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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89_%D9%85%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A8" title="مصادرة على مطلوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصادرة على مطلوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%AFkaz_kruhem" title="Důkaz kruhem – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Důkaz kruhem" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_Principii" title="Petitio Principii – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Petitio Principii" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petici%C3%B3n_de_principio" title="Petición de principio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Petición de principio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A8" title="مصادره به مطلوب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مصادره به مطلوب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9tition_de_principe" title="Pétition de principe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pétition de principe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%A0%EA%B2%B0%EB%AC%B8%EC%A0%9C_%EC%9A%94%EA%B5%AC%EC%9D%98_%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%98" title="선결문제 요구의 오류 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="선결문제 요구의 오류" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meminta_pertanyaan" title="Meminta pertanyaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Meminta pertanyaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hringfer%C3%B0_%C3%AD_s%C3%B6nnun" title="Hringferð í sönnun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hringferð í sönnun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%97%D7%94_%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%97%D7%94" title="הנחה טעונת הוכחה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנחה טעונת הוכחה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cikli%C5%A1kas_argumentas" title="Cikliškas argumentas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Cikliškas argumentas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E7%82%B9%E5%85%88%E5%8F%96" title="論点先取 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="論点先取" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peticion_de_principi" title="Peticion de principi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Peticion de principi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_Principii" title="Petitio Principii – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Petitio Principii" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_circular" title="Argument circular – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Argument circular" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Begging the question" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95_%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%95" title="پرسینەوەی پرسیارە سەرەتایییەکە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پرسینەوەی پرسیارە سەرەتایییەکە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Захтева питање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Захтева питање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Begging the question" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petitio_principii" title="Petitio principii – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Petitio principii" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Calling_the_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Calling the question">Calling the question</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In classical <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <b>begging the question</b> or <b>assuming the conclusion</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petītiō principiī</i></span>) is an <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a> that occurs when an argument's premises assume the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a>. Historically, begging the question refers to a fault in a <a href="/wiki/Dialectical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical">dialectical</a> <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> in which the speaker assumes some <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premise</a> that has not been demonstrated to be true. In modern usage, it has come to refer to an argument in which the premises assume the conclusion without supporting it. This makes it an example of <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herrick248_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick248-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some examples are: </p> <ul><li>"People have known for thousands of years that the earth is round. Therefore, the earth is round."</li> <li>"Drugs are illegal so they must be bad for you. Therefore, we ought not legalize drugs because drugs are bad for you."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The phrase <i>beg the question</i> is sometimes misused in the sense of "strongly prompt the question."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/340px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, whose <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i> contained an early discussion of this fallacy</figcaption></figure> <p>The original phrase used by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> from which <i>begging the question</i> descends is <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς αἰτεῖν</span></span>, or sometimes <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐν ἀρχῇ αἰτεῖν</span></span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">asking for the initial thing</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the type of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a> argument he discusses in his <i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i>, book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the responses and the original thesis. </p><p>In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the answerer undertakes to defend is called <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">the initial thing</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ</span>) and one of the rules of the debate is that the questioner cannot simply ask (beg) for it <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> (that would be trivial and uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in <i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></i> and in <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i> book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1). </p><p>The stylized dialectical exchanges Aristotle discusses in the <i>Topics</i> included rules for scoring the debate, and one important issue was precisely the matter of <i>asking for the initial thing</i>—which included not just making the actual thesis adopted by the answerer into a question, but also making a question out of a sentence that was too close to that thesis (for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">PA</a></i> II 16). </p><p>The term was translated into English from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in the 16th century. The Latin version, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">asking for the starting point</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, can be interpreted in different ways. