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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ziggurats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ziggurats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ziggurats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ziggurats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landscape_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landscape_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Landscape architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landscape_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Mesopotamia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiya_memarl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Mesopotamiya memarlığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mesopotamiya memarlığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_de_Mesopot%C3%A0mia" title="Arquitectura de Mesopotàmia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arquitectura de Mesopotàmia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architektur_Mesopotamiens" title="Architektur Mesopotamiens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Architektur Mesopotamiens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_de_Mesopotamia" title="Arquitectura de Mesopotamia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arquitectura de Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkitekturo_de_Mezopotamio" title="Arkitekturo de Mezopotamio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Arkitekturo de Mezopotamio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="معماری میان‌رودان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معماری میان‌رودان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%94%EC%86%8C%ED%8F%AC%ED%83%80%EB%AF%B8%EC%95%84_%EA%B1%B4%EC%B6%95" title="메소포타미아 건축 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="메소포타미아 건축" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architettura_mesopotamica" title="Architettura mesopotamica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Architettura mesopotamica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arhitektura_Mezopotamije" title="Arhitektura Mezopotamije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Arhitektura Mezopotamije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Месопотамијска архитектура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Месопотамијска архитектура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li 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searchaux" style="display:none">Western Asian architectural style</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Architecture of Mesopotamia civilization</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid #AAAAAA;width:240px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:1px 0 0 1px"><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Gate_of_Nimrud_(Metropolitan_Museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg/240px-The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg/360px-The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg/480px-The_Gate_of_Nimrud_%28Metropolitan_Museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2242" data-file-height="1665" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg/240px-Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg/360px-Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg/480px-Ziggurat_of_UrInbound1427286134917083377.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="806" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/240px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="240" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="infobox-caption">Top: <a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">Lamassu</a> from The Gate of <a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, approximately 1350 BC; <br /> Centre: The <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat_of_Ur" title="Ziggurat of Ur">Ziggurat of Ur</a>, approximately 21st century BC; <br /> Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(architecture)" title="Reconstruction (architecture)">Reconstruction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, approximately 575 BC in the Pergamon Museum</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data">10th millennium-6th century BC</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b> architecture of Mesopotamia</b> is ancient architecture of the region of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>–<a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> river system (also known as <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>), encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th millennium BC (when the first permanent structures were built) to the 6th century BC. Among the Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are the development of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Courtyard_house" title="Courtyard house">courtyard house</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurats</a>. Scribes had the role of architects in drafting and managing construction for the government, nobility, or royalty. </p><p>The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. According to <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a>, the primitive pictographs of the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples, and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seemed to have been double. ... <a href="/wiki/Demon" title="Demon">Demons</a> were feared who had wings like a bird, and the foundation stones – or rather bricks – of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them."<sup id="cite_ref-Sayce_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sayce-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Building_materials">Building materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Building materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Anu/White Temple ziggurat</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk,_3500-3000_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/288px-White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/432px-White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/576px-White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2202" data-file-height="1088" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:170px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/288px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/432px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/576px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Anu/White Temple <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a> at <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat" dates to the <a href="/wiki/Sumerians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerians">Sumerians</a> around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> was sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Patzen 80×40×15 cm: Late <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (3600–3200 BC)</li> <li>Riemchen 16×16 cm: Late <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (3600–3200 BC)</li> <li>Plano-convex 10x19x34 cm: <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_which_is_called_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period which is called Sumer">Early Dynastic Period</a> (3100–2300 BC)</li></ul> <p>The favoured design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable, so Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages of plano-convex bricks were the speed of manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better than a smooth