the University of Nanjing buildings at Tao Yuen and raped 30 women on the spot, some by six men."</li> <li>"Case 13 – December 18, 4 p.m., at No. 18 I Ho Lu, Japanese soldiers wanted a man's cigarette case and when he hesitated, one of the soldier crashed in the side of his head with a bayonet. The man is now at the University Hospital and is not expected to live."</li> <li>"Case 14 – On December 16, seven girls (ages ranged from 16 to 21) were taken away from the Military College. Five returned. Each girl was raped six or seven times daily – reported December 18th."</li> <li>"Case 15 – There are about 540 refugees crowded in No. 83 and 85 on Canton Road.... More than 30 women and girls have been raped. The women and children are crying all nights. Conditions inside the compound are worse than we can describe. Please give us help."</li> <li>"Case 16 – A Chinese girl named Loh, who, with her mother and brother, was living in one of the Refugee Centers in the Refugee Zone, was shot through the head and killed by a Japanese soldier. The girl was 14 years old. The incident occurred near the Kuling Ssu, a noted temple on the border of the Refugee zone ..."<sup id="cite_ref-Woods275-278_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woods275-278-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Case 19 – January 30th, about 5 p.m. <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Lafayette_Sone" title="Hubert Lafayette Sone">Mr. Sone</a> (of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Theological_Seminary" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Theological Seminary">Nanjing Theological Seminary</a>) was greeted by several hundred women pleading with him that they would not have to go home on February 4th. They said it was no use going home they might just as well be killed for staying at the camp as to be raped, robbed or killed at home.... One old woman 62 years old went home near Hansimen and Japanese soldiers came at night and wanted to rape her. She said she was too old. So the soldiers rammed a stick up her. But she survived to come back."</li></ul> <p>It is said that Rabe rescued between 200,000 and 250,000 Chinese people.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center" style="max-width: 772px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_(Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photo in the album taken in Nanjing by Itou Kaneo of the Kisarazu Air Unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy"><img alt="Photo in the album taken in Nanjing by Itou Kaneo of the Kisarazu Air Unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg/115px-Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg/172px-Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg/229px-Photo_02_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photo in the album taken in Nanjing by Itou Kaneo of the <a href="/wiki/Kisarazu_Air_Group" title="Kisarazu Air Group">Kisarazu Air Unit</a> of the Imperial Japanese Navy</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A picture of a dead child. Probably taken by Bernhard Sindberg"><img alt="A picture of a dead child. Probably taken by Bernhard Sindberg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg/105px-Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg/158px-Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg/211px-Child_killed_in_Nanking_massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="306" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A picture of a dead child. Probably taken by <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Arp_Sindberg" title="Bernhard Arp Sindberg">Bernhard Sindberg</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Prisoners being buried alive[112]"><img alt="Prisoners being buried alive[112]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/150px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/225px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg/300px-Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1111" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Prisoners being buried alive<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Skeletons of the massacre's victims"><img alt="Skeletons of the massacre's victims" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg/150px-Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg/225px-Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg/300px-Victims_in_Nanjing_massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeletons</a> of the massacre's victims</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_(b),_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A pond filled with dead victims"><img alt="A pond filled with dead victims" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_%28b%29%2C_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/150px-A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_%28b%29%2C_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_%28b%29%2C_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/225px-A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_%28b%29%2C_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/A_waterpond_filled_with_the_bodies_of_executed_Chinese_soldiers_who_got_safety_promise_by_Japanese_%28b%29%2C_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="179" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A pond filled with dead victims</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_(Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Another photo from Itou Kaneo's album, displaying Chinese corpses"><img alt="Another photo from Itou Kaneo's album, displaying Chinese corpses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png/114px-Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png" decoding="async" width="114" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png/171px-Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png/229px-Photo_03_in_Nanjing_Massacre_%28Itou_Kaneo%27s_Album%29.png 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="644" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Another photo from Itou Kaneo's album, displaying Chinese corpses</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <p>Eyewitness accounts include testimonies of expatriates engaged in humanitarian work (mostly physicians, professors, missionary and businessmen), journalists (both Western and Japanese), as well as the field diaries of military personnel. American missionary <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a> stayed behind to provide a 16 mm film <a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">documentary</a> and first-hand photographs of the Nanjing Massacre. Rabe and American missionary <a href="/wiki/Lewis_S._C._Smythe" title="Lewis S. C. Smythe">Lewis S. C. Smythe</a>, secretary of the International Committee and a professor of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nanking" title="University of Nanking">University of Nanjing</a>, recorded the actions of the Japanese troops and filed complaints with the <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Japan" title="List of diplomatic missions of Japan">Japanese embassy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Matsui's_reaction_to_the_massacre"><span id="Matsui.27s_reaction_to_the_massacre"></span>Matsui's reaction to the massacre</h2></div><p> On December 18, 1937, as General <a href="/wiki/Iwane_Matsui" title="Iwane Matsui">Iwane Matsui</a> began to comprehend the full extent of the rape, torture, murder, and looting in the city, he grew increasingly dismayed. He reportedly told one of his civilian aides:</p><blockquote><p>I now realize that we have unknowingly wrought a most grievous effect on this city. When I think of the feelings and sentiments of many of my Chinese friends who have fled from Nanjing and of the future of the two countries, I cannot but feel depressed. I am very lonely and can never get in a mood to rejoice about this victory.... I personally feel sorry for the tragedies to the people, but the Army must continue unless China repents. Now, in the winter, the season gives time to reflect. I offer my sympathy, with deep emotion, to a million innocent people.</p></blockquote><p>On New Year's Day, over a toast he confided to a Japanese diplomat: "My men have done something very wrong and extremely regrettable."<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matsui blamed the atrocities on the moral decline of the Japanese Army, saying:</p><blockquote><p>The Nanjing Incident was a terrible disgrace ... Immediately after the memorial services, I assembled the higher officers and wept tears of anger before them, as Commander-in-Chief ... I told them that after all our efforts to enhance the Imperial prestige, everything had been lost in one moment through the brutalities of the soldiers. And can you imagine it, even after that, these officers laughed at me ... I am really, therefore, quite happy that I, at least, should have ended this way, in the sense that it may serve to urge self-reflection on many more members of the military of that time.<sup id="cite_ref-hanayama22_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hanayama22-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_massacre">End of the massacre</h2></div> <p>In late January 1938, the Japanese army forced all refugees in the Safety Zone to return home, immediately claiming to have "restored order". After the establishment of the <i>weixin zhengfu</i>(<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">维新政府</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Wéixīn zhèngfǔ</span></i>) <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">(the collaborating government) in 1938</a>, order was gradually restored in Nanjing and atrocities by Japanese troops lessened considerably.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On 18 February 1938, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a> was forcibly renamed the Nanjing International Rescue Committee, and the Safety Zone effectively ceased to function. The last refugee camps were closed in May 1938.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recall_of_Matsui_and_Asaka">Recall of Matsui and Asaka</h2></div> <p>In February 1938, both Prince Asaka and General Matsui were recalled to Japan. Matsui returned to retirement, but Prince Asaka remained on the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a> until the end of the war in August 1945. He was promoted to the rank of <a href="/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">general</a> in August 1939, though he held no further military commands.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_World_War_II_Database_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_World_War_II_Database-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence_collection">Evidence collection</h2></div> <p>The Japanese either destroyed or concealed important documents, severely reducing the amount of evidence available for confiscation. Between the declaration of a ceasefire on August 15, 1945, and the arrival of American troops in Japan on August 28, "the Japanese military and civil authorities systematically destroyed military, naval, and government archives, much of which was from the period 1942–1945."<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overseas troops in the Pacific and East Asia were ordered to destroy incriminating evidence of war crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 70 percent of the Japanese army's wartime records were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regards to the Nanjing Massacre, Japanese authorities deliberately concealed wartime records, eluding confiscation from American authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the concealed information was made public a few decades later. For example, a two-volume collection of military documents related to the Nanjing operations was published in 1989; and disturbing excerpts from <a href="/wiki/Kesago_Nakajima" title="Kesago Nakajima">Kesago Nakajima's</a> diary, a commander at Nanjing, was published in the early 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his time in China, Bernhard Arp Sindberg, an amateur photographer and friend to several foreign journalists, always had his camera with him, taking graphic photos of the civilian massacres and extensive destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sindberg smuggled the unprocessed film out of China with the help of his company, and had entrusted the development of the film to his colleagues. After the war, he retrieved his photos, producing one of the few photographic records documenting the Nanjing massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ono Kenji, a chemical worker in Japan, procured a collection of wartime diaries from Japanese veterans who fought in the Battle of Nanking in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Drea_2006_28_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drea_2006_28-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, nearly 20 diaries in his collection were published, which became an important source of evidence for the massacre. Official war journals and diaries were also published by <a href="/wiki/Kaikosha" title="Kaikosha">Kaikosha</a>, an organization of retired Japanese military veterans.<sup id="cite_ref-Drea_2006_28_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drea_2006_28-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1984, in an attempt to refute Japanese war crimes in Nanjing, Kaikosha, the Japanese Army Veterans Association, interviewed former Japanese soldiers who had served in the Nanjing area from 1937 to 1938. Instead of refuting the massacre, the interviewed veterans confirmed that a massacre had taken place and openly described and admitted to taking part in the atrocities. In 1985, the interviews were published in the association's magazine, <i>Kaiko</i>, along with an admission and apology that read, "Whatever the severity of war or special circumstances of war psychology, we just lose words faced with this mass illegal killing. As those who are related to the prewar military, we simply apologize deeply to the people of China. It was truly a regrettable act of barbarity."<sup id="cite_ref-Kingston_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kingston-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1980s, after interviewing Chinese survivors and reviewing Japanese records, Japanese journalist <a href="/wiki/Honda_Katsuichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Honda Katsuichi">Honda Katsuichi</a> concluded that the Nanjing Massacre was not an isolated case, and that Japanese atrocities against the Chinese were common throughout the Lower <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">battle of Shanghai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diaries of other Japanese combatants and medics who fought in China have corroborated his conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll_estimates">Death toll estimates</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Death_toll_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre">Death toll of the Nanjing Massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/220px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/330px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg/440px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E4%B9%8B%E6%97%85-%E8%82%83%E7%A9%86_-_panoramio_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>A monument at the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Hall_of_the_Victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre_by_Japanese_Invaders" title="Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders">Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall</a> that says there were 300,000 victims, in multiple languages</figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous factors complicate the estimation of an accurate death toll.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yang_Daqing_1999_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang_Daqing_1999-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River,_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/220px-Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg/330px-Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Bodies_piled_on_the_shore_of_Yangtze_River%2C_Nanking_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Dead Chinese civilians near Xiaguan, their corpses deliberately burned by the Japanese</figcaption></figure> <p>According to American historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Drea" title="Edward J. Drea">Edward J. Drea</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>While the Germans, beginning in 1943, did engage in substantial efforts to obliterate evidence of such crimes as mass murder, and they destroyed a great deal of potentially incriminating records in 1945, a great deal survived, in part because not each one of the multiple copies had been burned. The situation was different in Japan. Between the announcement of a ceasefire on August 15, 1945, and the arrival of small advance parties of American troops in Japan on August 28, Japanese military and civil authorities systematically destroyed military, naval, and government archives, much of which was from the period 1942–1945. Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo dispatched enciphered messages to field commands throughout the Pacific and East Asia ordering units to burn incriminating evidence of war crimes, especially offenses against prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to Yang Daqing, professor of History and International Affairs at <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>While it is standard practice for governments to destroy evidence in times of defeat, in the two weeks before the Allies arrived in Japan, various Japanese agencies—the military in particular—systematically destroyed sensitive documents to a degree perhaps unprecedented in history. Estimates of the impact of the destruction vary. Tanaka Hiromi, a professor at Japan’s National Defense Academy who has conducted extensive research into remaining Imperial Japanese Army and Navy documents in Japan and overseas, claims that less than 0.1 percent of the material ordered for destruction survived.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2003, the director of Japan's Military History Archives of National Institute for Defense Studies said that as much 70 percent of Japan's wartime records were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other factors include the mass disposal of Chinese corpses by Japanese soldiers; the revisionist tendencies of both Chinese and Japanese individuals and groups, who are driven by nationalistic and political motivations; and the subjectivity involved in the collection and interpretation of evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yale_Bartlett-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Askew_2002_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Askew_2002-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yang_Daqing_1999_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang_Daqing_1999-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the most credible scholars in Japan, which include a large number of authoritative academics, support the validity of the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> and its findings, which estimate more than 100,000 casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-Askew_2002_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Askew_2002-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Tokushi_Kasahara" title="Tokushi Kasahara">Tokushi Kasahara</a> states "more than 100,000 and close to 200,000, or maybe more."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the emergence of more information and data, he said that there is a possibility that the death toll could be higher. Hiroshi Yoshida concludes "more than 200,000" in his book.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tomio_Hora" title="Tomio Hora">Tomio Hora</a> supports the information found in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, which estimates a death toll of at least 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-tomio_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tomio-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimate death toll of 300,000 has also been cited.<sup id="cite_ref-ChristianScienceMonitor_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChristianScienceMonitor-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>, estimates made at a later date indicate that the total number of civilians and prisoners of war murdered in Nanjing and its vicinity during the first six weeks of the Japanese occupation was over 200,000. These estimates are borne out by the figures of burial societies and other organizations, which testify to over 155,000 buried bodies. These figures also do not take into account those persons whose bodies were destroyed by burning, drowning or other means, or whose bodies were interred in mass graves.<sup id="cite_ref-IMTftFE_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMTftFE-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most credible scholars in Japan, which include a large number of authoritative academics, support the validity of the tribunal and its findings.<sup id="cite_ref-Askew_2002_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Askew_2002-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the verdict of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> on 10 March 1947, there are "more than 190,000 mass slaughtered civilians and Chinese soldiers killed by machine gun by the Japanese army, whose corpses have been burned to destroy proof. Besides, we count more than 150,000 victims of barbarian acts buried by the charity organizations. We thus have a total of more than 300,000 victims."