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Petitio</i></span> (from <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">peto</i></span>), in the <a href="/wiki/Postclassical_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Postclassical Era">post-classical</a> context in which the phrase arose, means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">assuming</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">postulating</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, but in the older classical sense means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">petition</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">request</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">beseeching</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Liberman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liberman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kretzmann1988_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kretzmann1988-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Principii</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">principium</i></span>, means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">beginning</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">basis</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">premise</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> (of an argument). Literally <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span> means <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">assuming the premise</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">assuming the original point</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>. </p><p>The Latin phrase comes from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ αἰτεῖσθαι</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">tò en archêi aiteîsthai</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">asking the original point</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-Schreiber2003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreiber2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Aristotle's <i>Prior Analytics</i> II xvi 64b28–65a26: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Begging or assuming the point at issue consists (to take the expression in its widest sense) [in] failing to demonstrate the required proposition. But there are several other ways in which this may happen; for example, if the argument has not taken syllogistic form at all, he may argue from premises which are less known or equally unknown, or he may establish the antecedent utilizing its consequents; for demonstration proceeds from what is more certain and is prior. Now begging the question is none of these.<span class="nowrap"> </span>[...] If, however, the relation of B to C is such that they are identical, or that they are clearly convertible, or that one applies to the other, then he is begging the point at issue.<span class="nowrap"> </span>... [B]egging the question is proving what is not self-evidently employing itself<span class="nowrap"> </span>... either because identical predicates belong to the same subject, or because the same predicate belongs to identical subjects.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aristotle, Hugh Tredennick (trans.) <i>Prior Analytics</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Aristotle's distinction between <a href="/wiki/Apodictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Apodictic">apodictic</a> science and other forms of nondemonstrative knowledge rests on an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> wherein appropriate <a href="/wiki/First_principles" class="mw-redirect" title="First principles">first principles</a> become apparent to the trained dialectician: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Aristotle's advice in <i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">S.E.</a></i> 27 for resolving fallacies of Begging the Question is brief. If one realizes that one is being asked to concede the original point, one should refuse to do so, even if the point being asked is a reputable belief. On the other hand, if one fails to realize that one has conceded the point at issue and the questioner uses the concession to produce the apparent refutation, then one should turn the tables on the sophistical opponent by oneself pointing out the fallacy committed. In dialectical exchange, it is a worse mistake to be caught asking for the original point than to have inadvertently granted such a request. The answerer in such a position has failed to detect when different utterances mean the same thing. The questioner, if he did not realize he was asking the original point, has committed the same error. But if he has knowingly asked for the original point, then he reveals himself to be ontologically confused: he has mistaken what is non-self-explanatory (known through other things) to be something self-explanatory (known through itself). In pointing this out to the false reasoner, one is not just pointing out a tactical psychological misjudgment by the questioner. It is not simply that the questioner falsely thought that the original point is placed under the guise of a semantic equivalent, or a logical equivalent, or a covering universal, or divided up into exhaustive parts, would be more persuasive to the answerer. Rather, the questioner falsely thought that a non-self-explanatory fact about the world was an explanatory first principle. For Aristotle, that certain facts are self-explanatory while others are not is not a reflection solely of the cognitive abilities of humans. It is primarily a reflection of the structure of noncognitive reality. In short, a successful resolution of such a fallacy requires a firm grasp of the correct explanatory powers of things. Without a knowledge of which things are self-explanatory and which are not the reasoner is liable to find a question-begging argument persuasive.<sup id="cite_ref-Schreiber2003_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreiber2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Scott Gregory Schreiber, <i>Aristotle on False Reasoning: Language and the World in the Sophistical Refutations</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fowler_(Oxford)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Fowler (Oxford)">Thomas Fowler</a> believed that <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span> would be more properly called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio quæsiti</i></span>, which is literally <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">begging the question</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler145_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler145-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">beg the question</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> (also called <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span>) is to attempt to support a claim with a premise that itself restates or presupposes the claim.