surface from other brick types. </p><p>Bricks were sun baked to harden them. These types of bricks are much less durable than oven-baked ones so buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resulting mounds are known as <a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">tells</a>, and are found throughout the ancient Near East. Civic buildings slowed decay by using cones of coloured stone, terracotta panels, and <a href="/wiki/Clay_nail" title="Clay nail">clay nails</a> driven into the adobe-brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade. Specially prized were imported <a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">building materials</a> such as cedar from <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">diorite</a> from <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. </p><p>Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the <a href="/wiki/Pilaster" title="Pilaster">pilaster</a> and column, and of <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a> and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building material of the country – faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in the marshy soil of Babylonia, but little needed in the north. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decoration">Decoration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Decoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a>. Three stages may be traced in the art of these <i>bas-reliefs</i>: it is vigorous but simple under <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a>, careful and realistic under <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a>, and refined but wanting in boldness under <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>. </p><p>In Babylonia, in place of the bas relief, there is greater use of three-dimensional figures in the round – the earliest examples being the statues from <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a>, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. Two seal-cylinders from the age of <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> are among the best examples of their kind. One of the first remarkable specimens of early <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> to be discovered by archaeologists is the silver vase of <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a>. At a later epoch, great excellence was attained in the manufacture of such jewellery as earrings and bracelets of gold. Copper, too, was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia was the original home of copper-working. </p><p>The people were famous at an early date for their embroideries and rugs. The forms of Assyrian pottery are graceful; the porcelain, like the glass discovered in the palaces of <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, was derived from Egyptian models. Transparent glass seems to have been first introduced in the reign of Sargon. Stone, clay and glass were used to make vases, and vases of hard stone have been dug up at Girsu similar to those of the early dynastic period of Egypt. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg/600px-Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg/900px-Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg/1200px-Symbolic_scene_-_king_Ashurnasirpal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="1900" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurnasirpal's</a> throneroom relief showing <a href="/wiki/Ashur_(god)" title="Ashur (god)">Ashur</a> hovering above the tree of life.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban_planning">Urban planning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Urban planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban history</a></div> <p>The Sumerians were the first society to conceive and construct the city as a <i>planned</i> construct. That they were proud of this achievement is attested to in the <i><a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i> which opens with a description of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>—its massive walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens. Uruk became the template of an urban culture which spread throughout Western Asia via colonization and conquest, and more generally as societies became larger and more sophisticated. </p><p>The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>. The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text source The typical city divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential areas were grouped by profession.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited slightly off of the geographical centre. This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and was the nucleus around which the urban form grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special religious and economic function. </p><p>The city always included a belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads and canals connected the city to this land. The transportation network was organized in three tiers: wide processional streets (Akkadian:<i>sūqu ilāni u šarri</i>), public through streets (Akkadian:<i>sūqu nišī</i>), and private blind alleys (Akkadian:<i>mūṣû</i>). The public streets that defined a block varied little over time while the blind-alleys were much more fluid. The current estimate is 10% of the city area was streets and 90% buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce,_T._(2009)._The_Routledge_handbook_of_the_peoples_and_places_of_ancient_Western_Asia_:_the_near_East_from_the_early_Bronze_Age_to_the_fall_of_the_Persian_Empire._London:_Routledge._6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce,_T._(2009)._The_Routledge_handbook_of_the_peoples_and_places_of_ancient_Western_Asia_:_the_near_East_from_the_early_Bronze_Age_to_the_fall_of_the_Persian_Empire._London:_Routledge.-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The canals; however, were more important than roads for good transportation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Houses">Houses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Houses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG/307px-Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG" decoding="async" width="307" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG/461px-Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG/614px-Mesopotamian_spirit_house_1_REM.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1696" data-file-height="1622" /></a><figcaption>Terracotta model of a house from <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, 2600 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Rosicrucian_Egyptian_Museum" title="Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum">Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Jose,_California" title="San Jose, California">San Jose</a>, California</figcaption></figure> <p>The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were similar but not exact as those used today: <a href="/wiki/Reed_(plant)" title="Reed (plant)">reeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a>, wood, <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a>, mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although wood was not common in some cities of Sumer. Although most houses were made of <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a>, mudplaster, and <a href="/wiki/Populus_alba" title="Populus alba">poplar</a>. Houses could be tripartite, round, or rectangular. Houses had long-roofed central hallways, courtyards, and storeys. Most houses had a square centre room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Houses