<sup id="cite_ref-Kasahara_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasahara-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a>, Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/The_International_Committee_for_the_Nanking_Safety_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone">International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone</a>, estimated that between 50,000 and 60,000 (civilians) were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Erwin Wickert, the editor of <i>The diaries of John Rabe</i>, points out that "It is likely that Rabe's estimate is too low, since he could not have had an overview of the entire municipal area during the period of the worst atrocities. Moreover, many troops of captured Chinese soldiers were led out of the city and down to the Yangtze, where they were summarily executed. But, as noted, no one actually counted the dead." </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/220px-Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/330px-Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg/440px-Skeletons_of_victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass grave</a> from the Nanjing Massacre</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Harold_Timperley" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Timperley">Harold Timperley</a>, a journalist in China during the Japanese invasion, reported that at least 300,000 Chinese civilians were killed in Nanjing and elsewhere, and tried to send a telegram but was censored by the Japanese military in Shanghai.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources, including <a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Iris Chang</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)">The Rape of Nanjing</a></i>, also conclude that the death toll reached 300,000. In December 2007, newly declassified <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. government</a> archive documents revealed that a telegraph by the U.S. ambassador to Germany in Berlin sent one day after the Japanese army occupied Nanjing, stated that he heard the Japanese ambassador in Germany boasting that the Japanese army had killed 500,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians as the Japanese army advanced from Shanghai to Nanjing. According to the archives research "The telegrams sent by the U.S. diplomats [in Berlin] pointed to the massacre of an estimated half a million people in Shanghai, Suzhou, Jiaxing, Hangzhou, Shaoxing, Wuxi and Changzhou".<sup id="cite_ref-December_2007_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-December_2007-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FRUS1937v03_p806_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FRUS1937v03_p806-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to documents in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register, at least 300,000 Chinese were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto6_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Range_and_duration">Range and duration</h3></div> <p>The duration of the incident is naturally defined by its geography: the earlier the Japanese entered the area, the longer the duration. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">Battle of Nanking</a> ended on December 13, when the divisions of the Japanese Army entered the walled city of Nanjing. The Tokyo War Crime Tribunal defined the period of the massacre to the ensuing six weeks. More conservative estimates say that the massacre started on December 14, when the troops entered the Safety Zone, and that it lasted for six weeks. Historians who define the Nanjing Massacre as having started from the time that the Japanese Army entered <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> province push the beginning of the massacre to around mid-November to early December (Suzhou fell on November 19), and extended the end of the massacre to late March 1938.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To many Japanese scholars, <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-war</a> estimations were distorted by "<a href="/wiki/Victor%27s_justice" title="Victor's justice">victor's justice</a>", when Japan was condemned as the sole aggressor. They believed the 300,000 toll typified a "Chinese-style exaggeration" with disregard for evidence. Yet, in China, this figure has come to symbolize the justice, legality, and authority of the post-war trials condemning Japan as the aggressor.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_Daqing_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang_Daqing-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crimes_tribunals">War crimes tribunals</h2></div> <p>Shortly after the surrender of Japan, the primary officers in charge of the Japanese troops at Nanjing were put on trial. General Matsui was indicted before the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> for "deliberately and recklessly" ignoring his legal duty "to take adequate steps to secure the observance and prevent breaches" of the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Convention</a>. </p><p>Other Japanese military leaders in charge at the time of the Nanjing Massacre were not tried. <a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kan'in Kotohito</a>, chief of staff of the Imperial Japanese Army during the massacre, had died before the end of the war in May 1945. Prince Asaka was granted immunity because of his status as a member of the imperial family.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Ch%C5%8D" title="Isamu Chō">Isamu Chō</a>, the aide to Prince Asaka, and whom some historians believe issued the "kill all captives" memo, had committed <i><a href="/wiki/Seppuku" title="Seppuku">seppuku</a></i> (ritual suicide) during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center" style="max-width: 579px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was convened at "Ichigaya Court," formally Imperial Japanese Army HQ building in Ichigaya, Tokyo."><img alt="The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was convened at "Ichigaya Court," formally Imperial Japanese Army HQ building in Ichigaya, Tokyo." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg/150px-International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg/225px-International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg/300px-International_Military_Tribunal_Ichigaya_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="273" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> was convened at "Ichigaya Court," formally Imperial Japanese Army HQ building in <a href="/wiki/Ichigaya" title="Ichigaya">Ichigaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iwane_Matsui.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="General Iwane Matsui[142]"><img alt="General Iwane Matsui[142]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iwane_Matsui.jpg/110px-Iwane_Matsui.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iwane_Matsui.jpg/166px-Iwane_Matsui.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Iwane_Matsui.jpg/221px-Iwane_Matsui.jpg 2x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">General <a href="/wiki/Iwane_Matsui" title="Iwane Matsui">Iwane Matsui</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tani_Hisao.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="General Hisao Tani[143]"><img alt="General Hisao Tani[143]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Tani_Hisao.jpg/139px-Tani_Hisao.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Tani_Hisao.jpg/208px-Tani_Hisao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Tani_Hisao.jpg/278px-Tani_Hisao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="486" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">General <a href="/wiki/Hisao_Tani" title="Hisao Tani">Hisao Tani</a><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grant_of_immunity_to_Prince_Asaka">Grant of immunity to Prince Asaka</h3></div> <p>On May 1, 1946, <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Commander_of_the_Allied_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers">SCAP</a> officials interrogated <a href="/wiki/Prince_Asaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Asaka">Prince Asaka</a>, who was the ranking officer in the city at the height of the atrocities, about his involvement in the Nanjing Massacre and the deposition was submitted to the International Prosecution Section of the Tokyo tribunal. Asaka denied the existence of any massacre and claimed never to have received complaints about the conduct of his troops.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence_and_testimony">Evidence and testimony</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanking_telegram_Harold_John_Timperley.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nanking_telegram_Harold_John_Timperley.gif/220px-Nanking_telegram_Harold_John_Timperley.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Nanking_telegram_Harold_John_Timperley.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harold_John_Timperley" title="Harold John Timperley">Harold John Timperley</a>'s telegram of 17 January 1938 describing the atrocities</figcaption></figure> <p>The prosecution began the Nanjing phase of its case in July 1946. Dr. <a href="/wiki/Robert_O._Wilson" title="Robert O. Wilson">Robert O. Wilson</a>, a surgeon and a member of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, testified.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other members of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone who took the witness stand included <a href="/wiki/Miner_Searle_Bates" title="Miner Searle Bates">Miner Searle Bates</a><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Magee_(missionary)" title="John Magee (missionary)">John Magee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_A._Fitch" class="mw-redirect" title="George A. Fitch">George A. Fitch</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_S._C._Smythe" title="Lewis S. C. Smythe">Lewis S. C. Smythe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and James McCallum filed affidavits with their diaries and letters.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The entry for the same day in Matsui's diary read, "I could only feel sadness and responsibility today, which has been overwhelmingly piercing my heart. This is caused by the Army's misbehaviors after the fall of Nanjing and failure to proceed with the autonomous government and other political plans."<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matsui's_defense"><span id="Matsui.27s_defense"></span>Matsui's defense</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Nanjing_Massacre##" title="Talk:Nanjing Massacre">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanjing_Massacre&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22">"Nanjing Massacre"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Nanjing+Massacre%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Matsui asserted that he had never ordered the execution of Chinese <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a>. He further argued that he had directed his army division commanders to discipline their troops for criminal acts, and was not responsible for their failure to carry out his directives. At trial, Matsui went out of his way to protect <a href="/wiki/Prince_Asaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Asaka">Prince Asaka</a> by shifting blame to lower-ranking division commanders.<sup id="cite_ref-Bix_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bix-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verdict">Verdict</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dki_Hirota" title="Kōki Hirota">Kōki Hirota</a>, Prime Minister of Japan at an earlier stage of the war, and a diplomat during the atrocities at Nanjing, was convicted of participating in "the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy" (count 1), waging "a war of aggression and a war in violation of international laws, treaties, agreements and assurances against the Republic of China" (count 27) and count 55. Matsui was convicted by a majority of the judges at the Tokyo tribunal who ruled that he bore ultimate responsibility for the "orgy of crime" at Nanjing because, "He did nothing, or nothing effective, to abate these horrors." </p> <blockquote><p>Organized and wholesale murder of male civilians was conducted with the apparent sanction of the commanders on the pretext that Chinese soldiers had removed their uniforms and were mingling with the population. Groups of Chinese civilians were formed, bound with their hands behind their backs, and marched outside the walls of the city where they were killed in groups by machine gun fire and with bayonets. — From Judgment of the International Military Tribunal</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentence">Sentence</h3></div> <p>On November 12, 1948, Matsui and Hirota, along with five other convicted Class-A war criminals, were sentenced to death by hanging. Eighteen others received lesser sentences. The death sentence imposed on Hirota, a six-to-five decision by the eleven judges, shocked the general public and prompted a petition on his behalf, which soon gathered over 300,000 signatures but did not succeed in commuting the Minister's sentence. All of them were hanged on 23 December 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_trials">Other trials</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hisao_Tani" title="Hisao Tani">Hisao Tani</a>, a lieutenant general for the 6th Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, was tried by the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Bix_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bix-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was found guilty of war crimes, sentenced to death, and executed by shooting on 26 April 1947. However, according to historian Tokushi Kasahara, the evidence used to convict Hisao Tani was not convincing.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kasahara said that if there was a full investigation of the massacre, many other high ranking authorities, which include higher level commanders, army leaders and emperor <a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a>, could have been implicated.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1947, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda, the two officers responsible for the contest to kill 100 people, were both arrested and extradited to China. They were also tried by the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. On trial with them was Gunkichi Tanaka, a captain from the 6th Division who personally killed over 300 Chinese POWs and civilians with his sword during the massacre. All three men were found guilty of war crimes and sentenced to death. They were <a href="/wiki/Execution_by_shooting" title="Execution by shooting">executed by shooting</a> together on 28 January 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moritake_Tanabe" title="Moritake Tanabe">Moritake Tanabe</a>, the Chief of Staff of the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Army_(Japan)" title="Tenth Army (Japan)">Japanese 10th Army</a> at the time of the massacre, was tried for unrelated war crimes in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memorials">Memorials</h2></div> <ul><li>In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Hall_of_the_Victims_in_Nanjing_Massacre_by_Japanese_Invaders" title="Memorial Hall of the Victims in Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders">Memorial Hall for Nanjing Massacre victims</a> was built by the Nanjing Municipal Government in remembrance of the victims and to raise awareness of the Nanjing Massacre. It is located near a site where thousands of bodies were buried, called the "pit of ten thousand corpses" <i>wàn rén kēng</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">万人坑</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Wàn rén kēng</span></i>). As of December 2016<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanjing_Massacre&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there is a total of 10,615 Nanjing Massacre victim names inscribed on a memorial wall.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 1995, Daniel Kwan held a photo exhibit in Los Angeles titled, "The Forgotten Holocaust".</li> <li>In 2005, John Rabe's former residence in Nanjing was renovated and now accommodates the "<a href="/wiki/John_Rabe_House" title="John Rabe House">John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall</a>", which opened in 2006.</li> <li>On December 13, 2009, both the Chinese and Japanese monks held a religious assembly to mourn Chinese civilians killed by invading Japanese troops.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On December 13, 2014, China held its first <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_Memorial_Day" title="Nanjing Massacre Memorial Day">Nanjing Massacre Memorial Day</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>On October 9, 2015, Documents of the Nanjing Massacre have been listed on the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory of the World Register">Memory of the World Register</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center" style="max-width: 579px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sekihi02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yanziji Nanjing Massacre Memorial in 2004"><img alt="Yanziji Nanjing Massacre Memorial in 2004" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sekihi02.jpg/112px-Sekihi02.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sekihi02.jpg/169px-Sekihi02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sekihi02.jpg/225px-Sekihi02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yanziji Nanjing Massacre Memorial in 2004</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A statue titled "Family Ruined" in front of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall"><img alt="A statue titled "Family Ruined" in front of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg/100px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg/150px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg/200px-%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86%E5%AE%B6%E7%A0%B4%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%A1%E9%9B%95%E5%A1%91.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2656" data-file-height="3984" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A statue titled "Family Ruined" in front of the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Residence_of_John_Rabe,_Nanjing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Rabe's former residence, now the "John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall", in Nanjing, September 2010"><img alt="John Rabe's former residence, now the "John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall", in Nanjing, September 2010" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg/150px-Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg/225px-Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg/300px-Residence_of_John_Rabe%2C_Nanjing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">John Rabe's former residence, now the "John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall", in Nanjing, September 2010</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre</a></div> <p>According to Japanese historian <a href="/wiki/Fujiwara_Akira" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujiwara Akira">Fujiwara Akira</a>, "When Japan accepted the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a> and surrendered in August 1945, the state officially acknowledged the war of aggression and the Nanjing massacre committed by the Japanese army."<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_in_Japan">Debate in Japan</h3></div> <p>David Askew, formerly an associate professor at <a href="/wiki/Ritsumeikan_Asia_Pacific_University" title="Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University">Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University</a>, noted that in Japan views concerning the massacre were divided between two mutually exclusive groups. The "Great Massacre School" group accepts the findings of the Tokyo Trials, and concludes that there were at least 200,000 casualties and at least 20,000 rape cases; whereas "The Illusion School" group rejects the tribunal's findings as "victor's justice". According to Askew, the "Great Massacre School" is more sophisticated, and the credibility of its conclusions are supported by a large number of authoritative academics.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Askew estimates that the city's population was 224,500 from December 24, 1937, to January 5, 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hora Tomio, a Japanese history professor at <a href="/wiki/Waseda_University" title="Waseda University">Waseda University</a>, published a book in 1967 following his 1966 visit to China, devoting a third of the book to the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Katsuichi_Honda" title="Katsuichi Honda">Katsuichi Honda</a> wrote a series of articles for the <i><a href="/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun" class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Shimbun">Asahi Shimbun</a></i> on war crimes committed by Japanese soldiers during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (such as the Nanjing Massacre).