<sup id="cite_ref-Welton279_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welton279-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an attempt to prove a proposition while simultaneously taking the proposition for granted. </p><p>When the fallacy involves only a single variable, it is sometimes called a <i><a href="/wiki/Hysteron_proteron" title="Hysteron proteron">hysteron proteron</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Davies572_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies572-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Welton280_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welton280-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Greek for <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">later earlier</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), a <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> device, as in the statement: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Opium induces sleep because it has a <abbr title="sleep-inducing"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/soporific" class="extiw" title="wikt:soporific"><i>soporific</i></a></abbr> quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Welton281_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welton281-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Reading this sentence, the only thing one can learn is a new word (soporific) that refers to a more common action (inducing sleep); it does not explain why opium causes that effect. A sentence that explains why opium induces sleep (or the same, why opium has soporific quality) could be the following one: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">Opium</a> induces sleep because it contains <a href="/wiki/Morphine-6-glucuronide" title="Morphine-6-glucuronide">Morphine-6-glucuronide</a>, which inhibits the brain's receptors for pain, causing a pleasurable sensation that eventually induces sleep.</p></blockquote> <p>A less obvious example from <i>Fallacies and Pitfalls of Language: The Language Trap</i> by S. Morris Engel: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Free trade will be good for this country. The reason is patently clear. Isn't it obvious that unrestricted commercial relations will bestow on all sections of this nation the benefits which result when there is an unimpeded flow of goods between countries?<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This form of the fallacy may not be immediately obvious. Linguistic variations in syntax, sentence structure, and the literary device may conceal it, as may other factors involved in an argument's delivery. It may take the form of an unstated premise which is essential but not identical to the conclusion, or is "controversial or questionable for the same reasons that typically might lead someone to question the conclusion":<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...<span class="nowrap"> </span>[S]eldom is anyone going to simply place the conclusion word-for-word into the premises<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Rather, an arguer might use phraseology that conceals the fact that the conclusion is masquerading as a premise. The conclusion is rephrased to look different and is then placed in the premises.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Paul Herrick<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick248_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick248-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>For example, one can obscure the fallacy by first making a statement in concrete terms, then attempting to pass off an identical statement, delivered in abstract terms, as evidence for the original.<sup id="cite_ref-Welton281_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welton281-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One could also "bring forth a proposition expressed in words of <a href="/wiki/Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon">Saxon</a> origin, and give as a reason for it the very same proposition stated in words of <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> origin",<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as here: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To allow every man an unbounded freedom of speech must always be, on the whole, advantageous to the State, for it is highly conducive to the interests of the community that each individual should enjoy a liberty perfectly unlimited of expressing his sentiments."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When the fallacy of begging the question is committed in more than one step, some authors dub it <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">circulus in probando</i></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">reasoning in a circle</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-Davies572_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies572-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dowden_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dowden-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or more commonly, <i>circular reasoning</i>. </p><p>Begging the question is not considered a <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">formal fallacy</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> that is defective because it uses an incorrect <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive step</a>). Rather, it is a type of <a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">logically valid</a> but unpersuasive, in that it fails to prove anything other than what is already assumed.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walton_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walton-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Petitio_Principii_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petitio_Principii-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fallacies">Related fallacies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Related fallacies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">Ignoratio elenchi</a></div> <p>Closely connected with begging the question is the fallacy of <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">circulus in probando</i></span>), a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with the conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The individual components of a circular argument can be logically <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid</a> because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and does not lack relevance. However, circular reasoning is not persuasive because a listener who doubts the conclusion also doubts the premise that leads to it.