could have shops, workshops, storage rooms, and livestock in them. </p><p>Residential design was a direct development from <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_house" title="Ubaid house">Ubaid houses</a>. Although Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seals</a> depict <a href="/wiki/Mudhif" title="Mudhif">reed houses</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Courtyard_house" title="Courtyard house">courtyard house</a> was the predominant typology, which has been used in Mesopotamia to the present day. This house called <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">é</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a>: <span style="font-size:125%;font-family: lang=">𒂍</span>, <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">E₂</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>: <span title="Sumerian-language romanization"><i lang="sux-Latn">e₂</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>: <span title="Akkadian-language romanization"><i lang="akk-Latn">bītu</i></span>) faced inward toward an open courtyard which provided a cooling effect by creating convection currents. This courtyard called <i>tarbaṣu</i> (Akkadian) was the primary organizing feature of the house, all the rooms opened into it. The external walls were featureless with only a single opening connecting the house to the street, movement between the house and street required a 90° turn through a small antechamber. From the street only the rear wall of the antechamber would be visible through an open door, likewise there was no view of the street from the courtyard; this is because the Sumerians had a strict division of public and private spaces. The typical size for a Sumerian house was 90 m<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryce,_T._(2009)._The_Routledge_handbook_of_the_peoples_and_places_of_ancient_Western_Asia_:_the_near_East_from_the_early_Bronze_Age_to_the_fall_of_the_Persian_Empire._London:_Routledge._6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryce,_T._(2009)._The_Routledge_handbook_of_the_peoples_and_places_of_ancient_Western_Asia_:_the_near_East_from_the_early_Bronze_Age_to_the_fall_of_the_Persian_Empire._London:_Routledge.-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction">Construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Simple houses could be constructed out of bundles of reeds which would be tied together, and then inserted into the ground. More complex houses were constructed on stone <a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">foundations</a>, with the house being made out of mudbrick.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wood, ashlar blocks, and rubble were also popular materials used to make houses.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mudbrick was made from clay and chopped straw. This mixture was packed into molds and then left in the sun to dry. They used <a href="/wiki/Earthen_plaster" title="Earthen plaster">mud plaster</a> for the walls, and mud and poplar for the roof. In the Ubaid period houses would be <a href="/wiki/Fire_clay" title="Fire clay">fire clay</a> pressed into the walls. Walls would also have artwork painted on them. Roofs could also be made planks of palm tree wood which would be covered in reeds. The top of the roof would be connected to the house through brick or wood stairs. Baked bricks were very expensive, and thus they were only used to make luxurious buildings. Doors and door frames were made from wood.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes Doors were made from ox-hide. Doors between houses were often so low, that people needed to crouch to walk though them. Houses would usually have no windows, if they did it would be made of clay or wooden grilles. Floors would usually be made of dirt. Mesopotamian houses would often crumble. Houses needed to be repaired often.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design">Design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eridu_temple_7.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Eridu_temple_7.png/220px-Eridu_temple_7.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Eridu_temple_7.png/330px-Eridu_temple_7.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Eridu_temple_7.png/440px-Eridu_temple_7.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1046" /></a><figcaption>Large buildings, implying centralized government, started to be made. <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a> Temple, final Ubaid.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a> houses would be tripartite homes. They had a long roofed central hallway that smaller connected to on either of its sides. It is possible that the central hallway was used for dining and communal activities. There was variety in Ubaid houses. Some houses contained richer artifact assemblage than other houses. Ubaid houses could also be interconnect with other houses. The architecture of Ubaid houses is indistinguishable from Ubaid Temples.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> houses had various shapes. Some houses were rectangular, others were round. Some houses in Mesopotamia had only one room, while others had many rooms. Occasionally some of these rooms would serve as basements. In the <a href="/wiki/4th_millennium_BC" title="4th millennium BC">3000's BCE</a>, courtyards were introduced to Mesopotamia. Courtyards would become the basis for Mesopotamian architecture. These court yards would be surrounded by thick walled halls.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These halls were probably reception rooms for guests. It is likely that most houses had an upper storey. The upper storey might have been used dining, sleeping, and entertaining, and might have also housed the bedrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People would plant vegetables or perform religious rituals on their roofs.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ground floors would be used to for shops, workshops, storage, and livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One room was usually a <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">sanctuary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Furniture">Furniture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Furniture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_furniture#Mesopotamia" title="Ancient furniture">Ancient furniture § Mesopotamia</a></div> <p>In ancient Sumer, houses contained elaborately decorated stools, chairs, jars, and bathtubs. Wealthier citizens had toilets and <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">proper drainage systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible some houses had altars in the center of the houses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These altars could have been dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">gods</a>, but they could have been dedicated to important people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palaces">Palaces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Palaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard,_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/220px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/330px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg/440px-Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_hall_in_an_Assyrian_palace_from_The_Monuments_of_Nineveh_by_Sir_Austen_Henry_Layard%2C_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from <i>The Monuments of Nineveh</i> by <a href="/wiki/Austen_Henry_Layard" title="Austen Henry Layard">Austen Henry Layard</a>, 