<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Shichihei Yamamoto, using the <a href="/wiki/Pen_name" title="Pen name">pen name</a> "Isaiah Ben-Dasan", wrote an article that denied the massacre, and <a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki_(writer)" title="Akira Suzuki (writer)">Akira Suzuki</a> published a book that denied the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqingyang2-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the debate was short-lived because no denialist produced a study that was as comprehensive as the one conducted by Hora.<sup id="cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqingyang2-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposition was unable to present enough evidence to deny the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqingyang2-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are disputes about the official death toll of the massacre. This estimate includes an estimation that the Japanese Army murdered 57,418 Chinese POWs at Mufushan, though the latest research indicates that between 4,000 and 20,000 were massacred,<sup id="cite_ref-Yamamoto_M._2000_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamamoto_M._2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it also includes the 112,266 corpses apparently buried by the Chongshantang, a charitable association, though today some historians argue that the Chongshantang's records were at least greatly exaggerated if not entirely fabricated.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-consensus1_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-consensus1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Bob Wakabayashi, he estimates the death toll within <a href="/wiki/City_Wall_of_Nanjing" title="City Wall of Nanjing">Nanjing City Wall</a> to be around 40,000, mostly massacred in the first five days; while the total victims after a 3-month period in Nanjing and its surrounding six rural counties "far exceed 100,000 but fall short of 200,000".<sup id="cite_ref-Askew_2002_127-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Askew_2002-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wakabayashi concludes that estimates of over 200,000 are not credible.<sup id="cite_ref-consensus1_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-consensus1-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denials_of_the_massacre_in_Japan">Denials of the massacre in Japan</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre_denial" title="Nanjing Massacre denial">Nanjing Massacre denial</a></div> <p>For the past several decades, Japanese politicians who express no remorse for the Nanjing massacre have exacerbated ongoing tensions in <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese relations">Sino-Japanese relations</a>, with numerous Japanese government officials and a few historians in Japan either denying or dismissing the atrocity.<sup id="cite_ref-gall_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gall-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-yoshida_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yoshida-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous scholars have stated that the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Wikipedia#Controversies" title="Japanese Wikipedia">Japanese Wikipedia</a> version of the article (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" class="extiw" title="ja:南京事件">南京事件</a></span></span>) contains revisionist and denialist narratives.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-YumikoSatoSlate_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YumikoSatoSlate-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-YumikoSatoJournal_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YumikoSatoJournal-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They note that the article notably lacks pictures and expresses doubt about the massacre in the first paragraph of the article. In 2021, Yumiko Sato translated a sentence from the first paragraph: "The Chinese side calls it the Nanjing Massacre, but the truth of the incident is still unknown".<sup id="cite_ref-YumikoSatoSlate_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YumikoSatoSlate-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-YumikoSatoJournal_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YumikoSatoJournal-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_international_relations">Effect on international relations</h3></div> <p>The memory of the Nanjing Massacre has been a point of contention in <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="China–Japan relations">Sino-Japanese relations</a> since the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade between the two nations is worth over $200 billion annually. Despite this, many Chinese people still have a strong sense of mistrust due to the memory of the atrocity and failure of reconciliation measures. This sense of mistrust is strengthened by Japan's unwillingness to admit to and apologize for the atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Takashi Yoshida described how changing political concerns and perceptions of the "national interest" in Japan, China, and the U.S. have shaped the collective memory of the Nanjing massacre. Yoshida contended that over time the event has acquired different meanings to different people. People from mainland China saw themselves as the victims. For Japan, it was a question they needed to answer but were reluctant to do so because they too identified themselves as victims after the A-bombs. The U.S., which served as the melting pot of cultures and is home to descendants of members of both Chinese and Japanese cultures, took up the mantle of investigator for the victimized Chinese. Yoshida had argued that the Nanjing Massacre had figured in the attempts of all three nations as they work to preserve and redefine national and ethnic pride and identity, assuming different kinds of significance based on each country's changing internal and external enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Japanese prime ministers have visited the <a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a>, a shrine for Japanese war deaths up until the end of the Second World War, which includes war criminals that were involved in the Nanjing Massacre. In the museum adjacent to the shrine, a panel informs visitors that there was no massacre in Nanjing, but that Chinese soldiers in plain clothes were "dealt with severely". In 2006 former Japanese prime minister <a href="/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumi" title="Junichiro Koizumi">Junichiro Koizumi</a> made a pilgrimage to the shrine despite warnings from China and South Korea. His decision to visit the shrine regardless sparked international outrage. Although Koizumi denied that he was trying to glorify war or historical <a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Japanese militarism</a>, the Chinese Foreign Ministry accused Koizumi of "wrecking the political foundations of China-Japan relations". An official from South Korea said they would summon the Tokyo ambassador to protest.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Massacre is contentiously compared to other disasters in China, which include the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chinese famine">Great Chinese famine</a> (1959–1961)<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_component_of_national_identity">As a component of national identity</h3></div> <p>Yoshida asserts that "Nanjing has figured in the attempts of all three nations [China, Japan and the United States] to preserve and redefine national and ethnic pride and identity, assuming different kinds of significance based on each country's changing internal and external enemies."<sup id="cite_ref-Yoshida_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yoshida-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Iris Chang</a>, In her book <i>Rape of Nanjing,</i> asserted that the politics of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> encouraged <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Chairman Mao</a> to stay relatively silent about Nanjing in order to keep a trade relationship with Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jung_Chang" title="Jung Chang">Jung Chang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jon_Halliday" title="Jon Halliday">Jon Halliday</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mao:_The_Unknown_Story" title="Mao: The Unknown Story">biography of Mao</a> claims Mao never made any comment either contemporaneously or later in his life about the massacre, but did frequently remark with enduring bitterness about a political struggle between himself and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ming" title="Wang Ming">Wang Ming</a> which also occurred in December 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the 1970s, China did relatively little to draw attention to the Nanjing massacre. There was also virtually no public commemoration until after 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, China was not oblivious to the Japanese debate over the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-daqing1_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqing1-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, concerned with Japanese <a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">denialism</a>, accounts of the Nanjing Massacre, alongside other wartime atrocities committed by Japan in China, emerged in the Chinese media.<sup id="cite_ref-daqing1_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqing1-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concerns regarding Japanese denialism about the massacre was not confined solely to the People's Republic of China; scholars in Taiwan also initiated a response, publishing many studies about Japanese atrocities in China.<sup id="cite_ref-daqing1_197-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daqing1-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to American journalist <a href="/wiki/Howard_W._French" title="Howard W. French">Howard W. French</a>, mentioning of the massacre was suppressed in China because ideologically <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">the communists</a> would rather promote the "martyrs of <a href="/wiki/Class_struggles" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggles">class struggles</a>" than wartime victims, especially when there were no communist heroes or any communists at all in Nanjing when the massacre happened.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Guo-Qiang Liu and Fengqi Qian of <a href="/wiki/Deakin_University" title="Deakin University">Deakin University</a>, only since the 1990s, through the revisionist <a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Education_Campaign" title="Patriotic Education Campaign">Patriotic Education Campaign</a>, the massacre had become a national memory as an episode of the "<a href="/wiki/Century_of_Humiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Century of Humiliation">Century of Humiliation</a>" prior to the communist founding of a "New China". This orthodox victimhood narrative has become entwined with the Chinese <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a> and is very sensitive to the revisionist sentiments from the far-right in Japan, which makes the memory of the massacre a recurring point of tension in <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese relations">Sino-Japanese relations</a> after 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-Qian_&_Liu_2019_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qian_&_Liu_2019-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_history_textbook_controversies" title="Japanese history textbook controversies">Japanese history textbook controversies</a></div> <p>Following the end of World War II, some circles of <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> in Japan reflected on the extent of the massacre and the participation of ordinary soldiers. Notably, the novelist <a href="/wiki/Hotta_Yoshie" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotta Yoshie">Hotta Yoshie</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A0%80%E7%94%B0%E5%96%84%E8%A1%9B" class="extiw" title="ja:堀田善衛">ja</a>]</span> wrote a novel, <i>Time</i> (<i>Jikan</i>) in 1953, portraying the massacre from the point of view of a Chinese intellectual watching it happen. This novel has been translated into Chinese and Russian. Other eyewitnesses to the massacre also expressed their opinions in Japanese magazines in the 1950s and 1960s, but political shifts slowly eroded this tide of confessions. </p><p>In 21st century Japan, the Nanjing Massacre touches upon national identity and notions of "pride, honor and shame". Yoshida argues that "Nanjing crystallizes a much larger conflict over what should constitute the ideal perception of the nation: Japan, as a nation, acknowledges its past and apologizes for its wartime wrongdoings; or ... stands firm against foreign pressures and teaches Japanese youth about the benevolent and courageous martyrs who fought a just war to save Asia from Western aggression."<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recognizing the Nanjing Massacre as such can be viewed in some circles in Japan as "Japan-bashing" (in the case of foreigners) or "self-flagellation" (in the case of Japanese).<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government of Japan states that it cannot be denied that the killing of a large number of noncombatants, looting and other acts by the Japanese army occurred. However, it also states that the actual number of victims is hard to determine.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most widely used Japanese textbooks for junior high schools do contain references to the Nanjing Massacre and other issues like <a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fiercely critical of such references, the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Society_for_History_Textbook_Reform" title="Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform">Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform</a> published the <i>New History Textbook</i> attempts to whitewash Japan's war record during the 1930s and early 1940s. It referred to the Nanjing Massacre as an "incident", and glossed over the issue of comfort women.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also only one sentence that refers to the event: "they [the Japanese troops] occupied that city in December."<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This revisionist textbook though approved by the government was shunned by nearly all school districts and only used by 13 schools.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div> <p>Dockworkers in Australia were horrified by the massacre and refused to load <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> onto ships heading for Japan, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Dalfram_dispute_of_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalfram dispute of 1938">Dalfram Dispute of 1938</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Records">Records</h2></div> <p>In December 2007, the PRC government published the names of 13,000 people who were killed by Japanese troops in the Nanjing Massacre. According to <a href="/wiki/Xinhua_News_Agency" title="Xinhua News Agency">Xinhua News Agency</a>, it is the most complete record to date. The report consists of eight volumes and was released to mark the 70th anniversary of the start of the massacre. It also lists the Japanese army units that were responsible for each of the deaths and states the way in which the victims were killed. Zhang Xianwen, editor-in-chief of the report, states that the information collected was based on "a combination of Chinese, Japanese and Western raw materials, which is objective and just and is able to stand the trial of history".<sup id="cite_ref-2007report_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2007report-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This report formed part of a 55-volume series about the massacre, the <i>Collection of Historical Materials of Nanjing Massacre</i> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%99%E9%9B%86" class="extiw" title="zh:南京大屠殺史料集">南京大屠杀史料集</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Nánjīng dà túshā shǐliào jí</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/48px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/64px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_anti-Japanese_demonstrations" title="2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations">2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bataan_Death_March" title="Bataan Death March">Bataan Death March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Arp_Sindberg" title="Bernhard Arp Sindberg">Bernhard Arp Sindberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_Railway" title="Burma Railway">Burma Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changde_chemical_weapon_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Changde chemical weapon attack">Changde chemical weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gando_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gando massacre">Gando massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Society_for_History_Textbook_Reform" title="Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform">Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">John Rabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_China" title="List of massacres in China">List of massacres in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a>, resulted in approximately 250,000 Chinese civilian deaths due to Japanese war crimes including the use of biological weapons.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur_massacre_(China)" title="Port Arthur massacre (China)">Port Arthur massacre (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre" title="Manila massacre">Manila massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masanobu_Tsuji" title="Masanobu Tsuji">Masanobu Tsuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnie_Vautrin" title="Minnie Vautrin">Minnie Vautrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_Massacre" title="Panjiayu Massacre">Panjiayu Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiro_Azuma" title="Shiro Azuma">Shiro Azuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_(novel)" title="Tokyo (novel)">Tokyo</a>, a novel by British crime writer <a href="/wiki/Mo_Hayder" title="Mo Hayder">Mo Hayder</a>, partly set during the Nanjing Massacre</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-duration-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-duration_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-duration_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-duration_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Six weeks long" is a convenient figure but far from precise. Killings were most intense in the first five days from December 13 and remained moderately intense until December 31, 1937, according to the Japanese military records. From February 7, 1938, killings were no longer in mass fashion as the senior Japanese officers came to restore discipline of their troops, according to the testimony of <a href="/wiki/Miner_Searle_Bates" title="Miner Searle Bates">Miner Searle Bates</a>, a humanitarian leader of the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="Nanking Safety Zone">Nanking Safety Zone</a>. None of the above dates is close to "six weeks", which should correspond to January 24, 1938. Bates testified before the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Tokyo Trial</a> on July 29, 1946, pioneering the use of "six weeks long" and describing the respective duration of random murder, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">arson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-romanization-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-romanization_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Chinese postal romanization</a> used at the time, the city's name was <a href="/wiki/Transliterate" class="mw-redirect" title="Transliterate">transliterated</a> as "Nanking", and so the event was called the <b>Nanking Massacre</b> or <b>Rape of Nanking</b>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress1948" class="citation book cs1">Library of Congress, ed. (November 1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llmlp/Judgment-IMTFE-Vol-II-PartB-Chapter-VIII/Judgment-IMTFE-Vol-II-PartB-Chapter-VIII.pdf"><i>Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East The Pacific War</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 1015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judgment+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East+The+Pacific+War&rft.pages=1015&rft.date=1948-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftile.loc.gov%2Fstorage-services%2Fservice%2Fll%2Fllmlp%2FJudgment-IMTFE-Vol-II-PartB-Chapter-VIII%2FJudgment-IMTFE-Vol-II-PartB-Chapter-VIII.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">南京大屠杀</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">南京大屠殺</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Nánjīng Dàtúshā</span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: <span lang="ja">南京大虐殺</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nankin Daigyakusatsu</i></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNESCO_DOCS-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNESCO_DOCS_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/china_nanjing_en.pdf">"International Memory of the World Register Documents of Nanjing Massacre"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220417091308/https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/china_nanjing_en.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 17 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO&rft.atitle=International+Memory+of+the+World+Register+Documents+of+Nanjing+Massacre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.unesco.