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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Rabbath_Amman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Rabbath_Amman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient Rabbath Amman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Rabbath_Amman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Founding_as_Philadelphia_by_the_Greeks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_as_Philadelphia_by_the_Greeks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Founding as Philadelphia by the Greeks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_as_Philadelphia_by_the_Greeks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_Nabataean_control_and_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_Nabataean_control_and_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Under Nabataean control and rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_Nabataean_control_and_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flourishing_under_Roman_rule_and_the_Decapolis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flourishing_under_Roman_rule_and_the_Decapolis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Flourishing under Roman rule and the Decapolis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flourishing_under_Roman_rule_and_the_Decapolis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Byzantine_and_Christian_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Byzantine_and_Christian_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The Byzantine and Christian periods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Byzantine_and_Christian_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_era_and_renaming_to_Amman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_era_and_renaming_to_Amman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Islamic era and renaming to Amman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_era_and_renaming_to_Amman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Philadelphia_(Amman)&params=31.9504572_N_35.9323131_E_type:city_region:JO"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">31°57′02″N</span> <span class="longitude">35°55′56″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.9504572°N 35.9323131°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.9504572; 35.9323131</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Greco-Roman city that was established in Amman</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Philadelphia (disambiguation)">Philadelphia (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Philadelphia</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Φιλαδέλφεια</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>)</span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Philadelphia_(Amman).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png/330px-Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png/500px-Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png/960px-Map_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1124" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Map of Philadelphia showing Roman and Byzantine ruins and the Seil and Citadel Hill</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jordan_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Philadelphia (Amman) is located in Jordan"><img alt="Philadelphia (Amman) is located in Jordan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Jordan_location_map.svg/250px-Jordan_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Jordan_location_map.svg/375px-Jordan_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Jordan_location_map.svg/500px-Jordan_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1197" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:35.217%;left:24.616%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Philadelphia (Amman)"><img alt="Philadelphia (Amman)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Jordan</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>, Jordan</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Philadelphia_(Amman)&params=31.9504572_N_35.9323131_E_type:city_region:JO"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">31°57′02″N</span> <span class="longitude">35°55′56″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.9504572°N 35.9323131°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.9504572; 35.9323131</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Builder</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">Around 255 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Periods</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammonite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean">Nabataean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Latin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire#Culture" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Timeline of Philadelphia</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Greco-Nabataean-Roman-Byzantine city <br /> (3rd century BC–7th AD)<div style="text-align: left"> <ul><li>255 BC: Establishment of Philadelphia by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a></li> <li>200s BC: Philadelphia becomes part of the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></li> <li>63 BC: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_eastern_settlement" title="Pompey's eastern settlement">conquest</a> and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a></li> <li>106 AD: Philadelphia becomes part of the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a></li> <li>2nd century AD: Construction of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Theater (Amman)">theater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Amman)" title="Nymphaeum (Amman)">nymphaeum</a> and other structures</li> <li>330s AD: Philadelphia becomes part of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>363 AD: The city is destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/363_Galilee_earthquake" title="363 Galilee earthquake">Galilee earthquake</a></li> <li>635 AD: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the city's renaming to Amman<sup id="cite_ref-doa1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doa1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Philadelphia</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Φιλαδέλφεια</span>) was a historical city located in the southern <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, which was part of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> realms between the third century BC and the seventh century AD. With the start of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Islamic era</a>, the city regained its ancient name of <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>, eventually becoming the capital of Jordan. Philadelphia was initially centered on the <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a>, later spreading to the nearby <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Amman" title="Downtown Amman">valley</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Seil_Amman" title="Seil Amman">stream</a> flowed. </p><p>Around 255 BC, <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Rabbath Amman</a> was seized by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian Greek</a> ruler of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Egypt</a>, who rebuilt and renamed it Philadelphia in honor of his nickname–a name change which contemporary sources mostly ignored. The city's significance grew as it became a frontier in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>, frequently changing hands between the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> empires. By the early second century BC, Philadelphia became part of the Nabataean Kingdom, with a large <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Arab Nabataean</a> community residing in the city before and after the kingdom's rule. </p><p>Philadelphia was conquered by the Romans