1853</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> came into existence during the Early Dynastic I period. From a rather modest beginning the palace grows in size and complexity as power is increasingly centralized. The palace is called a 'Big House' (Cuneiform: <sup>E₂</sup>.GAL Sumerian e₂-gal Akkdian: <i>ekallu</i>) where the <a href="/wiki/Lugal" title="Lugal">lugal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensí">ensi</a> lived and worked. </p><p>The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large-scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest known examples are from the <a href="/wiki/Diyala_River" title="Diyala River">Diyala River</a> valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as large-scale socio-economic institutions, and therefore, along with residential and private functions, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and are often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Giparu" title="Giparu">giparu</a>" (Sumerian: <sup>e₂</sup>gi₆-par₄-ku₃) at Ur where the Moon god <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Nanna</a>'s priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, and a ceremonial banquet hall. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, dating from the <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">Old Babylonian</a> period. </p><p>Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/<a href="/wiki/Nimrud" title="Nimrud">Nimrud</a>, Dur Sharrukin/<a href="/wiki/Khorsabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorsabad">Khorsabad</a> and Ninuwa/<a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, have become famous due to the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_palace_reliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian palace reliefs">Assyrian palace reliefs</a>, extensive pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as <a href="/wiki/Orthostat" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthostat">orthostats</a>. These pictorial programs incorporated either cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculptures of apotropaic mythological figures, <i><a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">lamassu</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Winged_genie" title="Winged genie">winged genies</a>. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throne room opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met and state ceremonies were performed. </p><p>Massive amounts of <a href="/wiki/Nimrud_Ivories" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimrud Ivories">ivory furniture pieces</a> were found in some Assyrian palaces pointing to an intense trade relationship with North Syrian <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a> states at the time. Bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates of major buildings, but were mostly looted at the fall of the empire; the <a href="/wiki/Balawat_Gates" title="Balawat Gates">Balawat Gates</a> are the principal survivors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temples">Temples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Temples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">É (temple)</a></div> <p>Temples often predated the creation of the urban settlement and grew from small one room structures to elaborate multiacre complexes across the 2,500 years of Sumerian history. Sumerian temples, fortifications, and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/recess" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:recess">recesses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">half columns</a>. Chronologically, Sumerian temples evolved from earlier <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a> temples. As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations. The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple. The evolution of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">E₂.abzu</a> temple at <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a> is a frequently cited case-study of this process. Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at <a href="/wiki/Tell_Uqair" title="Tell Uqair">Tell Uqair</a>. Palaces and city walls came much later after temples in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period of Sumer">Early Dynastic Period</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Street_in_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/220px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/330px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Street_in_Babylon.jpg/440px-Street_in_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A partial view of the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The form of a Sumerian temple is manifestation of Near Eastern <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, which described the world as a disc of land which was surrounded by a salt water ocean, both of which floated on another sea of fresh water called <a href="/wiki/Apsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Apsu">apsu</a>, above them was a hemispherical firmament which regulated time. A world mountain formed an <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a> that joined all three layers. The role of the temple was to act as that axis mundi, a meeting place between gods and men.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sacredness of 'high places' as a meeting point between realms is a pre-Ubaid belief well attested in the Near East back the Neolithic age. The plan of the temple was rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the four rivers which flow from the mountain to the four world regions. The orientation also serves a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for Sumerian timekeeping. The temple was built on a low terrace of <a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">rammed earth</a> meant to represent the sacred mound of primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, 'pure mound' (Sumerian: du₆-ku₃ Cuneiform:) during creation. </p><p>The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the gods, and the doors of the short axis the entry point for men. This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall. </p><p>The bent axis approach is an innovation from the Ubaid temples which had a linear axis approach, and is also a feature of Sumerian houses. An offering table was located in the centre of the temple at the intersection of the axes. </p><p>Temples of the Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T-shaped, or combined plans. The tripartite plan inherited from the Ubaid had a large central hall with two smaller flanking halls on either side. The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long axis. The T-shaped plan, also from the Ubaid period, was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the rectangle perpendicular to the main hall. Temple C from the Eanna district of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> is a case-study of classical temple form. </p><p>There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during the following Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features such as cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses. Now however they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks. The <a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">Sin Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khafajah" title="Khafajah">Khafajah</a> is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a <a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>. </p><p>The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron god of the city. Functionally, it served as a storage and distribution centre as well as housing the priesthood. The <a href="/wiki/%C3%89_(temple)" title="É (temple)">White Temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">Anu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> is typical of a high temple which was built very high on a platform of adobe-brick. In the Early Dynastic period high temples began to include a <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat</a>, a series of platforms creating a stepped pyramid. Such ziggurats may have been the inspiration for the Biblical <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ziggurats">Ziggurats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ziggurats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/220px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/330px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg/440px-20160105-Abraham_house_in_Ur_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>The alleged <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> house in <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg/220px-Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg/330px-Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg/440px-Reconstructed_Babylon_-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Partially reconstructed facade and access staircase of the <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat_of_Ur" title="Ziggurat of Ur">Ziggurat of Ur</a>, originally built by <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a>, circa 2100 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurats</a> were huge pyramidal temple towers which were first built in Sumerian City-States and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well. There are 32 ziggurats known at, or near, Mesopotamia—28 in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and 4 in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. Notable ziggurats include the <a href="/wiki/Great_Ziggurat_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ziggurat of Ur">Great Ziggurat of Ur</a> near <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a>, Iraq, the <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat_of_Aqar_Quf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ziggurat of Aqar Quf">Ziggurat of Aqar Quf</a> near <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Chogha_Zanbil" title="Chogha Zanbil">Chogha Zanbil</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kh%C5%ABzest%C4%81n_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khūzestān Province">Khūzestān</a>, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the <a href="/wiki/Tappeh_Sialk" class="mw-redirect" title="Tappeh Sialk">Sialk</a> near <a href="/wiki/Kashan" title="Kashan">Kashan</a>, Iran. Ziggurats were built by the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a><sup id="cite_ref-Crawford,_page_73_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crawford,_page_73-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the fourth <a href="/wiki/Millennium" title="Millennium">millennium</a> BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramidal</a> structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colours and may have had <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis. </p><p>Classical ziggurats emerged in the Neo-Sumerian Period with articulated buttresses, vitreous brick sheathing, and <a href="/wiki/Entasis" title="Entasis">entasis</a> in the elevation. The Ziggurat of Ur is the best example of this style. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to bent-axis approach to the temple. </p><p>Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, but today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually, a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (<a href="/wiki/Leonard_Woolley" title="Leonard Woolley">Leonard Woolley</a>), and crowned by a temple. At the <a href="/wiki/Chogha_Zanbil" title="Chogha Zanbil">Chogha Zanbil</a> ziggurat, archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass. </p><p>The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Sumer#Early_Dynastic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Dynastic Period of Sumer">Early Dynastic</a> period sites in the <a href="/wiki/Diyala_River" title="Diyala River">Diyala River</a> valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> remains at <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> (Sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Enlil" title="Enlil">Enlil</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> (Sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Nanna</a>), Middle <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kultepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kultepe">Kultepe</a>, Late Bronze Age palaces at <a href="/wiki/Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Ashur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuzi" title="Nuzi">Nuzi</a>, Iron Age palaces and temples at <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kalhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalhu">Kalhu</a>/Nimrud, <a href="/wiki/Khorsabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorsabad">Khorsabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>), <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Urartian" class="mw-redirect" title="Urartian">Urartian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tushpa" title="Tushpa">Tushpa</a>/Van, <a href="/wiki/Haykaberd" class="mw-redirect" title="Haykaberd">Haykaberd</a>, Ayanis, <a href="/wiki/Armavir,_Armenia" title="Armavir, Armenia">Armavir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erebuni_Fortress" title="Erebuni Fortress">Erebuni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bastam" title="Bastam">Bastam</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a> sites (<a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Karkamis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karatepe" title="Karatepe">Karatepe</a>). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot,_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy,_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad,_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg/220px-Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg/330px-Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg/440px-Sargon_II_in_his_royal_chariot%2C_tramping_a_dead_or_dying_enemy%2C_part_of_a_war_scene_from_Khorsabad%2C_Iraq._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="3671" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> in his royal chariot, tramping a dead or dying enemy, part of a war scene from <a href="/wiki/Dur-Sharrukin" title="Dur-Sharrukin">Dur-Sharrukin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Museum" title="Iraq Museum">Iraq Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Landscape_architecture">Landscape architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Landscape architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg/220px-Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg/330px-Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg/440px-Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1549" data-file-height="1037" /></a><figcaption>Ruins from a temple ancient <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, said to be the site for the meeting of <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian gods</a>, as well as the place that man was created.