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fchina_nanjing_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yale_Bartlett-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yale_Bartlett_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmalley1997" class="citation book cs1">Smalley, Martha L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=ydl_pub"><i>American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938</i></a>. Connecticut: Yale Divinity Library Occasional Publications<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Missionary+Eyewitnesses+to+the+Nanking+Massacre%2C+1937-1938&rft.place=Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+Divinity+Library+Occasional+Publications&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Smalley&rft.aufirst=Martha+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felischolar.library.yale.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1017%26context%3Dydl_pub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Chang, Iris</a>. 1997. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)">The Rape of Nanking</a></i>. p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2010" class="citation news cs1">Lee, Min (31 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2010/03/31/as_film_japan_massacre_documentary">"New film has Japan vets confessing to Nanjing rape"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon.com</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221031151950/https://www.salon.com/2010/03/31/as_film_japan_massacre_documentary/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salon.com&rft.atitle=New+film+has+Japan+vets+confessing+to+Nanjing+rape&rft.date=2010-03-31&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Min&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2010%2F03%2F31%2Fas_film_japan_massacre_documentary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bates_on_six_weeks-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bates_on_six_weeks_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress1964–1974" class="citation book cs1">Library of Congress, ed. (1964–1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/a5a0b0/pdf">"29 July 1946. Prosecution's Witnesses. Bates, Miner Searle"</a>. <i>Record of proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East</i>. pp. 2631, 2635, 2636, 2642–2645. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214091011/https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/a5a0b0/pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=29+July+1946.+Prosecution%27s+Witnesses.+Bates%2C+Miner+Searle&rft.btitle=Record+of+proceedings+of+the+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East&rft.pages=2631%2C+2635%2C+2636%2C+2642-2645&rft.date=1964%2F1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legal-tools.org%2Fdoc%2Fa5a0b0%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yamamoto_M._2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yamamoto_M._2000_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yamamoto_M._2000_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000), p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-A_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-A_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu2019" class="citation book cs1">Lu, Suping (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz_CDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33"><i>The 1937–1938 Nanjing Atrocities</i></a>. Springer. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9811396564" title="Special:BookSources/978-9811396564"><bdi>978-9811396564</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923141913/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz_CDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+1937%E2%80%931938+Nanjing+Atrocities&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-9811396564&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Suping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDz_CDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2000backcover-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000backcover_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFogel2000">Fogel 2000</a>, p. backcover.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2015). <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. Casemate. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612002842" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612002842"><bdi>978-1612002842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanjing+1937%3A+Battle+for+a+Doomed+City&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1612002842&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JTaylor-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JTaylor_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JTaylor_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jay Taylor, <i>The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2009), 145–147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DreaSatoshi-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DreaSatoshi_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hattori Satoshi and Edward J. Drea, "Japanese operations from July to December 1937," in <i>The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945</i>, eds. Mark Peattie et al. (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2011), 169, 171–172, 175–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/ShanghaiGreater-japanese-1937">1937 Japanese Field Commander's Map of the Battle of Shanghai, China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200517173832/https://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/ShanghaiGreater-japanese-1937">Archived</a> 2020-05-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> geographicus.com Retrieved 22 April 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tokushi-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tokushi_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tokushi_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTokushi_Kasahara1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tokushi Kasahara (1997). <bdi lang="ja">南京事件</bdi> (in Japanese). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-03-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=War+and+reconciliation%3A+a+tale+of+two+countries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.japantimes.co.jp%2Fcgi-bin%2Ffl20080810x1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimberley1969" class="citation book cs1">Timberley, Harold (1969). <i>Japanese Terror in China</i>. Books for Libraries Press. p. 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+Terror+in+China&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Books+for+Libraries+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Timberley&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Honda</i>. pp. 63–65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honda&rft.pages=63-65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2015). <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. 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Casemate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanjing+1937%3A+Battle+for+a+Doomed+City&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoboru_Kojima1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Noboru Kojima (1984). <i>Ni~Tsu Chū sensō (3)</i> <bdi lang="ja">日中戦争(3)</bdi> [<i>Sino-Japanese war (3)</i>] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Bungei Shunju. pp. 191, 194–195, 197–200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ni~Tsu+Ch%C5%AB+sens%C5%8D+%283%29+%E6%97%A5%E4%B8%AD%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89%283%29&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pages=191%2C+194-195%2C+197-200&rft.pub=Bungei+Shunju&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Noboru+Kojima&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2015). <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terror+in+Minnie+Vautrin%27s+Nanjing%3A+Diaries+and+Correspondence%2C+1937%E2%80%9338&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-252-03332-2&rft.aulast=Vautrin&rft.aufirst=Minnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzfxnlfFPMMC%26pg%3DPR11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2015). <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. Casemate. p. 54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanjing+1937%3A+Battle+for+a+Doomed+City&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalriskinsights.com/2016/10/how-nanjing-became-a-political-tool/">"Special Report: How the Nanjing Massacre became a weapon | GRI"</a>. <i>Global Risk Insights</i>. 27 October 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213115914/https://globalriskinsights.com/2016/10/how-nanjing-became-a-political-tool/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Risk+Insights&rft.atitle=Special+Report%3A+How+the+Nanjing+Massacre+became+a+weapon+%7C+GRI&rft.date=2016-10-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalriskinsights.com%2F2016%2F10%2Fhow-nanjing-became-a-political-tool%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/NanjingMassacre/NMNJ.html#nm">"Basic Facts on the Nanking Massacre and the Toyoko War Crimes Trial"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Basic+Facts+on+the+Nanking+Massacre+and+the+Toyoko+War+Crimes+Trial&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk%2FNanjingMassacre%2FNMNJ.html%23nm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dixon-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dixon_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dixon_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2018" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Jennifer (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5tpwDwAAQBAJ&dq=japan+dehumanize+nanjing+massacre&pg=PA96"><i>Dark Pasts: Changing the State's Story in Turkey and Japan</i></a>. Ithaca: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501730252" title="Special:BookSources/9781501730252"><bdi>9781501730252</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+Pasts%3A+Changing+the+State%27s+Story+in+Turkey+and+Japan&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781501730252&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5tpwDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Djapan%2Bdehumanize%2Bnanjing%2Bmassacre%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFogel2000154_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFogel2000">Fogel 2000</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamimura1998" class="citation news cs1">Kamimura, Marina (16 September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9808/16/japan.war.crimes/">"A Japanese veteran attempts to make peace with haunting memories"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080522173307/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9808/16/japan.war.crimes/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=A+Japanese+veteran+attempts+to+make+peace+with+haunting+memories&rft.date=1998-09-16&rft.aulast=Kamimura&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2FWORLD%2Fasiapcf%2F9808%2F16%2Fjapan.war.crimes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1999). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Modern_China" title="The Search for Modern China">The Search for Modern China</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W. 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Gagee, Case 9, Film 4, Folder 7, Box 263, Record Group 8, Special Collection, Yale Divinity School Library, cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRD_fXL3_swC&pg=PA118">Suping Lu. <i>They were in Nanjing: the Nanjing Massacre witnessed by American and British nationals</i>. Hong Kong University Press, 2004</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230804155610/https://books.google.com/books?id=rRD_fXL3_swC&pg=PA118">Archived</a> 2023-08-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabeWickert1998281–282-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabeWickert1998281–282_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabeWickert1998">Rabe & Wickert 1998</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">"HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East [Chapter 8]"</a>. <i>www.ibiblio.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804062413/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East+%5BChapter+8%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FPTO%2FIMTFE%2FIMTFE-8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">"HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East [Chapter 8]"</a>. <i>www.ibiblio.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804062413/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East+%5BChapter+8%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FPTO%2FIMTFE%2FIMTFE-8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/">"Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing: Chapter X: Widespread Incidents of Rape"</a>. Museums.cnd.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140807040825/http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japanese+Imperialism+and+the+Massacre+in+Nanjing%3A+Chapter+X%3A+Widespread+Incidents+of+Rape&rft.pub=Museums.cnd.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseums.cnd.org%2Fnjmassacre%2Fnjm-tran%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter2009" class="citation book cs1">Winter, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnLSRXAXTfcC&dq=Takokoro+Kozo%2C+a+former+soldier+of+the+Japanese+army+in+Nanking+stated%3A+%E2%80%9Cwomen+suffered+most%2C+no+matter+how+young+or+old%2C+they+all+could+not+escape+the+fate+of+being+raped%E2%80%9D&pg=PA23"><i>America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45018-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45018-8"><bdi>978-1-139-45018-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+and+the+Armenian+Genocide+of+1915&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-45018-8&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnLSRXAXTfcC%26dq%3DTakokoro%2BKozo%252C%2Ba%2Bformer%2Bsoldier%2Bof%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Barmy%2Bin%2BNanking%2Bstated%253A%2B%25E2%2580%259Cwomen%2Bsuffered%2Bmost%252C%2Bno%2Bmatter%2Bhow%2Byoung%2Bor%2Bold%252C%2Bthey%2Ball%2Bcould%2Bnot%2Bescape%2Bthe%2Bfate%2Bof%2Bbeing%2Braped%25E2%2580%259D%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Debt of Blood: An Eyewitness Account of the Barbarous Acts of the Japanese Invaders in Nanjing." <i>Dagong Daily</i> (Wuhan ed.). 7 February 1938.; as quoted by Xingzu, Gao, Wu Shimin, Hu Yungong, and Cha Ruizhen. [1962] 1996. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/njm-ch10.htm">Widespread Incidents of Rape</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120324084900/http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/njm-ch10.htm">Archived</a> 2012-03-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Ch. 10 in <i>Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing</i>, translated by R. Grey.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsen2015" class="citation book cs1">Harmsen, Peter (2015). <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. Casemate. pp. 245–246.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanjing+1937%3A+Battle+for+a+Doomed+City&rft.pages=245-246&rft.pub=Casemate&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Harmsen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hua-ling Hu, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Goddess_at_the_Rape_of_Nanking:_The_Courage_of_Minnie_Vautrin" class="mw-redirect" title="American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin">American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin</a></i>, 2000, p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Documents on the Rape of Nanking, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2001" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Kaiyuan (2001). <i>Eyewitness to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing</i>. <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyewitness+to+Massacre%3A+American+Missionaries+Bear+Witness+to+Japanese+Atrocities+in+Nanjing&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Kaiyuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, John E. (1998). <i>The Good Man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe</i>. p. 77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Man+of+Nanking%2C+the+Diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.pages=77&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Choy, Christine (director) (1997). <i>In the Name of the Emperor</i> (Documentary). New York: Filmmakers Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+the+Name+of+the+Emperor&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Filmmakers+Library&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yang Daqing, "Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing", <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a></i> 104 (1999), p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RapeOfNanking95a-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RapeOfNanking95a_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chang, <i>The Rape of Nanking</i>, p. 95, citing:<div><ul><li>Shuhsi Hsu, <i>Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone</i></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RapeOfNanking89-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RapeOfNanking89_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chang, <i>The Rape of Nanking</i>, p. 89, citing: <div><ul><li>Catherine Rosair, <i>For One Veteran, Emperor Visit Should Be Atonement</i>;</li><li>George Fitch, <i>Nanking Outrages</i>;</li><li>Li En-han, <i>Questions of How Many Chinese Were Killed by the Japanese Army in the Great Nanking Massacre</i></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RapeOfNankingP95-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RapeOfNankingP95_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Chang, Iris</a>. 1997. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)">The Rape of Nanking</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2013/12/04/rape-of-nanking-iris-changs-death-nine-years-ago-silenced-a-voice-against-massacre/">"Rape of Nanking: Iris Chang's death nine years ago silenced a voice against massacre"</a>. 4 December 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230621042249/https://www.mercurynews.com/2013/12/04/rape-of-nanking-iris-changs-death-nine-years-ago-silenced-a-voice-against-massacre/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rape+of+Nanking%3A+Iris+Chang%27s+death+nine+years+ago+silenced+a+voice+against+massacre&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercurynews.com%2F2013%2F12%2F04%2Frape-of-nanking-iris-changs-death-nine-years-ago-silenced-a-voice-against-massacre%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2014" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Iris (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnKuSxod8wC&q=comfort+women&pg=PT102"><i>The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465028252" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465028252"><bdi>978-0465028252</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923141914/https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnKuSxod8wC&q=comfort+women&pg=PT102">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rape+of+Nanking%3A+The+Forgotten+Holocaust+of+World+War+II&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0465028252&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Iris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8XnKuSxod8wC%26q%3Dcomfort%2Bwomen%26pg%3DPT102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabe2000" class="citation book cs1">Rabe, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goodgermanofnank0000rabe/page/192/mode/2up"><i>The good German of Nanking : the diaries of John Rabe</i></a>. Abacus. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11141-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11141-4"><bdi>978-0-349-11141-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+good+German+of+Nanking+%3A+the+diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-349-11141-4&rft.aulast=Rabe&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoodgermanofnank0000rabe%2Fpage%2F192%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChristianScienceMonitor-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChristianScienceMonitor_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChristianScienceMonitor_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Marquand, Robert (August 20, 2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0820/p1s3-woap.html">"Why the Past Still Separates China and Japan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200741/http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0820/p1s3-woap.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Science Monitor">Christian Science Monitor</a></i> states an estimate of 300,000 dead.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IMTftFE-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IMTftFE_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMTftFE_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">"HyperWar: International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Chapter 8) (Paragraph 2, p. 1015, Judgment International Military Tribunal for the Far East)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804062413/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HyperWar%3A+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East+%28Chapter+8%29+%28Paragraph+2%2C+p.