under <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> in 63 BC, becoming a <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> complete with civic institutions and minting rights, and being incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a>, a regional league of cities. In 106 AD, Philadelphia was incorporated into the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>, and became an important stop along the <a href="/wiki/Via_Traiana_Nova" title="Via Traiana Nova">Via Traiana Nova</a> road. The city flourished in the second century, being constructed in the classical Roman style with a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Theater (Amman)">theater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Amman)" title="Nymphaeum (Amman)">nymphaeum</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_(Amman)" title="Temple of Hercules (Amman)">temple</a>, and a network of colonnaded streets. </p><p>The city came under the control of the Byzantine Empire in the fourth century, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_churches_in_Amman" title="List of Byzantine churches in Amman">several churches</a> were built in it. Philadelphia was soon damaged by the <a href="/wiki/363_Galilee_earthquake" title="363 Galilee earthquake">363 Galilee earthquake</a>. In the 630s, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">conquered</a> the Levant, and restored Philadelphia's ancient <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> name of Amman, marking the beginning of the Islamic era. Christians in the region continued to practice their faith, referring to the city as Philadelphia <a href="/wiki/Umm_ar-Rasas_mosaics#Outer_frame,_right_(southern)_side" title="Umm ar-Rasas mosaics">until at least</a> the 8th century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 255 BC, <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Rabbath Ammon</a> was occupied and renamed Philadelphia by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a> to honor his own nickname, which he had acquired after having married his older sister <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>, with both being called "Philadelphoi" (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Φιλάδελφοι</span> "Sibling-lovers").<sup id="cite_ref-SIRE_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SIRE-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The marriage may not have been consummated, since it produced no children.)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the name change, the city continued to be referred to by its native name of Rabbat Amman by contemporary sources.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is indicated by a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> belonging to <a href="/wiki/Zenon_of_Kaunos" title="Zenon of Kaunos">Zenon of Kaunos</a>, a Ptolemic official based in Egypt in the mid-third century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> also referred to the city as Rabbat Amman in the mid-second century BC, while Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> writing in the fourth century AD referred to it as Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Rabbath_Amman">Ancient Rabbath Amman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Rabbath Amman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The city has evidence of human habitation since the 8th millennium BC, with traces found on <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a> and in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Amman" title="Downtown Amman">valley</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Seil_Amman" title="Seil Amman">stream</a> once flowed near the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> village of <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Ghazal_(archaeological_site)" title="Ayn Ghazal (archaeological site)">Ayn Ghazal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first millennium BC, the city was called <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Rabbat Ammon</a> and served as the capital of a small state.<sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ammonite kingdom had maintained independence by allying with neighboring Levantine cities against Assyrian advances.<sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ammon was eventually <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III#Conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">conquered</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrians</a> in the 8th century BC, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Babylonians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Persians</a> by the 5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American archaeologist Henry Innes MacAdam cited Amman's geography and central location as reasons for its rise in ancient times:<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>defensible <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">acropolis</a>, several springs creating a <a href="/wiki/Seil_Amman" title="Seil Amman">perennial stream</a> and adequate arable land nearby, were partly responsible for its rise to prominence in both Biblical and classical times. Equally important was the city's fortunate position at the juncture of <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Highway_(ancient)" title="King's Highway (ancient)">north-south</a> and east-west trade routes.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_as_Philadelphia_by_the_Greeks">Founding as Philadelphia by the Greeks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Founding as Philadelphia by the Greeks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Ptolemy_II_MAN_Napoli_Inv5600_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1729" data-file-height="1730" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Bust</a> found in southern Italy of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian Greek</a> ruler of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Egypt</a>, who occupied and renamed <a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a> to Philadelphia around 255 BC to honor his nickname</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg/250px-Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg/330px-Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg/500px-Qasr_Al-abed_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2118" data-file-height="1449" /></a><figcaption>View of <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Abd" title="Qasr al-Abd">Qasr al-Abd</a>, a 2nd century BC palace located <a href="/wiki/Iraq_al-Amir" title="Iraq al-Amir">west of Philadelphia</a> that was built by a Jewish dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Tobiads" title="Tobiads">Tobiads</a>, and considered today to be among the best-preserved <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> palaces in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg/220px-Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg/330px-Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg/440px-Amman_Castle_North-western_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Fortifications of Amman's <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a>, which overlooks the <a href="/wiki/Downtown_Amman" title="Downtown Amman">Amman valley</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Greeks</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 332 BC introduced <a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(Greek_culture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenism (Greek culture)">Hellenistic culture</a> into the region.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Alexander's death, his empire split among his generals, with the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemies</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt" title="Geography of Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ptolemic-Seleucid rivalry, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>, turned the region east of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> into a disputed frontier, with Ammon increasing in strategic importance, especially considering its citadel hill.