</figcaption></figure> <p>Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i> tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: <i>kišubbû</i>). </p><p>External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later <a href="/wiki/Paradise_garden" title="Paradise garden">paradise gardens</a> of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. </p><p>In Mesopotamia, the use of <a href="/wiki/Fountain" title="Fountain">fountains</a> date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> basin, dating back to ca. 3000 B.C., found at <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a>. An ancient Assyrian fountain "discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream." The water was led from small <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">conduits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture of Mesopotamia</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_units_of_measurement" title="Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement">Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">List of cities of the ancient Near East</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Sayce-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sayce_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Sayce, Rev. A. H.</a>, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/archaeologyofcun00sayc/archaeologyofcun00sayc_djvu.txt">"The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions"</a>, Second Edition-revised, 1908, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London, Brighton, New York; at pages 98–100 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofcun00sayc">Not in copyright</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDunham2005" class="citation book cs1">Dunham, Sally (2005). "Ancient Near Eastern architecture". In Daniel Snell (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoancie00snel_442"><i>A Companion to the Ancient Near East</i></a></span>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/companiontoancie00snel_442/page/n286">266</a>–280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23293-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23293-3"><bdi>978-0-631-23293-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+architecture&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=266-280&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23293-3&rft.aulast=Dunham&rft.aufirst=Sally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompaniontoancie00snel_442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrüsemannEssHilgertSalje2019" class="citation book cs1">Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muCvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT325"><i>Uruk: First City of the Ancient World</i></a>. 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(1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/282/5393/1442">"The first cities: Why Settle Down? The Mystery of Communities"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>282</b> (5393): 1442. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.282.5393.1442">10.1126/science.282.5393.1442</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129902105">129902105</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+first+cities%3A+Why+Settle+Down%3F+The+Mystery+of+Communities&rft.volume=282&rft.issue=5393&rft.pages=1442&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.282.5393.1442&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129902105%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Balter&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F282%2F5393%2F1442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Pollock1999" class="citation book cs1">Susan Pollock (1999). <i>Ancient Mesopotamia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Susan+Pollock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2015" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Nick (10 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FXyoDwAAQBAJ&q=Houses+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA32"><i>Daily Life in Ancient Sumer</i></a>. Raintree. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4062-9864-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4062-9864-2"><bdi>978-1-4062-9864-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+Ancient+Sumer&rft.pub=Raintree&rft.date=2015-09-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4062-9864-2&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFXyoDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DHouses%2Bin%2BAncient%2BSumeria%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2018" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joushua J (14 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/">"Mesopotamia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Mesopotamia&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joushua+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FMesopotamia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGates2011" class="citation book cs1">Gates, Charles (21 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nT70dCn-I9kC&q=house"><i>Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82328-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82328-2"><bdi>978-1-136-82328-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Cities%3A+The+Archaeology+of+Urban+Life+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Egypt%2C+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011-03-21&rft.isbn=978-1-136-82328-2&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnT70dCn-I9kC%26q%3Dhouse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemet-Nejat1998" class="citation book cs1">Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lbmXsaTGNKUC&q=Furniture+in+Ancient+Sumer&pg=PA124"><i>Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6"><bdi>978-0-313-29497-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29497-6&rft.aulast=Nemet-Nejat&rft.aufirst=Karen+Rhea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlbmXsaTGNKUC%26q%3DFurniture%2Bin%2BAncient%2BSumer%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2006" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy A. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929633-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929633-0"><bdi>978-0-19-929633-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Literature+of+Ancient+Sumer&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-929633-0&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da1W2mTtGVV4C%26q%3DHouses%2Bin%2BAncient%2BSumeria%26pg%3DPR42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone1987" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Elizabeth C (1987). <i>Nippur Neighborhoods</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-918986-50-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-918986-50-8"><bdi>0-918986-50-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nippur+Neighborhoods.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-918986-50-8&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ur, Jason. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/12490321/Ur%202014%20CAJ%20Households%20and%20the%20Emergence%20of%20Cities.pdf?sequence%3D1">“Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia</a>." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24 (02) (June): 249–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuseumBIENKOWSKI2000" class="citation book cs1">Museum, British; BIENKOWSKI, ed (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KdlhaAfK1sYC&q=Houses+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA148"><i>Dictionary of the Ancient Near East</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3557-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3557-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-3557-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-3557-9&rft.aulast=Museum&rft.aufirst=British&rft.au=BIENKOWSKI%2C+ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKdlhaAfK1sYC%26q%3DHouses%2Bin%2BAncient%2BSumeria%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReade1973" class="citation journal cs1">Reade, J. E. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4199963">"Tell Taya (1972-73): Summary Report"</a>. <i>Iraq</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 155–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4199963">10.2307/4199963</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0889">0021-0889</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4199963">4199963</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129389899">129389899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=Tell+Taya+%281972-73%29%3A+Summary+Report&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-187&rft.date=1973&rft.issn=0021-0889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129389899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4199963%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4199963&rft.aulast=Reade&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4199963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mendenhall, 1983 p205-208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crawford,_page_73-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crawford,_page_73_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford, p. 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford, pp. 73-74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wikipedia, <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/214794/fountain">"fountain"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100502072841/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/214794/fountain">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=fountain&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F214794%2Ffountain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker" class="citation web cs1">Baker, Heather D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utoronto.academia.edu/HeatherDBaker">"Works of Heather D. Baker at the University of Toronto"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Works+of+Heather+D.+Baker+at+the+University+of+Toronto&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Heather+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Futoronto.academia.edu%2FHeatherDBaker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Crawford" title="Harriet Crawford">Crawford, Harriet E. W.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eX8y3yW04n4C"><i>Sumer and the Sumerians</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53338-6"><bdi>978-0-521-53338-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sumer+and+the+Sumerians&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53338-6&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Harriet+E.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeX8y3yW04n4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmansah2007" class="citation web cs1">Harmansah, Ömür (3 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120712123530/http://proteus.brown.edu/mesopotamianarchaeology/699">"The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: Ceremonial centers, urbanization and state formation in Southern Mesopotamia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://proteus.brown.edu/mesopotamianarchaeology/699">the original</a> on 12 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Mesopotamia%3A+Ceremonial+centers%2C+urbanization+and+state+formation+in+Southern+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2007-12-03&rft.aulast=Harmansah&rft.aufirst=%C3%96m%C3%BCr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproteus.brown.edu%2Fmesopotamianarchaeology%2F699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendenhallHerbert_Bardwell_HuffmonFrank_A._SpinaAlberto_Ravinell_Whitney_Green1983" class="citation book cs1">Mendenhall, George; Herbert Bardwell Huffmon; Frank A. Spina; Alberto Ravinell Whitney Green (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SXICfoAHjP4C"><i>The Quest for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-15-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-15-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-15-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+the+Kingdom+of+God%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+George+E.+Mendenhall&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-15-7&rft.aulast=Mendenhall&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Herbert+Bardwell+Huffmon&rft.au=Frank+A.+Spina&rft.au=Alberto+Ravinell+Whitney+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSXICfoAHjP4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_Mesopotamia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwendolyn_LeickHeather_D._Baker2009" class="citation book cs1">Gwendolyn Leick; Heather D. Baker (2 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=akYorRIWPBEC&pg=PA66">"The Urban Form in First Millennium BC Babylonia."</a>. <i>The Babylonian World</i>. Routledge. pp. 66–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-26128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-26128-4"><bdi>978-1-134-26128-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Urban+Form+in+First+Millennium+BC+Babylonia.&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+World&rft.pages=66-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009-06-02&rft.isbn=978-1-134-26128-4&rft.au=Gwendolyn+Leick&rft.au=Heather+D.+Baker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DakYorRIWPBEC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKostof1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Kostof" title="Spiro Kostof">Kostof, Spiro</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3CuRTbgGkIC&q=A+history+of+architecture+:+settings+and+rituals"><i>A history of architecture : settings and rituals</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 792. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508378-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508378-1"><bdi>978-0-19-508378-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+architecture+%3A+settings+and+rituals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=792&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508378-1&rft.aulast=Kostof&rft.aufirst=Spiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3CuRTbgGkIC%26q%3DA%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Barchitecture%2B%3A%2Bsettings%2Band%2Brituals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollock1999" class="citation book cs1">Pollock, Susan (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2TlcUJUiE6sC"><i>Ancient Mesopotamia: The Eden that Never was</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57568-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57568-3"><bdi>978-0-521-57568-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+The+Eden+that+Never+was&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57568-3&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2TlcUJUiE6sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArchitecture+of+Mesopotamia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_architecture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_architecture" title="Template talk:History of architecture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">History of architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_architectural_styles" title="Timeline