+1015%2C+Judgment+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FPTO%2FIMTFE%2FIMTFE-8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress1964–1974" class="citation book cs1">Library of Congress, ed. (1964–1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/9740a9/pdf/">"25 July 1946. Prosecution's Witnesses. Wilson, Dr. Robert O."</a>. <i>Record of proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East</i>. p. 2538. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211214101326/https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/9740a9/pdf/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=25+July+1946.+Prosecution%27s+Witnesses.+Wilson%2C+Dr.+Robert+O.&rft.btitle=Record+of+proceedings+of+the+International+Military+Tribunal+for+the+Far+East&rft.pages=2538&rft.date=1964%2F1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legal-tools.org%2Fdoc%2F9740a9%2Fpdf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2009" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Bradley (June 2009). "Genocide as social control". <i><a href="/wiki/Sociological_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological Theory">Sociological Theory</a></i>. <b>27</b> (2): 154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9558.2009.01341.x">10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40376129">40376129</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143902886">143902886</a>. <q>Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the Japanese occupied Nanjing in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Theory&rft.atitle=Genocide+as+social+control&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=154&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143902886%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40376129%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9558.2009.01341.x&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Louis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Jean-Louis, Margolin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/571">"Japanese Crimes in Nanjing, 1937–38 : A Reappraisal"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/China_Perspectives" title="China Perspectives">China Perspectives</a></i>. <b>2006</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fchinaperspectives.571">10.4000/chinaperspectives.571</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230220031223/https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/571">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Japanese+Crimes+in+Nanjing%2C+1937%E2%80%9338+%3A+A+Reappraisal&rft.volume=2006&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fchinaperspectives.571&rft.aulast=Jean-Louis&rft.aufirst=Margolin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fchinaperspectives%2F571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-woods-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-woods_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-woods_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-woods_92-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, John E. (1998). <i>The Good Man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe</i>. pp. 67, 187, 281.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Man+of+Nanking%2C+the+Diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.pages=67%2C+187%2C+281&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVautrin2008" class="citation book cs1">Vautrin, Minnie (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XzfxnlfFPMMC&pg=PR11"><i>Terror in Minnie Vautrin's Nanjing: Diaries and Correspondence, 1937–38</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. pp. xi–xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03332-2"><bdi>978-0-252-03332-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923141914/https://books.google.com/books?id=XzfxnlfFPMMC&pg=PR11">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terror+in+Minnie+Vautrin%27s+Nanjing%3A+Diaries+and+Correspondence%2C+1937%E2%80%9338&rft.pages=xi-xii&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-252-03332-2&rft.aulast=Vautrin&rft.aufirst=Minnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzfxnlfFPMMC%26pg%3DPR11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2006" class="citation web cs1">Yang, Celia (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070612003745/http://bootheprize.stanford.edu/0506/PWR-Yang.pdf">"The Memorial Hall for the Victims of the Nanjing Massacre: Rhetoric in the Face of Tragedy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 310. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bootheprize.stanford.edu/0506/PWR-Yang.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Memorial+Hall+for+the+Victims+of+the+Nanjing+Massacre%3A+Rhetoric+in+the+Face+of+Tragedy&rft.pages=310&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Celia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbootheprize.stanford.edu%2F0506%2FPWR-Yang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20100516/wl_asia_afp/japanchinahistoryfilmnanking">Japan's Last Vets of Nanking Massacre Open Up</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170116085220/https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20100516/wl_asia_afp/japanchinahistoryfilmnanking">Archived</a> 2017-01-16 at Wikiwix, Yahoo! News</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLei2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lei, Wan (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4427135">"The Chinese Islamic "Goodwill Mission to the Middle East" During the Anti-Japanese War"</a>. <i>DÎVÂN DİSİPLİNLERARASI ÇALIŞMALAR DERGİSİ</i>. cilt 15 (sayı 29): 139–141. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140318035752/http://www.academia.edu/4427135/The_Chinese_Islamic_Goodwill_Mission_to_the_Middle_East_-_Japonyaya_Karsi_Savasta_Cinli_Muslumanlarin_Orta_Dogu_iyi_Niyet_Heyeti_-_Wan_LEI">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%8EV%C3%82N+D%C4%B0S%C4%B0PL%C4%B0NLERARASI+%C3%87ALI%C5%9EMALAR+DERG%C4%B0S%C4%B0&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Islamic+%22Goodwill+Mission+to+the+Middle+East%22+During+the+Anti-Japanese+War&rft.volume=cilt+15&rft.issue=say%C4%B1+29&rft.pages=139-141&rft.date=2010-02&rft.aulast=Lei&rft.aufirst=Wan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4427135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wan, Lei (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/254594">"The Chinese Islamic "Goodwill Mission to the Middle East" During the Anti-Japanese War"</a>. <i>Dîvân DİSİPLİNLERARASI ÇALIŞMALAR DERGİSİ</i>. <b>15</b> (29): 133–170.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%AEv%C3%A2n+D%C4%B0S%C4%B0PL%C4%B0NLERARASI+%C3%87ALI%C5%9EMALAR+DERG%C4%B0S%C4%B0&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Islamic+%22Goodwill+Mission+to+the+Middle+East%22+During+the+Anti-Japanese+War&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=133-170&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Wan&rft.aufirst=Lei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdergipark.org.tr%2Ftr%2Fdownload%2Farticle-file%2F254594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span> archive url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D01525/2010_29/2010_29_LEIW.pdf">https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D01525/2010_29/2010_29_LEIW.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ktp.isam.org.tr/detayilhmklzt.php?navdil=eng">http://ktp.isam.org.tr/detayilhmklzt.php?navdil=eng</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Ells2009" class="citation web cs1">Van Ells, Mark D. (14 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historynet.com/nanjing-china.htm">"Nanjing, China"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210130030155/https://www.historynet.com/nanjing-china.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nanjing%2C+China&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.aulast=Van+Ells&rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historynet.com%2Fnanjing-china.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taiping-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taiping_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristow2007" class="citation news cs1">Bristow, Michael (13 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7140357.stm">"Nanjing remembers massacre victims"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071214003451/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7140357.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Nanjing+remembers+massacre+victims&rft.date=2007-12-13&rft.aulast=Bristow&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fasia-pacific%2F7140357.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank2020" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Richard B. (2020). <i>Tower of Skulls: A History of the Asia-Pacific War, July 1937-May 1942</i>. p. 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tower+of+Skulls%3A+A+History+of+the+Asia-Pacific+War%2C+July+1937-May+1942&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Durdin, F. Tillman. "Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled." New York Times (New York), January 9, 1938; accessed March 12, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hua-ling Hu, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Goddess_at_the_Rape_of_Nanking:_The_Courage_of_Minnie_Vautrin" class="mw-redirect" title="American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin">American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin</a></i>, 2000, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>CBI Roundup</i>, 16 December 1943, <i>Rape of Nanking described by Missionary</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cbi-theater-1.home.comcast.net/~cbi-theater-1/roundup/roundup121643.html">cbi-theater-1.home.comcast.net</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723045856/http://cbi-theater-1.home.comcast.net/~cbi-theater-1/roundup/roundup121643.html">Archived</a> July 23, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2013" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2013). <i>Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945</i>. p. 138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Ally%3A+China%27s+World+War+II%2C+1937-1945&rft.pages=138&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana. <i>Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945</i>. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Ally%3A+China%27s+World+War+II%2C+1937-1945&rft.pages=139&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/nanking.asp">"Internet History Sourcebooks: Modern History"</a>. <i>sourcebooks.fordham.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230508201620/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/nanking.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sourcebooks.fordham.edu&rft.atitle=Internet+History+Sourcebooks%3A+Modern+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fmod%2Fnanking.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RapeOfNankingP162-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RapeOfNankingP162_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chang, Iris. <i>The Rape of Nanking</i>, <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, 1997, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GoodMan(271-274)-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GoodMan(271-274)_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, John E. (1998). <i>The Good Man of Nanking, the Diaries of John Rabe</i>. p. 271.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Man+of+Nanking%2C+the+Diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.pages=271&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chang, Iris, <i>The Rape of Nanking: The forgotten holocaust of World War II</i>, Basic Books, A Subsidiary of Perseus Books, L.L.C., 1997 pp. 105–139, the chapter on the Safety Zone</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1998" class="citation book cs1">Woods, John E. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Denial+of+the+Holocaust+and+the+Rape+of+Nanking&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Chapel&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.ucsb.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fmarcuse%2Fclasses%2F133p%2F133p04papers%2FJChapelNanjing046.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Iris. <i>The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust</i>. pp. 51–52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rape+of+Nanking%3A+The+Forgotten+Holocaust&rft.pages=51-52&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Iris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hanayama22-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hanayama22_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shinsho Hanayama, <i>The Way of Deliverance: Three Years with the Condemned Japanese War Criminals</i> (New York: Scribner, 1950), 185–186. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1527099">1527099</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf"><i>Researching Japanese War Crimes</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.unesco.org/memoryoftheworld/registry/311">the original</a> on 2022-12-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Documents+of+Nanjing+Massacre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.unesco.org%2Fmemoryoftheworld%2Fregistry%2F311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang_Daqing-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yang_Daqing_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yang Daqing, "Convergence or Divergence? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hisao+Tani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.com.cn%2Fmedia%2F200112%2F12%2FNewsMedia_147412.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Awaya Kentarô, Yoshida Yutaka, <i>Kokusai kensatsukyoku jinmonchôsho</i>, dai 8 kan, Nihon Tosho Centâ, 1993., Case 44, pp. 358–366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imtfe.law.virginia.edu/contributors/robert-o-wilson">"Robert O. 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New York: Routledge. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765606853" title="Special:BookSources/9780765606853"><bdi>9780765606853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyewitnesses+to+Massacre&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780765606853&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Kaiyuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.pageplace.de%2Fpreview%2FDT0400.9781317470724_A24854418%2Fpreview-9781317470724_A24854418.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook1979" class="citation news cs1">Cook, Joan (23 January 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1979/01/23/archives/george-a-fitch-dies-worked-for-ymca-in-china-for-decades.html">"George A. Witch Dies; Worked for Y.M.CA. In China for Decades"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=George+A.+Witch+Dies%3B+Worked+for+Y.M.CA.+In+China+for+Decades&rft.date=1979-01-23&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1979%2F01%2F23%2Farchives%2Fgeorge-a-fitch-dies-worked-for-ymca-in-china-for-decades.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imtfe.law.virginia.edu/subject-45?page=11">"Atrocities"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atrocities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimtfe.law.virginia.edu%2Fsubject-45%3Fpage%3D11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.library.yale.edu/divinity/nanking/mccallum">"James Henry McCallum | Yale University Library"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Henry+McCallum+%26%23124%3B+Yale+University+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.library.yale.edu%2Fdivinity%2Fnanking%2Fmccallum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lu, Suping (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43818315">"The Nanjing Massacre: Primary Source Records and Secondary Interpretations—A Textual Critique of Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi's Review"</a>. <i>China Review International</i>. <b>20</b> (3/4): 259–282. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1069-5834">1069-5834</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43818315">43818315</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221007164845/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43818315">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-10-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Review+International&rft.atitle=The+Nanjing+Massacre%3A+Primary+Source+Records+and+Secondary+Interpretations%E2%80%94A+Textual+Critique+of+Bob+Tadashi+Wakabayashi%27s+Review&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=259-282&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43818315%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1069-5834&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Suping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43818315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bix-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bix_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bix_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBix2001" class="citation journal cs1">Bix, Herbert (2001). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hirohitomakingmo00bixh">"Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan"</a></span>. <i>Perennial</i>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hirohitomakingmo00bixh/page/n754">734</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060931308" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060931308"><bdi>978-0060931308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perennial&rft.atitle=Hirohito+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Japan&rft.pages=734&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0060931308&rft.aulast=Bix&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhirohitomakingmo00bixh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDower2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_W._Dower" title="John W. Dower">Dower, John</a> (2000). <i>Embracing defeat: Japan in the wake of World War II</i> (Paperback ed.). New York: Norton. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393320275" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393320275"><bdi>978-0393320275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embracing+defeat%3A+Japan+in+the+wake+of+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=459&rft.edition=Paperback&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0393320275&rft.aulast=Dower&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrackman1988" class="citation book cs1">Brackman, Arnold C. (1988). <i>The other Nuremberg: the untold story of the Tokyo war trials</i>. New York: Quill. p. 395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0688079571" title="Special:BookSources/0688079571"><bdi>0688079571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+other+Nuremberg%3A+the+untold+story+of+the+Tokyo+war+trials&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=395&rft.pub=Quill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0688079571&rft.aulast=Brackman&rft.aufirst=Arnold+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang1999" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Daqing (June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2650991">"Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing"</a>. <i>The Journal of Japanese Studies</i>. <b>104</b> (3): 857. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2650991">10.2307/2650991</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2650991">2650991</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19291890">19291890</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407073112/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2650991">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=Convergence+or+Divergence%3F+Recent+Historical+Writings+on+the+Rape+of+Nanjing&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=857&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19291890&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2650991%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2650991&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Daqing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2650991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">国防部审判战犯军事法庭对战犯向井敏明等人的判决书. 民国史档案资料丛书—侵华日军南京大屠杀档案. 1947年12月18日: pp. 616–621.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheng2021" class="citation book cs1">Sheng, Zhang (2021-11-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HrJIEAAAQBAJ&dq=Gunkichi+Tanaka+300&pg=PT442"><i>The Rape of Nanking: A Historical Study</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-065289-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-065289-5"><bdi>978-3-11-065289-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923141942/https://books.google.com/books?id=HrJIEAAAQBAJ&dq=Gunkichi+Tanaka+300&pg=PT442">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rape+of+Nanking%3A+A+Historical+Study&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2021-11-08&rft.isbn=978-3-11-065289-5&rft.aulast=Sheng&rft.aufirst=Zhang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHrJIEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DGunkichi%2BTanaka%2B300%26pg%3DPT442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.generals.dk/general/Tanabe/Moritake/Japan.html">"Biography of Lieutenant-General Moritake Tanabe - (田辺盛武) - (たなべもりたけ) (1889 – 1949), Japan"</a>. <i>www.generals.dk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923142417/https://www.generals.dk/general/Tanabe/Moritake/Japan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.generals.dk&rft.atitle=Biography+of+Lieutenant-General+Moritake+Tanabe+-+%28%E7%94%B0%E8%BE%BA%E7%9B%9B%E6%AD%A6%29+-+%28%E3%81%9F%E3%81%AA%E3%81%B9+%E3%82%82%E3%82%8A%E3%81%9F%E3%81%91%29+%281889+%E2%80%93+1949%29%2C+Japan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.generals.dk%2Fgeneral%2FTanabe%2FMoritake%2FJapan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/china/2016-12/11/content_39891069.htm">"More names on Nanjing Massacre memorial wall"</a>. <i>www.china.org.cn</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161211042757/http://china.org.cn/china/2016-12/11/content_39891069.