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 270s BC, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian Greek</a> ruler of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> occupied much of the southern Levant from the Seleucids.<sup id="cite_ref-SIRE_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SIRE-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Seleucids were more keen than the Ptolemies in establishing new cities, nevertheless Ptolemy II established a number of cities (such as <a href="/wiki/Acre" title="Acre">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Kerak" title="Khirbet Kerak">Philoteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pella,_Jordan" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella</a>, and Philadelphia<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to create wealth and tax it.<sup id="cite_ref-SIRE_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SIRE-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Ammon was reestablished around 255 BC and renamed Philadelphia (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Φιλαδέλφεια</span>) to honor Ptolemy's own nickname.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacAdam called the name change "propagandistic," likely made to "advertise Ptolemic possession of a strategic site."<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name change was regarded of little importance by contemporary sources.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial Greek presence in Amman was centered on the Citadel Hill, later spreading into the Amman valley.<sup id="cite_ref-OCCS_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OCCS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city continued to be ruled for the Greek Ptolemies by the same local family that had ruled it on behalf of the Achaeminid Persians, the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Tobiads" title="Tobiads">Tobiad</a> dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tobiad family had based themselves in a palace several kilometers west of Philadelphia at <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Al-Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq Al-Amir">Iraq Al-Amir</a>, known today as <a href="/wiki/Qasr_Al-Abd" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr Al-Abd">Qasr Al-Abd</a> and considered to be among the best-preserved <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 259 BC, <a href="/wiki/Zenon_of_Kaunos" title="Zenon of Kaunos">a Ptolemic papyrus</a> refers to the selling of a slave girl in the city, which is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Cleruchy" title="Cleruchy">cleruchy</a> (settlement) ruled by Tobias at "Birta of the Ammanitis," with Birta likely to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Little is known about Philadelphia in the next half century, and the city likely played no role in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars#Second_Syrian_War_(260–253_BC)" title="Syrian Wars">Second Syrian War (260–253 BC)</a> between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars#Third_Syrian_War_(246–241_BC)" title="Syrian Wars">Third Syrian War (246–241 BC)</a>, Philadelphia was wrestled from the Ptolemies by the Seleucids led by <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> in 218 BC, who swept through the coastal region of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordanian highlands</a>, aiming for Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Allying with local Arabs, the Seleucids besieged Philadelphia, encamping around the <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a> and using a <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering ram</a> to break open its fortifications.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philadelphia fell through treachery, when a captured prisoner informed the Seleucids of the existence of a secret passageway which the Philadelphians used to reach a water source.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The defenders were then forced to surrender, given the rainless summer.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philadelphia returned to Ptolemic hands after the defeat of the Seleucids near <a href="/wiki/Rafah" title="Rafah">Rafah</a> during the 217 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia" title="Battle of Raphia">Battle of Raphia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ptolemic hegemony only ended with Seleucid victory in the 200 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Panium" title="Battle of Panium">Battle of Panium</a>, bringing most of the southern Levant, including Philadelphia, under Seleucid rule.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_Nabataean_control_and_rule">Under Nabataean control and rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Under Nabataean control and rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Arab Nabataeans exploited the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Seleucid-Ptolemic wars</a> to establish their <a href="/wiki/Nabatean_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatean Kingdom">Nabatean Kingdom</a> centered in Raqmu (<a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>) in the third century BC, which kept Philadelphia in a border zone.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nabataeans exercised a form of control in Philadelphia with Seleucid decline in the second century BC, and it is possible that the city was then given to the Nabataeans by the Seleucids for having supported them against the Ptolemies.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nabataean presence in the cities of the Decapolis was prominent, with the most substantial evidence found in Philadelphia, including Nabataean bowls found in <a href="/wiki/Jabal_Amman" title="Jabal Amman">Jabal Amman</a>, as well as several Nabataean coins found in the Roman forum, indicating the presence of a large Nabataean community in the city during the first century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-RTAF_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RTAF-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg/220px-Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg/330px-Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg/440px-Nabatean_Kingdom_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1417" /></a><figcaption>Largest extent of the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a> around 85 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The Tobiads led by Hyrcanus soon reestablished hegemony around Iraq Al-Amir around 187 BC, which ended after his suicide in 175 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is likely that Philadelphia was in Nabataean hands between <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">175 and 164 BC</a>, as attested by historical records about <a href="/wiki/Jason_(High_Priest)" title="Jason (High Priest)">Jason</a>, the Jewish High Priest, fleeing from <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> to Philadelphia twice, before being forced to seek refuge in Egypt after his imprisonment in the city by Nabataean King <a href="/wiki/Aretas_I" title="Aretas I">Aretas I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 165 BC, Philadelphia was attacked by forces led by <a href="/wiki/Judas_Maccabeus" title="Judas Maccabeus">Judas Maccabeus</a>, who after having subdued parts of Palestine, "moved against the Ammanites, finding there strong forces and a sizable population, under the command of Timotheus. [Judas] fought against them many times ... [eventually] he captured <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_es-Sar" title="Khirbet es-Sar">Jazer</a> and its villages, and turned back to <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>," according to <a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">I Macc. 5:6–8</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Timotheus was likely a Greek mercenary hired by the Nabataean King, who later launched a reprisal against Judea and was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> mentions that, around 135 BC, Philadelphia was ruled by a tyrant named Zenon Kotylas and his son Theodorus,<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who could have been Nabataean commanders with Hellenized names.