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Begging the question is similar to the <i><a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">complex question</a></i> (also known as <i>trick question</i> or <i>fallacy of many questions</i>): a question that, to be valid, requires the truth of another question that has not been established. For example, "Which color dress is Mary wearing?" may be fallacious because it presupposes that Mary is wearing a dress. Unless it has previously been established that her outfit is a dress, the question is fallacious because she could be wearing pants instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Meyer1988_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyer1988-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walton1989_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walton1989-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another related fallacy is <i><a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">ignoratio elenchi</a></i> or <i>irrelevant conclusion</i>: an argument that fails to address the issue in question, but appears to do so. An example might be a situation where A and B are debating whether the law permits A to do something. If A attempts to support his position with an argument that the law <em>ought</em> to allow him to do the thing in question, then he is guilty of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ignoratio elenchi</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vernacular">Vernacular</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vernacular"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> English,<sup id="cite_ref-Garner1995_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garner1995-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HoughtonMifflin2005_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoughtonMifflin2005-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>begging the question</i> (or equivalent rephrasing thereof) is sometimes used in place of "raises the question", "invites the question", "suggests the question", "leaves unanswered the question" etc. Such preface is then followed with the question, as in:<sup id="cite_ref-Corbett_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corbett-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-m-w_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-m-w-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>"[...]<span class="nowrap"> </span>personal letter delivery is at an all-time low<span class="nowrap"> </span>... Which begs the question: are open letters the only kind the future will know?"<sup id="cite_ref-m-w_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-m-w-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Hopewell's success begs the question: why aren't more companies doing the same?"<sup id="cite_ref-collins_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collins-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Spending the summer traveling around India is a great idea, but it does beg the question of how we can afford it."<sup id="cite_ref-camb_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-camb-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Sometimes it is further confused with "<a href="/wiki/Question_dodging" class="mw-redirect" title="Question dodging">dodging the question</a>", an attempt to avoid it, or perhaps more often <i>begging the question</i> is simply used to mean leaving the question unanswered.<sup id="cite_ref-Liberman_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liberman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/begging_the_question" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/begging the question">begging the question</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Circular_definition" title="Circular definition">Circular definition</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Consequentia_mirabilis" title="Consequentia mirabilis">Consequentia mirabilis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism_treadmill" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemism treadmill">Euphemism treadmill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress#Failure_to_explain" title="Infinite regress">Infinite regress § Failure to explain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_definition" title="Fallacies of definition">Fallacies of definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-question_argument" title="Open-question argument">Open-question argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysyllogism" title="Polysyllogism">Polysyllogism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presuppositional_apologetics" title="Presuppositional apologetics">Presuppositional apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">diallelus</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin (propaganda)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDowden,_Bradley2003" class="citation web cs1">Dowden, Bradley (27 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#CircularReasoning">"Fallacies"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009055518/http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#CircularReasoning">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fallacies&rft.pub=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2003-03-27&rft.au=Dowden%2C+Bradley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Ffallacy%2F%23CircularReasoning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herrick248-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herrick248_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herrick248_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herrick (2000) 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton2008" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Douglas (2008). <i>Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 64ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88617-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88617-8"><bdi>978-0-521-88617-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Informal+Logic%3A+A+Pragmatic+Approach&rft.pages=64ff&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-88617-8&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsh2010" class="citation news cs1">Marsh, David (24 May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2010/may/24/begging-the-question-mind-your-language">"Begging the question"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Begging+the+question&rft.date=2010-05-24&rft.aulast=Marsh&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmedia%2Fmind-your-language%2F2010%2Fmay%2F24%2Fbegging-the-question-mind-your-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liberman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liberman_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liberman_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiberman2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Liberman" title="Mark Liberman">Liberman, Mark</a> (29 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=2290">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Begging the question': we have answers"</a>. <i>Language Log</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=%27Begging+the+question%27%3A+we+have+answers&rft.date=2010-04-29&rft.aulast=Liberman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D2290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kretzmann1988-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kretzmann1988_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKretzmannStump1988" class="citation book cs1">Kretzmann, N.; Stump, E. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oh-vE6T_WIcC&pg=PA374"><i>Logic and the Philosophy of Language</i></a>. The Cambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 374. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521280631" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521280631"><bdi>978-0521280631</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87030542">87030542</a>. <q>One sort of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio</i></span> is common, and another is dialectical; but common <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio</i></span> is not relevant here. A dialectical <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio</i></span> is an expression that insists that in the disputation some act must be performed with regard to the statable thing [at issue]. For example, "I require (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">peto</i></span>) you to respond affirmatively to 'God exists,<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" and the like. And <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio</i></span> obligates [the respondent] to perform an action with regard to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">obligatum</i></span>, while <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">positio</i></span> obligates [him] only to maintain [the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">obligatum</i></span>]; and in this way <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">positio</i></span> differ.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logic+and+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.series=The+Cambridge+Translations+of+Medieval+Philosophical+Texts&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87030542&rft.isbn=978-0521280631&rft.aulast=Kretzmann&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Stump%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Doh-vE6T_WIcC%26pg%3DPA374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schreiber2003-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schreiber2003_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schreiber2003_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchreiber2003" class="citation book cs1">Schreiber, S.G. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AICfsOKXhJIC&pg=PA106"><i>Aristotle on False Reasoning: Language and the World in the Sophistical Refutations</i></a>. SUNY Series in Ancient Greek Philosophy. State University of New York Press. pp. 99, 106, 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791456590" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791456590"><bdi>978-0791456590</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002030968">2002030968</a>. <q>It hardly needs pointing out that such circular arguments are logically unassailable. The importance of the <i>Prior Analytics</i> introduction to the fallacy is that it places the error in a thoroughly epistemic context. For Aristotle, some reasoning of the form "p because p" is acceptable, namely, in cases where p is self-justifying. In other cases, the same (logical) reasoning commits the error of Begging the Question. Distinguishing self-evident from non-self-evident claims is a notorious crux in the history of philosophy. Aristotle's antidote to the subjectivism that threatens always to debilitate such decisions is his belief in a natural order of epistemic justification and the recognition that it takes special (dialectical) training to make that natural order also known to us.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle+on+False+Reasoning%3A+Language+and+the+World+in+the+Sophistical+Refutations&rft.series=SUNY+Series+in+Ancient+Greek+Philosophy&rft.pages=99%2C+106%2C+214&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002030968&rft.isbn=978-0791456590&rft.aulast=Schreiber&rft.aufirst=S.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAICfsOKXhJIC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fowler145-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fowler145_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler, Thomas (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WdtLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145"><i>The Elements of Deductive Logic, Ninth Edition</i></a> (p. 145). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welton279-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Welton279_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Welton (1905), 279., "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Petitio principii</i></span> is, therefore, committed when a proposition which requires proof is assumed without proof."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies572-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies572_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies572_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies (1915), 572.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welton280-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Welton280_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Welton (1905), 280–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Imaginary_Invalid" title="The Imaginary Invalid">Le Malade imaginaire</a></i>, a quack "answers" the question of "Why does <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> cause sleep?" with "Because of its <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">soporific</a> power." In the original: <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Mihi a docto doctore / Demandatur causam et rationem quare / Opium facit dormire. / A quoi respondeo, / Quia est in eo / Vertus dormitiva, / Cujus est natura / Sensus assoupire.</i></span> <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Malade_imaginaire_-_3%C3%A8me_interm%C3%A8de"><i>Le Malade imaginaire</i> in French Wikisource</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Welton281-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Welton281_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Welton281_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Welton (1905), 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel1994" class="citation book cs1">Engel, S. Morris (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30671266"><i>Fallacies and pitfalls of language : the language trap</i></a>. S. Morris Engel. New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-28274-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-28274-0"><bdi>0-486-28274-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30671266">30671266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fallacies+and+pitfalls+of+language+%3A+the+language+trap&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30671266&rft.isbn=0-486-28274-0&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=S.