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.china.org.cn&rft.atitle=More+names+on+Nanjing+Massacre+memorial+wall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china.org.cn%2Fchina%2F2016-12%2F11%2Fcontent_39891069.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.chinagate.cn/photos/2009-12/14/content_19061762.htm">"Religious Assembly Held to Mourn Nanjing Massacre Victims"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170313041956/http://en.chinagate.cn/photos/2009-12/14/content_19061762.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religious+Assembly+Held+to+Mourn+Nanjing+Massacre+Victims&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.chinagate.cn%2Fphotos%2F2009-12%2F14%2Fcontent_19061762.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAFP2014" class="citation news cs1">AFP (December 13, 2014). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11291820/China-holds-first-Nanjing-Massacre-memorial-day.html">"China holds first Nanjing Massacre memorial day"</a></span>. <i>Telegraph.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/11291820/China-holds-first-Nanjing-Massacre-memorial-day.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Telegraph.co.uk&rft.atitle=China+holds+first+Nanjing+Massacre+memorial+day&rft.date=2014-12-13&rft.au=AFP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fasia%2Fchina%2F11291820%2FChina-holds-first-Nanjing-Massacre-memorial-day.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaryGluckTiedemann2006" class="citation book cs1">Bary, Wm Theodore De; Gluck, Carol; Tiedemann, Arthur (October 3, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DsALRa-r5QoC&dq=When+Japan+accepted+the+Potsdam+Declaration+and+surrendered+in+August+1945%2C+the+state+officially+acknowledged+the+war+of+aggression+and+the+Nanjing+massacre+committed+by+the+Japanese+army.&pg=PA564"><i>Sources of Japanese Tradition, Abridged: 1600 to 2000; Part 2: 1868 to 2000</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231518154" title="Special:BookSources/9780231518154"><bdi>9780231518154</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230627002412/https://books.google.com/books?id=DsALRa-r5QoC&dq=When%20Japan%20accepted%20the%20Potsdam%20Declaration%20and%20surrendered%20in%20August%201945%2C%20the%20state%20officially%20acknowledged%20the%20war%20of%20aggression%20and%20the%20Nanjing%20massacre%20committed%20by%20the%20Japanese%20army.&pg=PA564">Archived</a> from the original on June 27, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2023</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Japanese+Tradition%2C+Abridged%3A+1600+to+2000%3B+Part+2%3A+1868+to+2000&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2006-10-03&rft.isbn=9780231518154&rft.aulast=Bary&rft.aufirst=Wm+Theodore+De&rft.au=Gluck%2C+Carol&rft.au=Tiedemann%2C+Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDsALRa-r5QoC%26dq%3DWhen%2BJapan%2Baccepted%2Bthe%2BPotsdam%2BDeclaration%2Band%2Bsurrendered%2Bin%2BAugust%2B1945%252C%2Bthe%2Bstate%2Bofficially%2Backnowledged%2Bthe%2Bwar%2Bof%2Baggression%2Band%2Bthe%2BNanjing%2Bmassacre%2Bcommitted%2Bby%2Bthe%2BJapanese%2Barmy.%26pg%3DPA564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto5_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html">"The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends"</a>. 4 April 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405031715/http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2004</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nanjing+Incident%3A+Recent+Research+and+Trends&rft.date=2002-04-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japanesestudies.org.uk%2Farticles%2FAskew.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAskew2001" class="citation journal cs1">Askew, David (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chinajapan.org/articles/13.2/13.2askew2-20.pdf">"The Nanjing Incident: An Examination of the Civilian Population"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Japanese Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Nanjing+Incident%3A+An+Examination+of+the+Civilian+Population&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2001-03&rft.aulast=Askew&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinajapan.org%2Farticles%2F13.2%2F13.2askew2-20.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Daqing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chinajapan.org/articles/03.1/03.1.14-35yang.pdf">"A SINO-JAPANESE CONTROVERSY: THE NANJING ATROCITY AS HISTORY"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Japanese Studies</i>: 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=A+SINO-JAPANESE+CONTROVERSY%3A+THE+NANJING+ATROCITY+AS+HISTORY&rft.pages=18&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Daqing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinajapan.org%2Farticles%2F03.1%2F03.1.14-35yang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonda" class="citation journal cs1">Honda, Katsuich. "Chūgoku no Tabi" (中国の旅), "Travels in China"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun" class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Shimbun">Asahi Shimbun</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asahi+Shimbun&rft.atitle=Ch%C5%ABgoku+no+Tabi%22+%28%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%97%85%29%2C+%22Travels+in+China%22&rft.aulast=Honda&rft.aufirst=Katsuich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daqingyang2-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daqingyang2_169-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Daqing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chinajapan.org/articles/03.1/03.1.14-35yang.pdf">"A SINO-JAPANESE CONTROVERSY: THE NANJING ATROCITY AS HISTORY"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Japanese Studies</i>: 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=A+SINO-JAPANESE+CONTROVERSY%3A+THE+NANJING+ATROCITY+AS+HISTORY&rft.pages=20&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Daqing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchinajapan.org%2Farticles%2F03.1%2F03.1.14-35yang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ono Kenji, "Massacre Near Mufushan," in The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–38: Complicating the Picture, ed. Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008), p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Masahiro Yamamoto, Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000), 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-consensus1-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-consensus1_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-consensus1_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, "Leftover Problems," in The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–38: Complicating the Picture, ed. Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008), 382–384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Askew, "The Scale of Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing: An Examination of the Burial Records," Ritsumeikan Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, June 2004, 7–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gall-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gall_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gallicchio, Marc S. 2007. <i>The Unpredictability of the Past</i>. p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yoshida-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yoshida_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yoshida, Takashi. 2006. <i>The Making of the 'Rape of Nanking'.</i> pp. 157–158.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJun_Hongo2012" class="citation news cs1">Jun Hongo (23 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120713031230/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20120223a5.html">"Nagoya mayor won't budge on Nanjing remark"</a>. <i>Japan Times</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Nagoya+mayor+won%27t+budge+on+Nanjing+remark&rft.date=2012-02-23&rft.au=Jun+Hongo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Ftext%2Fnn20120223a5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090522051839/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/T214128.htm">"Japan ruling MPs call Nanjing massacre fabrication"</a>. 2007-06-19. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/T214128.htm">the original</a> on May 22, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan+ruling+MPs+call+Nanjing+massacre+fabrication&rft.date=2007-06-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alertnet.org%2Fthenews%2Fnewsdesk%2FT214128.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider2018" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, Florian (2018-08-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DXBoDwAAQBAJ"><i>China's Digital Nationalism</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 123–124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-087681-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-087681-4"><bdi>978-0-19-087681-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230829111146/https://books.google.com/books?id=DXBoDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-08-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=Japanese+Textbook+Controversies%2C+Nationalism%2C+and+Historical+Memory%3A+Intra-+and+Inter-national+Conflicts&rft.date=2009-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F-Mark-Selden%2F3173%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Nankin dai gyakusatsu" <bdi lang="ja">南京大虐殺</bdi> [Nanjing massacre]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E8%99%90%E6%AE%BA-108774"><i>Encyclopedia Nipponica</i></a> (in Japanese). <a href="/wiki/Shogakukan" title="Shogakukan">Shogakukan</a>. 24 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nankin+dai+gyakusatsu+%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E8%99%90%E6%AE%BA&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Nipponica&rft.pub=Shogakukan&rft.date=2021-03-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkotobank.jp%2Fword%2F%25E5%258D%2597%25E4%25BA%25AC%25E5%25A4%25A7%25E8%2599%2590%25E6%25AE%25BA-108774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOi2013" class="citation news cs1">Oi, Mariko (14 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21226068">"What Japanese history lessons leave out"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180616083041/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21226068">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=What+Japanese+history+lessons+leave+out&rft.date=2013-03-14&rft.aulast=Oi&rft.aufirst=Mariko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-21226068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2014" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Zheng (23 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2014/04/history-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan/">"History Education: The Source of Conflict Between China and Japan"</a>. <i>The Diplomat</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171111205550/https://thediplomat.com/2014/04/history-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Diplomat&rft.atitle=History+Education%3A+The+Source+of+Conflict+Between+China+and+Japan&rft.date=2014-04-23&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Zheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2014%2F04%2Fhistory-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070707191736/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0XPQ/is_2001_August_20/ai_78375128">"0.03% of junior high students to use disputed textbook Japan Policy & Politics - Find Articles"</a>. 7 July 2007. Archived from the original on 7 July 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=0.03%25+of+junior+high+students+to+use+disputed+textbook+Japan+Policy+%26+Politics+-+Find+Articles&rft.date=2007-07-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m0XPQ%2Fis_2001_August_20%2Fai_78375128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, Paul. "2001 ASSLH conference – Chinese seamen and Australian labour: The mass desertion from the <i>SS Silksworth</i> at Newcastle, October 1937". Retrieved 26 September 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2007report-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2007report_210-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7126455.stm">"Nanjing massacre victims named"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. 4 December 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071206012016/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7126455.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Nanjing+massacre+victims+named&rft.date=2007-12-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fasia-pacific%2F7126455.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dangshi.people.com.cn/BIG5/n/2014/0915/c85037-25663543.html">"以史為鑒面向未來——《南京大屠殺史料集》評介--黨史頻道-人民網"</a>. <i>dangshi.people.com.cn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dangshi.people.com.cn&rft.atitle=%E4%BB%A5%E5%8F%B2%E7%82%BA%E9%91%92%E9%9D%A2%E5%90%91%E6%9C%AA%E4%BE%86%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E3%80%8A%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%AE%BA%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%99%E9%9B%86%E3%80%8B%E8%A9%95%E4%BB%8B--%E9%BB%A8%E5%8F%B2%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E7%B6%B2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdangshi.people.com.cn%2FBIG5%2Fn%2F2014%2F0915%2Fc85037-25663543.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1974" class="citation journal cs1">Berger, Gordon M. (1974). "Japan's Young Prince. Konoe Fumimaro's Early Political Career, 1916–1931". <i>Monumenta Nipponica</i>. <b>29</b> (4): 451–475. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2383896">10.2307/2383896</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-0741">0027-0741</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2383896">2383896</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Nipponica&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Young+Prince.+Konoe+Fumimaro%27s+Early+Political+Career%2C+1916%E2%80%931931&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=451-475&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0027-0741&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2383896%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2383896&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Gordon+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Chang, Iris</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_Nanking_(book)" title="The Rape of Nanking (book)">The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II</a></i>, Foreword by William C. Kirby; Penguin US (Paper), 1998; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140277447" title="Special:BookSources/0140277447">0140277447</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogel2000" class="citation book cs1">Fogel, Joshua A. (2000). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nanjingmassacreh00foge"><i>The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography</i></a></span>. Berkeley, CA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nanjingmassacreh00foge/page/n133">248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520220072" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520220072"><bdi>978-0520220072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nanjing+Massacre+in+History+and+Historiography&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0520220072&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Joshua+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnanjingmassacreh00foge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotta2013" class="citation book cs1">Hotta, Eri (2013). <i>Japan, 1941: Countdown to infamy</i> (First Vintage Books ed.). New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0307739742" title="Special:BookSources/978-0307739742"><bdi>978-0307739742</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863596251">863596251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%2C+1941%3A+Countdown+to+infamy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First+Vintage+Books&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F863596251&rft.isbn=978-0307739742&rft.aulast=Hotta&rft.aufirst=Eri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingston2008" class="citation news cs1">Kingston, Jeff (10 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161005152123/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2008/08/10/to-be-sorted/war-and-reconciliation-a-tale-of-two-countries/">"War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Japan_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Times">Japan Times</a></i>. p. 9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2008/08/10/to-be-sorted/war-and-reconciliation-a-tale-of-two-countries/">the original</a> on 5 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japan+Times&rft.atitle=War+and+reconciliation%3A+a+tale+of+two+countries&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2008-08-10&rft.aulast=Kingston&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Flife%2F2008%2F08%2F10%2Fto-be-sorted%2Fwar-and-reconciliation-a-tale-of-two-countries%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabeWickert1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Rabe" title="John Rabe">Rabe, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wickert" title="Erwin Wickert">Wickert, Erwin</a> (1998). <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Man_of_Nanking" title="The Good Man of Nanking"><i>The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">A. A. Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0375402111" title="Special:BookSources/978-0375402111"><bdi>978-0375402111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+Man+of+Nanking%3A+The+Diaries+of+John+Rabe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=A.+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0375402111&rft.aulast=Rabe&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Wickert%2C+Erwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANanjing+Massacre" class="Z3988"></span> (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rvZpTKKsM8TflgeO16SfBQ">The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bergamini, David, "Japan's Imperial Conspiracy," William Morrow, New York; 1971.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Brook_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy Brook (historian)">Brook, Timothy</a>, ed. <i>Documents on the Rape of Nanjing</i>, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472111345" title="Special:BookSources/0472111345">0472111345</a> (Does not include the Rabe diaries but does include reprints of "Hsū Shuhsi, <i>Documents of the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Safety_Zone" title="Nanking Safety Zone">Nanking Safety Zone</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Kelly_%26_Walsh" title="Kelly & Walsh">Kelly & Walsh</a>, 1939".)</li> <li>Hua-ling Hu, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Goddess_at_the_Rape_of_Nanking:_The_Courage_of_Minnie_Vautrin" class="mw-redirect" title="American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin">American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking: The Courage of Minnie Vautrin</a></i>, Foreword by Paul Simon; 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809323036" title="Special:BookSources/0809323036">0809323036</a></li> <li>Fujiwara, Akira "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071213162138/http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2553">The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretive Overview</a>" <i>Japan Focus</i> October 23, 2007.</li> <li>Galbraith, Douglas, <i>A Winter in China</i>, London, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0099465973" title="Special:BookSources/0099465973">0099465973</a>. A novel focussing on the western residents of Nanking during the massacre.</li> <li>Harmsen, Peter. <i>Nanjing 1937: Battle for a Doomed City</i>. Philadelphia: Oxford: Casemate, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612002842" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612002842">978-1612002842</a></li> <li>Honda, Katsuichi, Sandness, Karen trans. <i>The Nanjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan's National Shame</i>, London: <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765603357" title="Special:BookSources/0765603357">0765603357</a></li> <li>Hsū Shuhsi, ed. (1939), Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone (reprinted in <i>Documents on the Rape of Nanjing</i> Brook ed. 1999)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Kajimoto, Masato "Mistranslations in Honda Katsuichi's the Nanjing Massacre" <i>Sino-Japanese Studies</i>, 13. 2 (March 2001) pp. 32–44</li> <li>Lu, Suping, <i>They Were in Nanjing: The Nanjing Massacre Witnessed by American and British Nationals</i>, Hong Kong University Press, 2004.