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city under Nabataean rule withstood attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a>, who ruled between 103 and 76 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Nabataean victory over the Seleucids at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cana" title="Battle of Cana">Battle of Cana</a> in 84 BC led to their subsequent conquering of Damascus.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 63 BC, the Nabataeans had intervened in a dynastic struggle between Hasmonean heirs in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and they were forced to withdraw by pressure from the Romans, which was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)">Siege of Jerusalem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Josephus, Nabataean King Aretas I was "terrified," fleeing to Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacAdam notes that this indicated that the city had been under Nabataean rule during that time, and that there is "every reason to believe that Philadelphia was Nabataean from the very beginning of the second century and remained so until the end of Seleucid rule in Syria".<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flourishing_under_Roman_rule_and_the_Decapolis">Flourishing under Roman rule and the Decapolis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flourishing under Roman rule and the Decapolis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Decapolis_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/The_Decapolis_Map.png/220px-The_Decapolis_Map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/The_Decapolis_Map.png/330px-The_Decapolis_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/The_Decapolis_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="415" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Members of the ten-city Roman league, the <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a>, of which Philadelphia was a prominent member, established in the first century AD</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman,_1878.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg/220px-View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg/330px-View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg/440px-View_of_the_Roman_theater_and_Odeon_in_Amman%2C_1878.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption>View of the Roman Theater as seen from the Citadel Hill, 1878</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amman_(Jordan)_(8501117721).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg/250px-Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg/330px-Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg/500px-Amman_%28Jordan%29_%288501117721%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Daedalus" title="Daedalus">Daedalus</a>, a symbol of wisdom, knowledge, and power was found on the Citadel Hill, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum" title="Jordan Archaeological Museum">Jordan Archaeological Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pompei" title="Pompei">Pompei</a> <a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_eastern_settlement" title="Pompey's eastern settlement">conquered</a> much of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> in 63 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cities belonging to the Nabataeans and the Hasmoneans were added to a ten-city Roman league called the <a href="/wiki/Decapolis" title="Decapolis">Decapolis</a>, which was attached to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">province of Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these initial cities was Philadelphia, and its calendrical system marked 63 BC as its founding year, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_era" title="Pompeian era">Pompeian era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning of being a member of the Decapolis is unclear to historians.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Decapolis cities stretched from Damascus in the north to Philadelphia in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes cities such as <a href="/wiki/Jerash" title="Jerash">Gerasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umm_Qays" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm Qays">Gedara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irbid" title="Irbid">Arbila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Scythopolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitolias" title="Capitolias">Capitolias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, most of which are located in Transjordan.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cities were added and removed to the league, with its membership expanding to 18 by the second century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 31 BC, the first war between the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodians</a> and the Nabataeans broke out, with the Nabataeans being defeated in an eventual battle fought near Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 31 BC and 66 AD, the historical sources barely mention Philadelphia,<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> records that a boundary dispute broke out between the city of Philadelphia and Jews based in <a href="/wiki/Perea" title="Perea">Perea</a> in 44 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 66 AD, a dispute between Jews and Greeks in the coastal city of <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> escalated into ethnic attacks against Jews, with Jews then leading bandits across the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> to attack the Hellenized cities of the Decapolis in northern Transjordan.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish inhabitants of the Decapolis faced counter-reprisals, the scale of which is unknown in Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> (city), Philadelphia enjoyed an extensive territory, a calendrical era, civic institutions, and the right of minting.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest coin in Philadelphia has the year of 143 of the <a href="/wiki/Pompeian_era" title="Pompeian era">Pompeian era</a> on its reverse, which corresponds to 80 AD, and latest ones found were minted in 220s AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The iconography present on the coins varied from laurel wreaths, woven baskets, and corn-clusters on the reverse, with representations of the Greek god of harvest <a href="/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a> on the obverse.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other icons included representations of <a href="/wiki/Asteria" title="Asteria">Asteria</a> and her son <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>, as well as the dieties of <a href="/wiki/Tyche" title="Tyche">Tyche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger denominations showed heads of the emperors <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coins identified the city as "Philadelphia of <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg/220px-Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg/330px-Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg/440px-Amman_Forum_South-western_colonnade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian columns</a> that used to surround a forum in front of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Theater (Amman)">Roman Theater</a>, in today's <a href="/wiki/Hashemite_Plaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashemite Plaza">Hashemite Plaza</a> area</figcaption></figure> <p>Some portions of the city walls at the Citadel Hill were rebuilt during the Roman era, likely in the second century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Greek inscriptions were found in the city dating to this period.