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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">related reading</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, <b>but its sources remain unclear because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png/300px-Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png/450px-Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png/600px-Germanic_dialects_ca._AD_1.png 2x" data-file-width="2067" data-file-height="2312" /></a><figcaption>The distribution of the primary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> dialect groups in Europe in around AD 1: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Blue; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Red; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea Germanic</a></b>, or <b>Ingvaeonic</b></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Orange; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Weser%E2%80%93Rhine_Germanic" title="Weser–Rhine Germanic">Weser–Rhine Germanic</a>, or Istvaeonic</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Yellow; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a>, or Irminonic</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Green; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a>, or Illevionic</div></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, the <b><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic">Ingvaeonic</a> nasal spirant law</b> (also called the <b><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></b> or <b>North Sea Germanic nasal spirant law</b>) is a description of a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_development" title="Phonological development">phonological development</a> that occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingvaeonic languages">Ingvaeonic</a> dialects of the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a>. This includes <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frisian language">Old Frisian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Saxon language">Old Saxon</a>, and to a lesser degree <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Dutch language">Old Dutch</a> (Old Low Franconian). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sound change affected sequences of <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> + <a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">nasal</a> consonant + <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> consonant. ("Spirant" is an older term for "fricative".) The sequences in question are <i>-ns-</i>, <i>-mf-</i>, and <i>-nþ-</i>, preceded by any vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014139–141_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014139–141-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nasal consonant disappeared, sometimes causing <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of the vowel before it. The nasalization disappeared relatively soon after in many dialects along the coast, but it was retained long enough to prevent <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_brightening" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Frisian brightening">Anglo-Frisian brightening</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æː/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014149–151_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014149–151-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting long nasalized vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ̃ː/</span> was rounded to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> in most languages under various circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014142–143_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014142–143-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Old Saxon on the other hand, the nasal consonant is later restored in all but a small handful of forms, so that Old Saxon <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fĩːf/</span> ('five') appears as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fiːf/</span> in all <a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a> dialects, while Old Saxon <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mũːθ/</span> ('mouth') appears as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mʊnd/</span> in all Middle Low German dialects. The Old Saxon words <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣɑ̃ːs/</span> ('goose') and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ũːs/</span> ('us') appear variably with and without a restored consonant, an example being the combination of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɣoːs/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊns/</span> on the Baltic coast. </p><p>The sequence <i>-nh-</i> had already undergone a similar change in late Proto-Germanic several hundred years earlier, and affected all Germanic languages, not only the Ingvaeonic subgroup (see <a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of this earlier change was the same: a long nasal vowel. However, the nasalization in this earlier case did not cause rounding of nasal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ̃ː/</span> in Old Saxon, which instead became simple <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span>, while the later Ingvaeonic spirant law resulted in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span>. In Old English and Old Frisian, rounding occurred here as well, giving <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> in both cases. It was this earlier shift that created the n/∅ in <i>think/thought</i> and <i>bring/brought</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Compare the first person plural pronoun "us" in various old Germanic languages: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <i>uns</i></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <i>uns</i> (dative) or <i>unsih</i> (accusative)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> <i>uns</i></dd></dl> </td> <td> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <i>ūs</i></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> <i>ūs</i></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> <i>ūs</i> (accusative also <i>unsik</i>)</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Gothic represents <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a>, and its correspondence to German and Standard Dutch shows it retains the more conservative form. The /n/ has disappeared in English, Frisian, Old Saxon (New Low German has both <i>us</i> and <i>uns</i>), and dialectal Dutch with <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of the /u/. This phenomenon is therefore observable throughout the "Ingvaeonic" languages. It does not affect High German, East Germanic or North Germanic. </p><p>Likewise: </p> <ul><li>Proto-Germanic *<i>tanþs</i> > English <i>tooth</i>, North Frisian <i>tôs</i>, <i>toss</i> (vs. Low German <i>Tähn</i>, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish <i>tand</i>, German <i>Zahn</i>, Icelandic <i>tönn</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Germanic *<i>anþeraz</i> > English <i>other</i>, Icelandic <i>aðrir</i>, West Frisian <i>oar</i>, West Flemish (Frans-Vlaams) <i>aajer</i>, Old Saxon <i>ōðar</i>, <i>āthar</i> (vs. Low German <i>anner</i>, German/Dutch <i>ander</i> [þ > d], Icelandic: <i>annað/annar/önnur</i>, Swedish <i>annat/annan/andre/andra</i>, Danish <i>anden/andet/andre</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Germanic *<i>gans</i> > English <i>goose</i>, West Frisian <i>goes</i>, <i>guos</i>, Low German <i>Goos</i> (vs. Dutch <i>gans</i>, German <i>Gans</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014141_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014141-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Germanic *<i>fimf</i> > English <i>five</i>, West Frisian <i>fiif</i>, East Frisian <i>fieuw</i>, Dutch <i>vijf</i>, Low German <i>fiew, fiev, fief</i> (vs. German <i>fünf</i>, Icelandic <i>fimm</i>, Danish and Swedish <i>fem</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Proto-Germanic *<i>samftō</i>, -<i>ijaz</i> > English <i>soft</i>, West Frisian <i>sêft</i>, Low German <i>sacht</i>, Dutch <i>zacht</i> [ft > xt] (vs. German <i>sanft</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English">English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English shows the results of the shift consistently throughout its repertoire of native lexemes. One consequence of this is that English has very few words ending in <i>-nth</i>; those that exist must have entered the vocabulary subsequent to the productive period of the nasal spirant law: </p> <ul><li><i>month</i> – derives from Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">monaþ</i></span> (compare German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Monat</i></span>); the intervening vowel rendered the law inapplicable here.