+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F30671266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kahane and Cavender (2005), 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson (1908), 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Whately" title="Richard Whately">Richard Whately</a>, <i>Elements of Logic</i> (1826) quoted in Gibson (1908), 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dowden-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dowden_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradley Dowden, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#BeggingtheQuestion">"Fallacies"</a> in <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200836/fallacy#ref1102387">"Fallacy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <q>Strictly speaking, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span> is not a fallacy of reasoning but an ineptitude in argumentation: thus the argument from p as a premise to p as conclusion is not deductively invalid but lacks any power of conviction since no one who questioned the conclusion could concede the premise.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F200836%2Ffallacy%23ref1102387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walton-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walton_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton,_Douglas1992" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Douglas (1992). <i>Plausible argument in everyday conversation</i>. SUNY Press. pp. 206–207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791411575" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791411575"><bdi>978-0791411575</bdi></a>. <q>Wellington is in New Zealand. Therefore, Wellington is in New Zealand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plausible+argument+in+everyday+conversation&rft.pages=206-207&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0791411575&rft.au=Walton%2C+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Petitio_Principii-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Petitio_Principii_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reason <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span> is considered a fallacy is not that the <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> is invalid (because any statement is indeed equivalent to itself), but that the argument can be deceptive. A statement cannot prove itself. A premiss [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] must have a different source of reason, ground or evidence for its truth from that of the conclusion: Lander University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/circular.html">"Petitio Principii"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowden2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dowden, Bradley (27 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#CircularReasoning">"Fallacies"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fallacies&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2003-03-27&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Ffallacy%2F%23CircularReasoning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoltRohatynVarzi1998" class="citation book cs1">Nolt, John Eric; Rohatyn, Dennis; Varzi, Achille (1998). <i>Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Logic</i>. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070466494" title="Special:BookSources/978-0070466494"><bdi>978-0070466494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schaum%27s+Outline+of+Theory+and+Problems+of+Logic&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0070466494&rft.aulast=Nolt&rft.aufirst=John+Eric&rft.au=Rohatyn%2C+Dennis&rft.au=Varzi%2C+Achille&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyer1988-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meyer1988_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1988" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, M. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nwo5qXTCJewC&pg=PA198"><i>Questions and Questioning</i></a>. Foundations of Communication. W. de Gruyter. pp. 198–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110106800" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110106800"><bdi>978-3110106800</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/lc88025603">lc88025603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questions+and+Questioning&rft.series=Foundations+of+Communication&rft.pages=198-199&rft.pub=W.+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Flc88025603&rft.isbn=978-3110106800&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnwo5qXTCJewC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walton1989-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walton1989_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalton1989" class="citation book cs1">Walton, D.N. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kswimguc5uYC&pg=PA36"><i>Informal Logic: A Handbook for Critical Argument</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521379250" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521379250"><bdi>978-0521379250</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/88030762">88030762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Informal+Logic%3A+A+Handbook+for+Critical+Argument&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F88030762&rft.isbn=978-0521379250&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=D.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkswimguc5uYC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.W. Fowler, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Modern_English_Usage" title="A Dictionary of Modern English Usage">A Dictionary of Modern English Usage</a></i>. Entry for <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ignoratio elenchi</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garner1995-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garner1995_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner1995" class="citation book cs1">Garner, B.A. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=35dZpfMmxqsC&pg=PA101"><i>Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage</i></a>. Oxford Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage. Oxford University Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195142365" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195142365"><bdi>978-0195142365</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/95003863">95003863</a>. <q><i>begging the question</i> does not mean "evading the issue" or "inviting the obvious questions," as some mistakenly believe. The proper meaning of begging the question is "basing a conclusion on an assumption that is as much in need of proof or demonstration as the conclusion itself." The formal name for this logical fallacy is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">petitio principii</i></span>. Following are two classic examples: "Reasonable men are those who think and reason intelligently." <i>Patterson v. Nutter</i>, 7 A. 273, 275 (Me. 1886). (This statement begs the question, "What does it mean to think and reason intelligently?")/ "Life begins at conception! [Fn.: 'Conception is defined as the beginning of life.']" <i>Davis v. Davis</i>, unreported opinion (Cir. Tenn. Eq. 1989). (The "proof"—or the definition—is circular.