of architectural styles">Architectural timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">History of construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li>Aegean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization#Architecture" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece#Architecture" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_architecture" title="Herodian architecture">Herodian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Pre-Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Pre-Islamic Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1st_millennium" title="1st millennium">1st millennium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a></li> <li>East Slavic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Architecture of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_church_architecture" title="Russian church architecture">Muscovite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Islamic Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_architecture" title="Medieval Scandinavian architecture">Medieval Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_architecture" title="Carolingian architecture">Carolingian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1000–1500</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_school_(architecture)" title="Galician school (architecture)">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_architecture" title="Ottonian architecture">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_architecture" title="Hoysala architecture">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_architecture" title="Vijayanagara architecture">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_architecture" title="Western Chalukya architecture">Western Chalukya</a></li></ul></li> <li>Islamic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuk_architecture" title="Great Seljuk architecture">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_architecture" title="Timurid architecture">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Gothic" title="Romano-Gothic">Romano-Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sondergotik" title="Sondergotik">Sondergotik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateresque" title="Plateresque">Plateresque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1500–1750</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manueline" title="Manueline">Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_architecture" title="Sikh architecture">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1750–1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Baroque" title="Andean Baroque">Andean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Baroque_architecture" title="Czech Baroque architecture">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Baroque_architecture" title="Dutch Baroque architecture">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="English Baroque">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture" title="French Baroque architecture">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Baroque_architecture" title="Italian Baroque architecture">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Baroque_architecture" title="Maltese Baroque architecture">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrine_Baroque" title="Petrine Baroque">Petrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Baroque" title="Elizabethan Baroque">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naryshkin_Baroque" title="Naryshkin Baroque">Naryshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Baroque architecture in Portugal">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Baroque" title="Siberian Baroque">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Baroque" title="Ukrainian Baroque">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Byzantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Byzantine_architecture_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire">Russo-Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Byzantine_Revival_architecture" title="Serbo-Byzantine Revival architecture">Serbo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Colonial Revival architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Revival_architecture" title="Mediterranean Revival architecture">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Revival_architecture" title="Mission Revival architecture">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumentalism" title="Monumentalism">Monumentalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_Revival_architecture" title="Baroque Revival architecture">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rococo_architecture" title="Rococo architecture">Rococo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Manueline" title="Neo-Manueline">Neo-Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revival_architecture" title="Pueblo Revival architecture">Pueblo</a></li> <li>Queen Anne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Queen_Anne_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="British Queen Anne Revival">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Queen_Anne_Revival_architecture" title="New World Queen Anne Revival architecture">America and Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revival_architecture" title="Romanian Revival architecture">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revival_architecture" title="Russian Revival architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial Revival architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_Revival_architecture" title="Territorial Revival architecture">Territorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Revival_architecture" title="Tudor Revival architecture">Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jugendstil" title="Jugendstil">Jugendstil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_style" title="Liberty style">Liberty style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Style_(British_Art_Nouveau_style)" title="Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style)">Modern Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme">Modernisme</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1900–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)" title="Rationalism (architecture)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Revival_architecture" title="Mycenaean Revival architecture">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Cubism" title="Czech Cubism">Cubism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_architecture" title="Totalitarian architecture">Totalitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Rationalist-Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_architecture" title="Organic architecture">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture" title="Colonial architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_architecture" title="Japanese architecture">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_architecture" title="Korean architecture">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_architecture" title="Mesoamerican architecture">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Maya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newa_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Newa architecture">Newari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Architecture">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_architecture" title="Spanish architecture">Spanish</a></li> <li><a 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