</li> <li><i>tenth</i> – from <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">tenthe</i></span>. The original Germanic <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">tehundô</i></span>, which was regularised to *<i>tehunþô</i> in early Ingvaeonic, was affected by the law, producing Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">teogoþa</i></span>, <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">tēoþa</i></span> (Modern English <i>tithe</i>). But the force of analogy with the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">cardinal number</a> <i>ten</i> caused Middle English speakers to recreate the regular ordinal and re-insert the nasal consonant.</li> <li><i>plinth</i> – a loanword in <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πλίνθος</span></span> "brick, tile").</li> <li><i>amaranth</i> – a double loanword from Greek, "ἀμάραντος" : <i>amárantos</i> (undying) + "ἄνθος" : <i>ánthos</i> (flower).</li></ul> <p>Likewise, the rare occurrences of the combinations -nf-, -mf- and -ns- have similar explanations. </p> <ul><li><i>answer</i> – originally had an intervening stop: Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">andswaru</i></span>, cf. Dutch <i>antwoord</i>, German <i>Antwort</i>.</li> <li><i>unfair</i> – the prefix un- is still productive.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dutch">Dutch</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dutch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Dutch is based mostly on the <a href="/wiki/Hollandic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic">Hollandic</a> dialects, which in turn were influenced by Frisian, it was also heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a> dialect which tends not to show a shift. As a result, the shift is generally not applied but is still applied to some words. For example Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">vijf</i></span> vs. German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">fünf</i></span>, <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">zacht</i></span> vs. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">sanft</i></span>. Coastal dialects of Dutch tend to have more examples, e.g. standard Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">mond</i></span> "mouth" vs. Hollandic <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">mui</i></span> (earlier <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">muide</i></span>) "slit between sandbanks where tidal streams flow into". Brabantian dialects tend to have fewer examples, having unshifted examples in a few cases where standard Dutch has the shift, as in the toponyms <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Zonderwijk</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Veldhoven" title="Veldhoven">Veldhoven</a>), <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Zondereigen</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Baarle-Hertog" title="Baarle-Hertog">Baarle-Hertog</a>), etc. cognate to standard Dutch <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">zuid</i></span> "south". </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Met uitzondering van brocht > bracht kan mogelijke invloed van de noordoostelijke dialecten hier niet ingeroepen worden, want die vertoonden ook vrij veel ingweoonse trekken. Gedacht dient te worden aan een gebied zonder ingweoonse kenmerken en in het licht van de immigratiestromen in die tijd ligt dan veeleer Brabantse invloed voor de hand.</i></span> </p><p>Except for <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">brocht</i></span> > <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">bracht</i></span> "brought", the possible influence of the northeastern dialects [Low Saxon] cannot be cited as evidence, since they also show quite a lot of ingvaeonic traits. One must instead think of a region without ingvaeonic traits, and given the direction of immigration of that time [into Holland's larger southern cities following the fall of Antwerp in 1585], Brabantine influence is a straightforward explanation. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Johan Taeldeman, "De opbouw van het AN: meer zuidelijke dan oostelijke impulsen", <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Tijdschrift voor de Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde</i></span>, volume 123 (2007), issue 2, p. 104.</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="German">German</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The spirant law was originally active in <a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Franconian">Central Franconian</a> dialects of <a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High German</a>, which is proof that it was not entirely restricted to Ingvaeonic. Compare for example <a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a> <span title="Luxembourgish-language text"><i lang="lb">eis</i></span> ("us"), <i>Gaus</i> ("goose", now archaic). Modern Standard German is based more on eastern varieties which are not affected by the shift. The standard language does, however, contain a number of <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> borrowings with it. For example <i>Süden</i> ("south", ousting <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">sundan</i></span>), or <i>sacht</i> ("soft, gentle", alongside native <i>sanft</i>). </p><p>In some <a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High</a> and <a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic German</a> dialects, there is a similar phenomenon called <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Staub" title="Friedrich Staub">Staub</a>'s law, for example <span title="Alemannic German-language text"><i lang="gsw">üüs</i></span> ("us", Standard German <i>uns</i>), <i>füüf</i> ("five", Standard German <i>fünf</i>), or <i>treiche</i> ("drink", Standard German <i>trinken</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014139–141-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014139–141_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor 2014</a>, pp. 139–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014149–151-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014149–151_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor 2014</a>, pp. 149–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014142–143-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014142–143_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor 2014</a>, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERinge2017174-175_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRinge2017">Ringe 2017</a>, p. 174-175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014140_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor 2014</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014141-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERingeTaylor2014141_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRingeTaylor2014">Ringe & Taylor 2014</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBremmer2009" class="citation book cs1">Bremmer, Rolf H. (2009). <i>An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary</i>. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3255-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3255-7"><bdi>978-90-272-3255-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Frisian.+History%2C+Grammar%2C+Reader%2C+Glossary&rft.place=Amsterdam+and+Philadelphia&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3255-7&rft.aulast=Bremmer&rft.aufirst=Rolf+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIngvaeonic+nasal+spirant+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Markey, Thomas L. <i>Germanic dialect grouping and the position of Ingvæonic.</i>(Inst. f. Sprachwissenschaft d. Univ. Innsbruck, 1976.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85124-529-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-85124-529-6">3-85124-529-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingeTaylor2014" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Donald; Taylor, Ann (2014). <i>The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II</i>. United States of America: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Old+English+%E2%80%93+A+Linguistic+History+of+English%2C+vol.+II&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIngvaeonic+nasal+spirant+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2017" class="citation book cs1">Ringe, Donald A. (2017). <i>From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic</i>. Linguistic history of English, v. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955229-0"><bdi>978-0-19-955229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Indo-European+to+Proto-Germanic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Linguistic+history+of+English%2C+v.+1&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955229-0&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIngvaeonic+nasal+spirant+law" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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