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Modern+Legal+Usage&rft.series=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Modern+Legal+Usage&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F95003863&rft.isbn=978-0195142365&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=B.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D35dZpfMmxqsC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoughtonMifflin2005-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HoughtonMifflin2005_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoughton_Mifflin_Company2005" class="citation book cs1">Houghton Mifflin Company (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC&pg=PA56"><i>The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618604999" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618604999"><bdi>978-0618604999</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2005016513">2005016513</a>. <q>Sorting out exactly what <i>beg the question</i> means, however, is not always easy—especially in constructions such as <i>beg the question of whether</i> and <i>beg the question of how</i>, where the door is opened to more than one question.<span class="nowrap"> </span>[...] But we can easily substitute <i>evade the question</i> or even <i>raise the question</i>, and the sentence will be clear, even though it violates the traditional usage rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Guide+to+Contemporary+Usage+and+Style&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2005016513&rft.isbn=978-0618604999&rft.au=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxb6ie6PqYhwC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brians, Common Errors in English Usage: Online Edition (full text of book: 2nd Edition, November 2008, William, James & Company) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/begs.html">[1]</a> (accessed 1 July 2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Follett (1966), 228; Kilpatrick (1997); Martin (2002), 71; Safire (1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corbett-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Corbett_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbett2008" class="citation news cs1">Corbett, Philip B. (25 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afterdeadline.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/09/25/begging-the-question-again/">"Begging the Question, Again"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Begging+the+Question%2C+Again&rft.date=2008-09-25&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=Philip+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafterdeadline.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F09%2F25%2Fbegging-the-question-again%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-m-w-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-m-w_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-m-w_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/beg-the-question">"Beg the Question"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Beg+the+Question&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fwords-at-play%2Fbeg-the-question&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABegging+the+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collins-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-collins_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/beg-the-question">beg the question</a>". <i>Collins Cobuild Advanced English Dictionary</i> online, accessed on 2019-05-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-camb-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-camb_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/beg-the-question">beg the question</a>" <i>Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus</i> online, accessed on 2019-05-13</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Begging_the_question&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Cohen, Morris Raphael, Ernest Nagel, and John Corcoran. <i>An Introduction to Logic</i>. Hackett Publishing, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-144-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-144-9">0-87220-144-9</a>.</li> <li>Davies, Arthur Ernest. <i>A Text-book of Logic</i>. R.G. Adams and Company, 1915.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Follett" title="Wilson Follett">Follett, Wilson</a>. <i>Modern American Usage: A Guide</i>. Macmillan, 1966. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-0139-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8090-0139-X">0-8090-0139-X</a>.</li> <li>Gibson, William Ralph Boyce, and <a href="/wiki/Augusta_Klein" title="Augusta Klein">Augusta Klein</a>. <i>The Problem of Logic</i>. A. and C. Black, 1908.</li> <li>Herrick, Paul. <i>The Many Worlds of Logic</i>. Oxford University Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515503-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515503-3">0-19-515503-3</a></li> <li>Kahane, Howard, and Nancy Cavender. <i>Logic and contemporary rhetoric: the use of reason in everyday life</i>. Cengage Learning, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-62604-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-534-62604-1">0-534-62604-1</a>.</li> <li>Kilpatrick, James. "Begging Question Assumes Proof of an Unproved Proposition". <i>Rocky Mountain News (CO)</i> 6 April 1997. Accessed through Access World News on 3 June 2009.</li> <li>Martin, Robert M. <i>There Are Two Errors in the the Title of This Book: A sourcebook of philosophical puzzles, paradoxes, and problems</i>. Broadview Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55111-493-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-55111-493-3">1-55111-493-3</a>.</li> <li>Mercier, Charles Arthur. <i>A New Logic</i>. Open Court Publishing Company, 1912.</li> <li>Mill, John Stuart. <i>A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive: being a connected view of the principles of evidence, and the methods of scientific investigation</i>. J.W. Parker, 1851.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">Safire, William</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/26/magazine/on-language-take-my-question-please.html">"On Language: Take my question please!"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i> 26 July 1998. Accessed 3 June 2009.</li> <li>Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott. <i>Formal logic, a scientific and social problem</i>. London: Macmillan, 1912.</li> <li>Welton, James. "Fallacies incident to the method". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amanuallogicvol00weltgoog"><i>A Manual of Logic</i>, Vol. 2.</a> London: W.B. Clive University Tutorial Press, 1905.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fallacies" title="Category:Fallacies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Logic" title="Template:Logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Logic" title="Template talk:Logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Logic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of 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