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cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--star"></span> <span>Watch</span> </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the architectural feature, see <a href="/wiki/Water_table_(architecture)" title="Water table (architecture)">Water table (architecture)</a>.</div> <p>The <b>water table</b> is the upper surface of the <a href="/wiki/Phreatic_zone" title="Phreatic zone">phreatic zone</a> or zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores and fractures of the ground are saturated with <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which may be fresh, saline, or brackish, depending on the locality. It can also be simply explained as the depth below which the ground is saturated. The portion above the water table is the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a>. It may be visualized as the "surface" of the subsurface materials that are saturated with groundwater in a given vicinity.<sup id="cite_ref-groundwater_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-groundwater-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_table.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Water_table.svg/350px-Water_table.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Water_table.svg/525px-Water_table.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Water_table.svg/700px-Water_table.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="180"></a><figcaption>Cross section showing the water table varying with surface topography as well as a perched water table</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vadose_zone.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Vadose_zone.gif/250px-Vadose_zone.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Vadose_zone.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="243"></a><figcaption>Cross-section of a hillslope depicting the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a>, water table, and the <a href="/wiki/Phreatic" title="Phreatic">phreatic</a> or saturated zone. <i>(Source: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>.)</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In coarse soils, the water table settles at the surface where the water <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_head" title="Hydraulic head">pressure head</a> is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> (where gauge pressure = 0). In soils where <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a> is strong, the water table is pulled upward, forming a <a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a>. </p><p>The groundwater may be from <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> or from more distant groundwater flowing into the aquifer. In areas with sufficient precipitation, water infiltrates through pore spaces in the soil, passing through the unsaturated zone. At increasing depths, water fills in more of the pore spaces in the soils, until a zone of saturation is reached. Below the water table, in the zone of saturation, layers of permeable rock that yield groundwater are called <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>. In less permeable soils, such as tight bedrock formations and historic lakebed deposits, the water table may be more difficult to define. </p><p>“Water table” and “<a href="/wiki/Water_level" title="Water level">water level</a>” are not synonymous. If a deeper aquifer has a lower permeable unit that confines the upward flow, then the water level in this aquifer may rise to a level that is greater or less than the elevation of the actual water table. The elevation of the water in this deeper well is dependent upon the pressure in the deeper aquifer and is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Potentiometric_surface" title="Potentiometric surface">potentiometric surface</a>, not the water table.<sup id="cite_ref-groundwater_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-groundwater-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Formation"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Formation</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Surface_topography"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Surface topography</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Perched_water_tables"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Perched water tables</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Fluctuations"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Fluctuations</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Tidal"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Tidal</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Seasonal"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Seasonal</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Long-term"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Long-term</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Effects_on_crop_yield"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Effects on crop yield</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Effects_on_construction"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Effects on construction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Formation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>The water table may vary due to seasonal changes such as <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>. In undeveloped regions with permeable soils that receive sufficient amounts of precipitation, the water table typically slopes toward rivers that act to drain the groundwater away and release the pressure in the aquifer. <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a> occur when the water table reaches the surface. Groundwater entering rivers and lakes accounts for the base-flow water levels in water bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_topography">Surface topography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Surface topography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Within an aquifer, the water table is rarely horizontal, but reflects the surface relief due to the capillary effect (<a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Porous_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous media">porous media</a>. In the aquifer, groundwater flows from points of higher pressure to points of lower pressure, and the direction of groundwater flow typically has both a horizontal and a vertical component. The slope of the water table is known as the “hydraulic gradient”, which depends on the rate at which water is added to and removed from the aquifer and the permeability of the material. The water table does not always mimic the topography due to variations in the underlying geological structure (e.g., folded, faulted, fractured bedrock). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perched_water_tables">Perched water tables</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Perched water tables" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water table. This occurs when there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (<a href="/wiki/Aquiclude" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquiclude">aquiclude</a>) or relatively impermeable layer (<a href="/wiki/Aquitard" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitard">aquitard</a>) above the main water table/aquifer but below the land surface. If a perched aquifer's flow intersects the surface, at a valley wall, for example, the water is discharged as a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">spring</a>. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Fluctuations">Fluctuations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fluctuations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg/350px-Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="180"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 180px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg/350px-Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg/525px-Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg/700px-Water_table-season_fluctuation.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Seasonal fluctuations in the water table may cause river beds to dry up during the dry season</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tidal">Tidal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tidal" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>On low-lying <a href="/wiki/Island#Oceanic_islands" title="Island">oceanic islands</a> with porous soil, <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> tends to collect in <a href="/wiki/Lens_(geology)" title="Lens (geology)">lenticular</a> pools on top of the denser <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> intruding from the sides of the islands. Such an island's freshwater lens, and thus the water table, rises and falls with the tides. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seasonal">Seasonal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Seasonal" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>In some regions, for example, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> or <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> is often higher than <a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">summer</a> precipitation and so the groundwater storage is not fully recharged in summer. Consequently, the water table is lower during the summer. This disparity between the level of the winter and summer water table is known as the "zone of intermittent saturation", wherein the water table will fluctuate in response to climatic conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term">Long-term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Long-term" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">Fossil water</a> is groundwater that has remained in an aquifer for several millennia and occurs mainly in <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>. It is non-renewable by present-day <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a> due to its depth below the surface, and any extraction causes a permanent change in the water table in such regions. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Effects_on_crop_yield">Effects on crop yield</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effects on crop yield" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rudd_PartReg.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Rudd_PartReg.png/310px-Rudd_PartReg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="465"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 310px;height: 231px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Rudd_PartReg.png/310px-Rudd_PartReg.png" data-width="310" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Rudd_PartReg.png/465px-Rudd_PartReg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Rudd_PartReg.png/620px-Rudd_PartReg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>A plot of sugarcane yield versus depth of water table in Australia. The critical depth is 0.6 m.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most crops need a water table at a minimum depth.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For some important food and fiber crops a classification was made<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because at shallower depths the crop suffers a yield decline.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Crop and location</th> <th>DWT tolerance</th> <th>Classification</th> <th>Explanation </th></tr> <tr> <td>Wheat, Nile Delta, Egypt</td> <td>45</td> <td>Very tolerant</td> <td>Resists shallow water tables </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sugar cane, Australia</td> <td>60</td> <td>Tolerant</td> <td>The water table should be deeper than 60 cm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Banana, Surinam</td> <td>70</td> <td>Slightly sensitive</td> <td>Yield declines at water tables < 70 cm deep </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cotton, Nile Delta</td> <td>90</td> <td>Sensitive</td> <td>Cotton needs dry feet, water table should be deep </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>(where DWT = depth to water table in centimetres)</dd></dl> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Effects_on_construction">Effects on construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Effects on construction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg/220px-Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4207" data-file-height="3096"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 162px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg/220px-Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg/330px-Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg/440px-Elvis_in_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Blue pipes to remove groundwater in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A water table close to the surface affects excavation, drainage, foundations, wells and leach fields (in areas without municipal water and sanitation), and more. </p><p>When excavation occurs near enough to the water table to reach its capillary action, groundwater must be removed during construction. This is conspicuous in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, which is built on sandy, marshy ground, and the water table is generally 2 meters below the surface. Pink and blue pipes can often be seen carrying groundwater from construction sites into the <a href="/wiki/Spree_(river)" title="Spree (river)">Spree</a> river (or canals).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artesian_aquifer" class="mw-redirect" title="Artesian aquifer">Artesian aquifer</a> – Confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">Groundwater recharge</a> – Groundwater that recharges an aquifer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a> – Study of the distribution and movement of groundwater</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">Watertable control</a> – Use of drainage to control the groundwater level in an area</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Water_table&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imnh.isu.edu/digitalatlas/hydr/concepts/gwater/wattable.htm">"What is the Water Table?"</a>. <i>imnh.isu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-11-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=imnh.isu.edu&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Water+Table%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimnh.isu.edu%2Fdigitalatlas%2Fhydr%2Fconcepts%2Fgwater%2Fwattable.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+table" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-groundwater-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-groundwater_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-groundwater_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreezeCherry1979" class="citation book cs1">Freeze, R. Allan; Cherry, John A. (1979). <i>Groundwater</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780133653120" title="Special:BookSources/9780133653120"><bdi>9780133653120</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/252025686">252025686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundwater&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F252025686&rft.isbn=9780133653120&rft.aulast=Freeze&rft.aufirst=R.+Allan&rft.au=Cherry%2C+John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+table" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinterHarvey1998" class="citation web cs1">Winter, Thomas C; Harvey, Judson W (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/pdf/part1bb.pdf">"Ground Water and Surface Water A Single Resource - U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1139"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ground+Water+and+Surface+Water+A+Single+Resource+-+U.S.+Geological+Survey+Circular+1139&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C&rft.au=Harvey%2C+Judson+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fcirc%2Fcirc1139%2Fpdf%2Fpart1bb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+table" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rudd, A.V. and C.W Chardon 1977. <i>The effects of drainage on cane yields as measured by water table height in the Machnade Mill area.</i> In: Proceedings of the 44th Conference of the Queensland Society of Sugar Cane Technology, Australia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waterlog.info/partreg.htm">Software for partial regression with horizontal segment</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Crop Yield versus Depth of the Ground Water Table, Statistical Analysis of Data Measured in Farm Lands Aiming at the Formulation of Drainage Needs.</i> International Journal of Agricultural Science, 6, 174–187. Online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.iaras.org/iaras/filedownloads/ijas/2021/014-0023(2021).pdf">[1]</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/Crop%20yield%20and%20depth%20of%20water%20table.pdf">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nijland, H.J. and S. El Guindy 1984.<i>Crop yields, soil salinity and water table depth in the Nile Delta</i>. In: ILRI Annual Report 1983, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 19–29. Online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/egypt.pdf">[3]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K.J.Lenselink et al. <i>Crop tolerance to shallow water tables</i>. Online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.waterlog.info/cropwat.htm">[4]</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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