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Murase, Moriyasu,<i>Watashino Jyugun Cyugoku-sensen</i>(My China Front), Nippon Kikanshi Syuppan Center, 1987 (revised 2005). (includes disturbing photos, 149 page photogravure) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4889008365" title="Special:BookSources/4889008365">4889008365</a> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">村瀬守保, 私の従軍中国戦線</span></span>)</li> <li>Qi, Shouhua. <i>When the Purple Mountain Burns: A Novel</i> San Francisco: Long River Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1592650414" title="Special:BookSources/1592650414">1592650414</a></li> <li>Qi, Shouhua. <i>Purple Mountain: A Story of the Rape of Nanking</i> (A novel) English Chinese Bilingual Edition (Paperback, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1448659655" title="Special:BookSources/1448659655">1448659655</a></li> <li>Robert Sabella, Fei Fei Li and David Liu, eds. <i>Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing</i> (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765608170" title="Special:BookSources/0765608170">0765608170</a>.</li> <li>Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi "The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt Amid Fabricated Illusions, 1971–75",<i>The Journal of Japanese Studies</i>, Vol. 26 No. 2 Summer 2000.</li> <li>Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi <i>The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture</i>, Berghahn Books, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1845451805" title="Special:BookSources/1845451805">1845451805</a></li> <li>Yamamoto, Masahiro <i>Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity</i>, Praeger Publishers, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275969045" title="Special:BookSources/0275969045">0275969045</a></li> <li>Yang, Daqing. "Convergence or Divergence? Recent Historical Writings on the Rape of Nanjing" <i>American Historical Review</i> 104, 3 (June 1999). 842–865.</li> <li>Young, Shi; Yin, James. <i>Rape of Nanking: Undeniable history in photographs</i> Chicago: Innovative Publishing Group, 1997. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Zhang, Kaiyuan, ed. <i>Eyewitnesses to Massacre</i>, An East Gate Book, 2001 (includes documentation of American missionaries M.S. Bates, G.A. Fitch, E.H. Foster, J.G. Magee, J.H. MaCallum, W.P. Mills, L.S.C. Smythe, A.N. Steward, Minnie Vautrin and R.O. Wilson.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0765606844" title="Special:BookSources/0765606844">0765606844</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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Nanjing remembers massacre victims</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thenankingmassacre.org/">Online Documentary: The Nanjing Atrocities</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190221112349/https://thenankingmassacre.org/">Archived</a> 2019-02-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> A master's degree thesis that delves into the atrocity</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museums.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/">English translation of a classified Chinese document on the Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran/">Japanese Imperialism and the Massacre in Nanjing</a> by Gao Xingzu, Wu Shimin, Hu Yungong, & Cha Ruizhen</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080106184114/http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2547">Kirk Denton, "Heroic Resistance and Victims of Atrocity: Negotiating the Memory of Japanese Imperialism in Chinese Museums"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926075902/http://www.nanking-massacre.com/Home.html">Nanjing Massacre history site: History, Photos and Articles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070621083354/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/06/19/news/nanking.php">'No massacre in Nanjing,' Japanese lawmakers say</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/133p/133p04papers/JChapelNanjing046.htm">"Denying Genocide: The Evolution of the Denial of the Holocaust and the Nanjing Massacre,"</a> college research paper by Joseph Chapel, 2004</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629141404/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/system/topicRoot/The_Rape_of_Nanking/">Rape of Nanjing</a> Original reports from <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130112025536/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/rss/fl20080810x1.html">War and reconciliation: a tale of two countries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/481.html">Review of Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanjing: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.azalert.com/mogollonconnection/?p=1168">The Ghosts of Nanjing: Mogollon Connection Special Series by Jesse Horn</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190415095956/http://www.azalert.com/mogollonconnection/?p=1168">Archived</a> 2019-04-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.library.yale.edu/divinity/digital-collections/nanking-massacre">The Nanjing Massacre Project: A Digital Archive of Documents & Photographs from American Missionaries Who Witnessed the Rape of Nanjing From the Special Collections of the Yale Divinity School Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405031715/http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html">The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends</a> by David Askew in the Electronic Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies, April 2002</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template talk:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937–1945)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Background" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Defense of the Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">Battle of Rehe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanggu_Truce" title="Tanggu Truce">Tanggu Truce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Inner Mongolia Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_currency_reform" title="1935 currency reform">1935 currency reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chin–Doihara Agreement">Chin–Doihara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_1_Declaration" title="August 1 Declaration">August 1 Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_9th_Movement" title="December 9th Movement">December 9th Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebei%E2%80%93Chahar_Political_Council" title="Hebei–Chahar Political Council">Hebei–Chahar Political Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayaobu_Manifesto" title="Wayaobu Manifesto">Wayaobu Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_campaign" title="Suiyuan campaign">Suiyuan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Participants" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Participants</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Governments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Communist China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Autonomous_Government" title="East Hebei Autonomous Government">East Hebei Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Way_Government" title="Great Way Government">Great Way Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1937%E2%80%931940)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)">Provisional Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">Reformed Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Combatants_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Combatants of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Armed Forces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">Nationalist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Navy" title="Republic of China Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Marine_Corps" title="Republic of China Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">Communist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Imperial Japanese Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Army Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Navy Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Naval Infantry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Manchukuo Armed Forces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Army" title="Manchukuo Imperial Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Air_Force" title="Manchukuo Imperial Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Navy" title="Manchukuo Imperial Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Guards" title="Manchukuo Imperial Guards">Guards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_Army" title="Inner Mongolian Army">Inner Mongolian Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Army" title="East Hebei Army">East Hebei Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborationist_Chinese_Army" title="Collaborationist Chinese Army">Collaborationist Chinese Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kung_Hsiang-hsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kung Hsiang-hsi">Kung Hsiang-hsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soong_Tse-ven" class="mw-redirect" title="Soong Tse-ven">Soong Tse-ven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Cheng" title="Chen Cheng">Chen Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Wentian" title="Zhang Wentian">Zhang Wentian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ruofei" title="Wang Ruofei">Wang Ruofei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Bishi" title="Ren Bishi">Ren Bishi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Hirohito" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Hirohito">Emperor Hirohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiichir%C5%8D_Hiranuma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiichirō Hiranuma">Kiichirō Hiranuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuyuki_Abe" title="Nobuyuki Abe">Nobuyuki Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuniaki_Koiso" title="Kuniaki Koiso">Kuniaki Koiso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantar%C5%8D_Suzuki" title="Kantarō Suzuki">Kantarō Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruhiko_Higashikuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Naruhiko Higashikuni">Naruhiko Higashikuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seishir%C5%8D_Itagaki" title="Seishirō Itagaki">Seishirō Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunroku_Hata" title="Shunroku Hata">Shunroku Hata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korechika_Anami" title="Korechika Anami">Korechika Anami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengo_Yoshida" title="Zengo Yoshida">Zengo Yoshida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigetar%C5%8D_Shimada" title="Shigetarō Shimada">Shigetarō Shimada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhishan" title="Yu Zhishan">Yu Zhishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demchugdongrub" title="Demchugdongrub">Demchugdongrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Gongbo" title="Chen Gongbo">Chen Gongbo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chi_Zongmo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chi Zongmo (page does not exist)">Chi Zongmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Kemin" title="Wang Kemin">Wang Kemin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Hongzhi" title="Liang Hongzhi">Liang Hongzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Yuandao" title="Ren Yuandao">Ren Yuandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Wenyue" title="Bao Wenyue">Bao Wenyue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Li-jen" title="Sun Li-jen">Sun Li-jen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhanshan" title="Ma Zhanshan">Ma Zhanshan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kan'in Kotohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama" title="Hajime Sugiyama">Hajime Sugiyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoshijir%C5%8D_Umezu" title="Yoshijirō Umezu">Yoshijirō Umezu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Fushimi_Hiroyasu" title="Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu">Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osami_Nagano" title="Osami Nagano">Osami Nagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soemu_Toyoda" title="Soemu Toyoda">Soemu Toyoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshir%C5%8D_Oikawa" title="Koshirō Oikawa">Koshirō Oikawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shouxin" title="Li Shouxin">Li Shouxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Peng" title="Ye Peng">Ye Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Kuiyi" title="Yang Kuiyi">Yang Kuiyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Course_of_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Course of War</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Campaigns" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Campaigns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jianqiao" title="Battle of Jianqiao">Battle of Jianqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Saturday_(Shanghai)" title="Bloody Saturday (Shanghai)">Bloody Saturday</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Battle of Taiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">Battle of Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Bombing of Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_and_Eastern_Henan" title="Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan">Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">Battle of Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanchang" title="Battle of Nanchang">Battle of Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">1939 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">First Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">1941 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">1941-1942 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linnan_Campaign" title="Linnan Campaign">Linnan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944)" title="Burma campaign (1944)">1944 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">1944-1945 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Henan%E2%80%93North_Hubei" title="Battle of West Henan–North Hubei">West Henan–North Hubei campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">Zhijiang campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lanfeng" title="Battle of Lanfeng">Battle of Lanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Battle of Central Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1944)" title="Battle of Changsha (1944)">1944 Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Myitkyina" title="Siege of Myitkyina">Siege of Myitkyina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">Battle of Mount Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hengyang" title="Battle of Hengyang">Battle of Hengyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guilin%E2%80%93Liuzhou" title="Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou">Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident_(1931)" title="Tientsin Incident (1931)">Tientsin Incident (1931)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingdingshan_massacre" title="Pingdingshan massacre">Pingdingshan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Pamela_Werner" title="Murder of Pamela Werner">Murder of Pamela Werner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Langfang Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanganmen_incident" title="Guanganmen incident">Guanganmen incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhou_mutiny" title="Tongzhou mutiny">Tongzhou mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengding_Missionary_Murder" title="Zhengding Missionary Murder">Zhengding Missionary Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_incident" title="USS Panay incident">USS Panay incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kweilin_incident" title="Kweilin incident">Kweilin incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Dalfram_dispute" title="1938 Dalfram dispute">1938 Dalfram dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Tientsin Incident">Tientsin Incident (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Yiguang" title="Huang Yiguang">Execution of Huang Yiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjiayu massacre">Panjiayu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Rape of Nancheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gegenmiao_massacre" title="Gegenmiao massacre">Gegenmiao massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Power_Treaty_Conference" title="Nine Power Treaty Conference">Nine Power Treaty Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konoe_Declarations" class="mw-redirect" title="Konoe Declarations">Konoe Declarations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Movement" title="Yan'an Rectification Movement">Yan'an Rectification Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Conference" title="Cairo Conference">Cairo Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">United Nations Conference on International Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_Day" title="Retrocession Day">Retrocession Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Taipei" title="Treaty of Taipei">Treaty of Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murayama_Statement" title="Murayama Statement">Murayama Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Aerial engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_groups_of_the_National_Revolutionary_Army" title="Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army">Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_aircraft_in_use_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese aircraft in use during the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_used_by_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles used by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese armoured fighting vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_campaigns_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Japanese campaigns of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War">Japanese infantry weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Military engagements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_resistance_volunteers_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China">Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Volunteer_Group" title="Soviet Volunteer Group">Soviet Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Nazi Germany relations">Sino-German cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">Free China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II" title="Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II">Japanese propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">People's war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Muslims_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_Chinese_resistance_to_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan">Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ip_Man" title="Ip Man">Ip Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_Japanese_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet">1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Japanese occupation of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a></li> <li>Stubborn Army</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Category:Second Sino-Japanese War">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Japan" title="Portal:Japan">Japan Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template talk:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese sentiment</a> (Sinophobia)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Chinese emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Unparalleled_Invasion" title="The Unparalleled Invasion">The Unparalleled Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Minzoku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By persecutor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Valckenier" title="Adriaan Valckenier">Adriaan Valckenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Bryant" title="Andrew Jackson Bryant">Andrew Jackson Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Kearney" title="Denis Kearney">Denis Kearney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaek_Phibunsongkhram" title="Plaek Phibunsongkhram">Plaek Phibunsongkhram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Mainland_China_conflict" title="Hong Kong–Mainland China conflict">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Chinese Indians">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Malaysia" title="Racism in Malaysia">Racism in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Chinese people in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment#Taiwan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By institution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_Union" title="Anti-Chinese Union">Anti-Chinese Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Brotherhood_of_Railway_Employees" title="Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees">Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyoku_dantai" title="Uyoku dantai">Uyoku dantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By incident</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Rebellion" title="Sangley Rebellion">Sangley Rebellion</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Sangley_Rebellion_(1639)" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)">2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Massacre_(1662)" title="Sangley Massacre (1662)">Sangley Massacre (1662)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1782_Saigon_massacre" title="1782 Saigon massacre">1782 