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Hashemite_Plaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashemite Plaza">forum area</a>, an inscription was found during excavations: "The city of Philadelphia ... built a triple portico in the year 252 [189 AD]." Another undated inscription mentions the visit of an emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pompeian calendar remained used well into the 8th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman Empire annexed the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a>, which it organized as the province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a> in 106 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, the Decapolis was dissolved, with its northernmost cities attached to the province of Syria, its western cities to province of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Palestine</a>, and Gerasa and Philadelphia to the then newly-created province of Arabia Petraea.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historical sources are silent about Philadelphia in the first few decades of the second century.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the annexation, the Romans under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> constructed the <a href="/wiki/Via_Traiana_Nova" title="Via Traiana Nova">Via Traiana Nova</a>, which connected the ancient <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> port of Aila (<a href="/wiki/Aqaba" title="Aqaba">Aqaba</a>) with the Arabia Petraea provincial capital of <a href="/wiki/Bostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bostra">Bostra</a>, around 111 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philadelphia thrived as a trading center and became an important stop on the Via Nova road.<sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philadelphia_(Amman)_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg/250px-Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg/330px-Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg/500px-Philadelphia_%28Amman%29_on_the_Tabula_Peutingeriana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3224" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption>Philadelphia as seen on the <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a>, an ancient map showing Roman road networks, with the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a> seen above and the southern road connecting it to <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> on left</figcaption></figure> <p>Philadelphia is depicted on the Roman map of <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a>, in which it is portrayed as a major stop on the north-south route of the Via Nova.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is represented by a twin structure like other prominent cities such as Damascus, Bostra and Petra, a figure which has been interpreted as either showing a military detachment or a stop.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second century AD saw Philadelphia thriving, with the city being constructed in the classical Roman style, with a large <a href="/wiki/Roman_Theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Theater (Amman)">theater</a>, a smaller <a href="/wiki/Odeon_Theater_(Amman)" title="Odeon Theater (Amman)">Odeon</a> theater, a <a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Amman)" title="Nymphaeum (Amman)">nymphaeum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_baths_(Amman)" title="Roman baths (Amman)">public baths</a>, a forum, and a network of colonnaded streets in the valley, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Propylaea" title="Propylaea">propylaeon</a> with stairs connecting it to the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">acropolis</a> of the Citadel Hill, where a <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_(Amman)" title="Temple of Hercules (Amman)">temple</a> dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a> was situated.<sup id="cite_ref-RITE_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-COCW_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasium</a> is also believed to have existed in the city, which is so far undiscovered.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The network of colonnaded streets included an east–west road known as <a href="/wiki/Decumanus" title="Decumanus">Decumanus</a> and a north-south road known as <a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">Cardo</a>; the remains of neither survive today.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structures were evocative of the Greco-Roman culture, but there were also elements of indigenous Arab and non-Arab influences.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, at Zizia (<a href="/wiki/Al-Jizah,_Jordan" title="Al-Jizah, Jordan">Jiza</a>) south of Amman, a bilingual Greek-Nabataean inscription was found, attesting a Nabataean man named "Demas, son of Hellel, and grandson of Demas, from 'Amman'," who had constructed a temple for "<a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belphegor" title="Belphegor">Belphegor</a>." Zeus <a href="/wiki/Religious_syncretism" title="Religious syncretism">refers</a> to the ancient Semitic god <a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Baalshamin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inscription likely dates to the second century AD, and it is notable in that the name used for the city was Amman instead of Philadelphia in the Nabataean version.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the second century AD, <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian apologist">Christian apologist</a> born in Neapolis (<a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a>), while discussing Near Eastern ethnicities, distinguished between Ammonites and the Arab Nabataeans.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275594942">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center .gallery{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left .gallery{justify-content:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right .gallery{justify-content:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery.gallery.gallery{line-height:1.35em;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{outline:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Roman ruins in downtown Amman</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A 6,000-seat Roman Theater"><img alt="A 6,000-seat Roman Theater" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg/200px-Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg/300px-Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg/400px-Roman_theater_of_Amman_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3366" data-file-height="2341" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A 6,000-seat <a href="/wiki/Roman_theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman theater (Amman)">Roman Theater</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amman-Odeon(js).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A 500-seat Odeon Theater"><img alt="A 500-seat Odeon Theater" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg/250px-Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg/330px-Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg/500px-Amman-Odeon%28js%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1256" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A 500-seat <a href="/wiki/Odeon_theater_(Amman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Odeon theater (Amman)">Odeon Theater</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nymphaeum fountain and baths"><img alt="Nymphaeum fountain and baths" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg/250px-Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg/330px-Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg/500px-Amman_Nymphaeum_0103.