Saigon massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckland_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckland Riot">Buckland Riot</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambing_Flat_riots" title="Lambing Flat riots">Lambing Flat riots</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Coolie_Act" title="Anti-Coolie Act">Anti-Coolie Act</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigtail_Ordinance" title="Pigtail Ordinance">Pigtail Ordinance</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trout_Creek_Outrage" title="Trout Creek Outrage">Trout Creek Outrage</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_riot_of_1877" title="San Francisco riot of 1877">San Francisco riot of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_head_tax" title="New Zealand head tax">New Zealand head tax</a> (1881–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> (1882–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)">Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Immigration Act of 1885">Chinese Immigration Act of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Squak_Valley_Chinese_laborers,_1885" title="Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885">Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issaquah_riot_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Issaquah riot of 1885">Issaquah riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacoma_riot_of_1885" title="Tacoma riot of 1885">Tacoma riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1885_Chinese_expulsion_from_Eureka" title="1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka">1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_head_tax_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese head tax in Canada">Chinese head tax in Canada</a> (1885–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_riot_of_1886" title="Seattle riot of 1886">Seattle riot of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Chinese_riots,_1886" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886">Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hells Canyon Massacre">Hells Canyon Massacre</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act (1888)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a> (1892–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Colliery_Co_of_British_Columbia_v_Bryden" title="Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden">Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a> (1901–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Asian_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Asian riots">Vancouver anti-Asian riots</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre%C3%B3n_massacre" title="Torreón massacre">Torreón massacre</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Kudus_riot" title="1918 Kudus riot">1918 Kudus riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_of_Chinese_people" title="Soviet deportations of Chinese people">Soviet deportations of Chinese people</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act,_1923" title="Chinese Immigration Act, 1923">Chinese Immigration Act, 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanpaoshan_Incident" title="Wanpaoshan Incident">Wanpaoshan Incident</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937-1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942-1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changkiao_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Changkiao massacre">Changkiao massacre</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Office_213/926" title="Home Office 213/926">Home Office 213/926</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bersiap" title="Bersiap">Bersiap</a></i> (1945–1947) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mergosono_massacre" title="Mergosono massacre">Mergosono massacre</a> (1947)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation_on_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Legislation on Chinese Indonesians">Legislation on Chinese Indonesians</a> (1950s-)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Confession_Program" title="Chinese Confession Program">Chinese Confession Program</a> (1956–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Chinese-Indians" title="Internment of Chinese-Indians">Internment of Chinese-Indians</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">1964 race riots in Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_anti-Chinese_riots_in_Burma" title="1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma">1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate#Controversy" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate controversy (Chinese restaurant syndrome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May incident (Malaysia)">13 May incident (Malaysia)</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_race_riots_of_Singapore" title="1969 race riots of Singapore">1969 race riots of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malari_incident" title="Malari incident">Malari incident</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Banjarmasin_riot" title="1997 Banjarmasin riot">1997 Banjarmasin riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1998_riots_of_Indonesia" title="May 1998 riots of Indonesia">May 1998 riots of Indonesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nuku%CA%BBalofa_riots" title="2006 Nukuʻalofa riots">2006 Nukuʻalofa riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abacus_Federal_Savings_Bank#Prosecution_and_exoneration" title="Abacus Federal Savings Bank">Abacus Bank prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kunming_bus_bombings" title="2008 Kunming bus bombings">2008 Kunming bus bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2009_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_riots" title="July 2009 Ürümqi riots">July 2009 Ürümqi riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Kashgar_attacks" title="2011 Kashgar attacks">2011 Kashgar attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Tiananmen_Square_attack" title="2013 Tiananmen Square attack">2013 Tiananmen Square attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Vietnam_anti-China_protests" title="2014 Vietnam anti-China protests">2014 Vietnam anti-China protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Kunming_attack" title="2014 Kunming attack">2014 Kunming attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="April 2014 Ürümqi attack">April 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="May 2014 Ürümqi attack">May 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Aksu_colliery_attack" title="2015 Aksu colliery attack">2015 Aksu colliery attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">2021 Atlanta spa shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Papua_New_Guinean_unrest" title="2024 Papua New Guinean unrest">2024 Papua New Guinean unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycotts_of_Chinese_products" title="Boycotts of Chinese products">Boycotts of Chinese products</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By victim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States" title="Fong Yue Ting v. United States">Fong Yue Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_v._Hurley" title="Tape v. Hurley">Mary Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">Wong Kim Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Vincent_Chin" title="Killing of Vincent Chin">Vincent Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ita_Martadinata_Haryono" title="Ita Martadinata Haryono">Ita Martadinata Haryono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velma_Demerson" title="Velma Demerson">Velma Demerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Ho_Lee" title="Wen Ho Lee">Wen Ho Lee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Anming Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Danny_Chen" title="Suicide of Danny Chen">Danny Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ee_Lee" title="Murder of Ee Lee">Ee Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Gu" title="Eileen Gu">Eileen Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Feng_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Feng Tao">Franklin Feng Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_Chen_(engineer)" title="Gang Chen (engineer)">Gang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haoyang_Yu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haoyang Yu (page does not exist)">Haoyang Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jiansheng_Chen" title="Murder of Jiansheng Chen">Jiansheng Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiayang_Fan" title="Jiayang Fan">Jiayang Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immolation_of_Leung_Chi-cheung" class="mw-redirect" title="Immolation of Leung Chi-cheung">Leung Chi-cheung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Mi_Gao_Huang_Chen" title="Murder of Mi Gao Huang Chen">Mi Gao Huang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry_Chen_(hydrologist)" title="Sherry Chen (hydrologist)">Sherry Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teoh_Beng_Hock" title="Teoh Beng Hock">Teoh Beng Hock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaoxing_Xi#False_accusation_of_spying" title="Xiaoxing Xi">Xiaoxing Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Yao_Pan_Ma" title="Killing of Yao Pan Ma">Yao Pan Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Michelle_Go" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Michelle Go">Michelle Go</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman" title="Chinaman">Chinaman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman%27s_chance" title="Chinaman's chance">Chinaman's chance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese,_Japanese,_dirty_knees" title="Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees">Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ching_chong" title="Ching chong">Ching chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chink" title="Chink">Chink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinky" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinky">Chinky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust_(ethnic_slur)" title="Locust (ethnic slur)">Locust/Wongchung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina/Zhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Asia" title="Sick man of Asia">Sick man of Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empire_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Censorship in the Empire of Japan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of the Empire of Japan">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Economy of the Empire of Japan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Prewar_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_system" title="Emperor system">System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_production_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Industrial production in Shōwa Japan">Industrial production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_essentialism" title="National essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_(1914%E2%80%931944)" title="Politics of the Empire of Japan (1914–1944)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Kazoku</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Imperial Seal of Japan"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/80px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/120px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/160px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Meiji" title="Emperor Meiji">Meiji <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mutsuhito)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D" title="Emperor Taishō">Taishō <span style="font-size:85%;">(Yoshihito)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Shōwa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hirohito)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Flag of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_Sun_Flag" title="Rising Sun Flag">Rising Sun Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_seals_of_Japan" title="National seals of Japan">National seals of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Seal_of_Japan" title="Government Seal of Japan">Government Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Seal_of_Japan" title="State Seal of Japan">State Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Seal_of_Japan" title="Privy Seal of Japan">Privy Seal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimigayo" title="Kimigayo">Kimigayo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_Oath" title="Charter Oath">Charter Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokusan_Sonendan" title="Yokusan Sonendan">Yokusan Sonendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Japan_Youth_Party" title="Great Japan Youth Party">Great Japan Youth Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokutai" title="Kokutai">Kokutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokusatsu" title="Mokusatsu">Mokusatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritual_Mobilization_Movement" title="National Spiritual Mobilization Movement">National Spiritual Mobilization Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law" title="Peace Preservation Law">Peace Preservation Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political parties of the Empire of Japan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Judicature of Japan">Supreme Court of Judicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Keisatsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu">Tokkō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonarigumi" title="Tonarigumi">Tonarigumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senbu" title="Senbu">Senbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Airways" title="Imperial Japanese Airways">Imperial Japanese Airways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Administration<br />(ministries)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Household" title="Ministry of the Imperial Household">Imperial Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Ministry" title="Home Ministry">Home Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(pre-modern_Japan)" title="Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Ministry" title="Army Ministry">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Japan)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Japan)">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Treasury" title="Ministry of the Treasury">Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Commerce" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce">Agriculture and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)">Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Munitions_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Munitions (Japan)">Munitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)">Colonial Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Greater_East_Asia" title="Ministry of Greater East Asia">Greater East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">East Asia Development Board (Kōain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Legislative and<br />deliberative bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daij%C5%8D-kan" title="Daijō-kan">Daijō-kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozen_Kaigi" title="Gozen Kaigi">Gozen Kaigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Diet#History" title="National Diet">Imperial Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">Peers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Representatives</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_to_Soldiers_and_Sailors" title="Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors">Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senjinkun_military_code" title="Senjinkun military code"><i>Senjinkun</i> military code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Japanese nuclear weapons program">Nuclear weapons program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conscription in Japan (page does not exist)">Conscription</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Railways_and_Shipping_Section" title="Imperial Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section">Railways and Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Japan)" title="Imperial Guard (Japan)">Imperial Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction" title="Imperial Way Faction">Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_holdout" title="Japanese holdout">Japanese holdout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan" title="Taiwan Army of Japan">Taiwan Army of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dseiha" title="Tōseiha">Control Faction (Tōseiha)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokubetsu_Keisatsutai" title="Tokubetsu Keisatsutai">Tokkeitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_Faction" title="Fleet Faction">Fleet Faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Faction" title="Treaty Faction">Treaty Faction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Lords_Incident" title="Two Lords Incident">Two Lords Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion" title="Satsuma Rebellion">Satsuma Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Japanese Alliance">Anglo–Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1895)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)">Invasion of Taiwan (1895)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_era" title="Taishō era">Taishō era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Entry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberian Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Election_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="General Election Law">General Election Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria%E2%80%93Mongolia_problem" title="Manchuria–Mongolia problem">Manchuria–Mongolia problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Democracy" title="Taishō Democracy">Taishō Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Taishō Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapani_incident" title="Tapani incident">Tapani incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truku_War" title="Truku War">Truku War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musha_Incident" title="Musha Incident">Musha Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherland_controversy" title="Motherland controversy">Motherland controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">Karafuto</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Naichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Naichi">naichi</a></i> after 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Chōsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kantō-shū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">Nan'yō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Second Philippine Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_territories_acquired_by_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan">Occupied territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yen_bloc" title="Yen bloc">Yen bloc</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonn%C5%8D_j%C5%8Di" title="Sonnō jōi">Sonnō jōi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukoku_ky%C5%8Dhei" title="Fukoku kyōhei">Fukoku kyōhei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">Internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Japanese_industrial_co-operation_before_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II">German pre–World War II industrial co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinmin_no_Michi" title="Shinmin no Michi">Shinmin no Michi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Modan" title="Shōwa Modan">Shōwa Modan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_thought_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Socialist thought in Imperial Japan">Socialist thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Imperial_Japan_Serviceman" title="Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman">Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Political dissidence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" 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text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh90003287">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00992160">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="nankingský masakr (1937 : Nanking, Čína)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117909&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX557175">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007529892605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Nanjing_Massacre&params=32_03_N_118_46_E_region:CN-32"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">32°03′N</span> <span class="longitude">118°46′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">32.050°N 118.767°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">32.050; 118.767</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanjing_Massacre&oldid=1258929752">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanjing_Massacre&oldid=1258929752</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nanjing_Massacre" title="Category:Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Massacres_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Category:Massacres of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Massacres of the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li><li><a 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