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Amman)" title="Nymphaeum (Amman)">Nymphaeum</a> fountain and baths</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Byzantine_and_Christian_periods">The Byzantine and Christian periods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Byzantine and Christian periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jordan0804.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jordan0804.jpg/220px-Jordan0804.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jordan0804.jpg/330px-Jordan0804.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Jordan0804.jpg/440px-Jordan0804.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine church built in the 5th century AD using corinthian columns from the nearby older Roman <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_(Amman)" title="Temple of Hercules (Amman)">Temple of Hercules</a> atop the <a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Citadel Hill</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">restructuring of the empire</a> in 284–305, the province of Arabia Petraea was enlarged to include parts of the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge about Philadelphia in the Byzantine period is scant.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is attributed by MacAdam to the city being prosperous and peaceful during this period, being neither a political nor a religious center.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the scarcity of historical sources, knowledge about the city during this time is filled by archaeological and epigraphical evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 300s AD, Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> noted in the <i><a href="/wiki/Onomasticon_(Eusebius)" title="Onomasticon (Eusebius)">Onomasticon</a></i> that "Philadelphia was a distinguished city of Arabia."<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Byzantine period, no new walls were constructed at the Citadel Hill, and many churches were badly built.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Al-Quwaysimah_(Jordan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Quwaysimah (Jordan)">Quwaysimeh</a>, on the southern edge of Amman, a Roman mausoleum and two Byzantine churches were discovered, with inscriptions honoring wealthy Philadelphians who had donated to build the churches.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Madaba" title="Madaba">Madaba</a>, south of Amman, a sixth century mosaic floor in a Byzantine church depicts the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>, with parts depicting cities of Transjordan missing, including Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philadelphia produced a well-known historian named <a href="/wiki/Malchus_(historian)" title="Malchus (historian)">Malchus</a> in the 5th century AD, who was of Arab origin and resided in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He produced a 500-page book about the history of the Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_era_and_renaming_to_Amman">Islamic era and renaming to Amman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Islamic era and renaming to Amman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_St._Stephen,_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_(Amman),_Um_er-Rasas,_Jordan_(cropped)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Church_of_St._Stephen%2C_mosaic_depicting_the_city_of_Philadelphia_%28Amman%29%2C_Um_er-Rasas%2C_Jordan_%28cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1781" data-file-height="2670" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a church in Philadelphia as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Umm_ar-Rasas_mosaics" title="Umm ar-Rasas mosaics">Umm ar-Rasas mosaics</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> in the 8th century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 630s, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">conquered</a> the Levant from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>, beginning the Islamic era in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-TROIA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TROIA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslims restored the city's ancient name by renaming it Amman, which became part of the district of <a href="/wiki/Jund_Dimashq" title="Jund Dimashq">Jund Dimashq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TROIA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TROIA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> establishing itself with <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> as its capital in 661, Amman became an important stop on the way south to the Islamic holy cities of the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TROIA_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TROIA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transition of power to Muslim rule was peaceful and Christians continued to practice their faith and pave churches with mosaics.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Umm_ar-Rasas_mosaics" title="Umm ar-Rasas mosaics">floor mosaics</a> of St. Stephen's Church at <a href="/wiki/Umm_ar-Rasas" title="Umm ar-Rasas">Umm ar-Rasas</a>, south of Amman, was made during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> in the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-TROIA_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TROIA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was created in the Byzantine style, depicting ten cities east of the Jordan River, and eight west of it.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The panel depicting Philadelphia is one meter in length and half a meter in width.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city is presented in it as seen from a nearby hilltop, looking towards a city gate, which is flanked by towers.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buildings within the city are also seen behind the gate, of which some have tiled roofs, thought to have been churches.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eighteen cities featured in the mosaic floor are thought to be accurately represented, not stereotypical depictions;<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and since Philadelphia was transformed in the Islamic era, this depiction is thought to be an accurate representation of it during Byzantine times.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Roman_periods">Greco-Roman periods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Greco-Roman periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Hercules_(Amman)_at_sunset.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg/220px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg/330px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg/440px-Temple_of_Hercules_%28Amman%29_at_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4166" data-file-height="2767" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_(Amman)" title="Temple of Hercules (Amman)">Temple of Hercules</a> that was built atop the Citadel Hill by the Romans</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus of Byzantium</a> wrote in the 6th century AD that Philadelphia was "famous".<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote that it had been previously called Ammana, and later <a href="/wiki/Astarte" title="Astarte">Astarte</a> which is a Hellenized form of the Ancient Near Eastern goddess ʿAṯtart.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stephanus mentions that the city was called Ashtoret after a Phoenician goddess that was identified with the Greek <a href="/wiki/Asteria" title="Asteria">Asteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deity Asteria was the city goddess as learnt from coins uncovered in the city, and was the mother goddess of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> god <a href="/wiki/Melqart" title="Melqart">Melqart</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> who was later identified with the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Asteria and her son Hercules had a special cult in the city, indicating that Philadelphia and Tyre were linked together by cult and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Settlers were accustomed to take their gods with them to their new cities, leading to the theory that Ptolemy II used the Hellenized inhabitants of Tyre to form the population of Philadelphia, which is supported by evidence of Phoenician inhabitance in cities of the southern Levant including Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of information about when these settlers came limits the ability to form conclusions on whether they had arrived with or before Ptolemy II's founding of Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-THSS_4-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_period">Byzantine period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Byzantine period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_churches_in_Amman" title="List of Byzantine churches in Amman">List of Byzantine churches in Amman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_(Darat_Al_Funun).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg/220px-Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg/330px-Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg/440px-Ruins_of_6th_Century_Byzantine_Church_%28Darat_Al_Funun%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1667" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of a Byzantine church located on the slopes of <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Luweibdeh" title="Jabal al-Luweibdeh">Jabal Luweibdeh</a>, which overlooks the Amman valley</figcaption></figure> <p>Christianity had already reached east of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>, particularly the cities of the Decapolis, with the preachings of <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> in the early first century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christians communities had also existed in the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a> region, such as the Jerusalemites who had <a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Pella" title="Flight to Pella">fled</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pella,_Jordan" title="Pella, Jordan">Pella</a> in the late first century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But there is no evidence of early Christianity in Philadelphia during the first three centuries AD. <sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the fourth century AD, evidence for Christianity in the city appears in martyrdom stories.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 5 August 303 AD, six Christian friends who met for private worship in an unidentified city in Arabia were transported to Philadelphia and executed there on orders of the governor Maximus in an episode of what became known as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christians_martyred_during_the_reign_of_Diocletian" title="List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian">Diocletian persecution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another narrative cites the killing of two native Philadelphian Christians by Maximus in June 304 AD, as well as the killing of Saint Elianus in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Byzantine buildings in Amman have been identified as churches, including two in the valley, one near the Nymphaeum, and another near the main colonnaded street,<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a sixth century church was found atop the Citadel Hill.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other churches found within the city's territory include a sixth-century structure uncovered in <a href="/wiki/Sweifieh" title="Sweifieh">Sweifieh</a> and a Roman temple-turned church at <a href="/wiki/Kherbet_Al-Souk,_Jawa_and_Yadoudah_area" title="Kherbet Al-Souk, Jawa and Yadoudah area">Kherbet Al-Souq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sixth-century churches have also been uncovered in <a href="/wiki/Jubeiha_area" title="Jubeiha area">Jubeiha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Yadudah,_Jordan" title="Al-Yadudah, Jordan">Yadudah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Luweibdeh" title="Jabal al-Luweibdeh">Luweibdeh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GUSP_8-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Rabbath Ammon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seil_Amman" title="Seil Amman">Seil Amman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amman_Citadel" title="Amman Citadel">Amman Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downtown_Amman" title="Downtown Amman">Downtown Amman</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(Amman)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-doa1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-doa1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdnan_Hadidi" class="citation web cs1">Adnan Hadidi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/19/SHAJ_4-295-298.pdf">"Amman-Philadelphia: Aspects of Roman Urbanism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Jordanian Department of Antiquities<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amman-Philadelphia%3A+Aspects+of+Roman+Urbanism&rft.pub=Jordanian+Department+of+Antiquities&rft.au=Adnan+Hadidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublication.doa.gov.jo%2Fuploads%2Fpublications%2F19%2FSHAJ_4-295-298.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SIRE-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SIRE_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SIRE_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SIRE_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_D._Grainger2017" class="citation book cs1">John D. Grainger (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6QzDwAAQBAJ"><i>Syrian Influences in the Roman Empire to AD 300</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-62868-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-62868-6"><bdi>978-1-351-62868-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syrian+Influences+in+the+Roman+Empire+to+AD+300&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-62868-6&rft.au=John+D.+Grainger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS6QzDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholia on Theocritus 17.128; Pausanias 1.7.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-THSS-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-THSS_4-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_Getzel_M.2006" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Getzel M. (3 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC&pg=PA268"><i>The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 268-269. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93102-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93102-2"><bdi>978-0-520-93102-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160521211950/https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC&pg=PA268">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hellenistic+Settlements+in+Syria%2C+the+Red+Sea+Basin%2C+and+North+Africa&rft.pages=268-269&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006-10-03&rft.isbn=978-0-520-93102-2&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Getzel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRqdPcxuNthcC%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-COCW-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-COCW_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColin_McEvdy2011" class="citation book cs1">Colin McEvdy (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VZowqTafiacC"><i>Cities of the Classical World</i></a>. Penguin. p. 62-63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196763-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196763-9"><bdi>978-0-14-196763-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cities+of+the+Classical+World&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-14-196763-9&rft.au=Colin+McEvdy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVZowqTafiacC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RITE-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RITE_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWarwick_Ball2016" class="citation book cs1">Warwick Ball (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=07pTDAAAQBAJ"><i>Rome in the East</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 4-17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29634-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29634-8"><bdi>978-1-317-29634-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+East&rft.pages=4-17&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-29634-8&rft.au=Warwick+Ball&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D07pTDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_D._Grainger2022" class="citation book cs1">John D. Grainger (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysSAEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Ptolemies, Rise of a Dynasty</i></a>. Pen and Sword Books. p. 165-166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3990-9025-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3990-9025-4"><bdi>978-1-3990-9025-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ptolemies%2C+Rise+of+a+Dynasty&rft.pages=165-166&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-3990-9025-4&rft.au=John+D.+Grainger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DysSAEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GUSP-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-48"><sup><i><b>aw</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-49"><sup><i><b>ax</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-50"><sup><i><b>ay</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-51"><sup><i><b>az</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-52"><sup><i><b>ba</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-53"><sup><i><b>bb</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-54"><sup><i><b>bc</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-55"><sup><i><b>bd</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-56"><sup><i><b>be</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-57"><sup><i><b>bf</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-58"><sup><i><b>bg</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-59"><sup><i><b>bh</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-60"><sup><i><b>bi</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-61"><sup><i><b>bj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-62"><sup><i><b>bk</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-63"><sup><i><b>bl</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-64"><sup><i><b>bm</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-65"><sup><i><b>bn</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-66"><sup><i><b>bo</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-67"><sup><i><b>bp</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-68"><sup><i><b>bq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-69"><sup><i><b>br</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-70"><sup><i><b>bs</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUSP_8-71"><sup><i><b>bt</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Innes_MacAdam2017" class="citation book cs1">Henry Innes MacAdam (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2lI8DwAAQBAJ"><i>Geography, Urbanisation and Settlement Patterns in the Roman Near East</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 1-61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-72818-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-72818-8"><bdi>978-1-351-72818-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography%2C+Urbanisation+and+Settlement+Patterns+in+the+Roman+Near+East&rft.pages=1-61&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-72818-8&rft.au=Henry+Innes+MacAdam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2lI8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OCCS-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OCCS_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRuss_Burns2017" class="citation book cs1">Russ Burns (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cygmDwAAQBAJ"><i>Origins of the Colonnaded Streets in the Cities of the Roman East</i></a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-108746-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-108746-2"><bdi>978-0-19-108746-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Colonnaded+Streets+in+the+Cities+of+the+Roman+East&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-108746-2&rft.au=Russ+Burns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcygmDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc1TEAAAQBAJ"><i>A Companion to the Hellenistic and Roman Near East</i></a>. Wiley. 2022. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3982-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3982-6"><bdi>978-1-4443-3982-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Hellenistic+and+Roman+Near+East&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3982-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWc1TEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RTAF-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RTAF_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid_F._Graf2019" class="citation book cs1">David F. Graf (24 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4mUDwAAQBAJ"><i>Rome and the Arabian Frontier</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78455-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78455-2"><bdi>978-0-429-78455-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabian+Frontier&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2019-04-24&rft.isbn=978-0-429-78455-2&rft.au=David+F.+Graf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4mUDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEhud_Netzer2008" class="citation book cs1">Ehud Netzer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DbEFv2BBsCgC"><i>Architecture of Herod, the Great Builder</i></a>. Baker Publishing Groupd. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3612-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3612-5"><bdi>978-0-8010-3612-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+Herod%2C+the+Great+Builder&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Baker+Publishing+Groupd&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-3612-5&rft.au=Ehud+Netzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDbEFv2BBsCgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stj7EAAAQBAJ"><i>Josephus, the Bible and History</i></a>. Brill. 2023. p. 243<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Josephus%2C+the+Bible+and+History&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dstj7EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhiladelphia+%28Amman%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TROIA-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TROIA_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TROIA_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TROIA_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TROIA_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFawzi_Zayadin2000" class="citation book cs1">Fawzi Zayadin (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xTPdBAAAQBA"><i>The Umayyads: The Rise of Islamic Art</i></a>. 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