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class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_occurrence_of_null_point_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>The occurrence of null point theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_occurrence_of_null_point_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications_for_coastal_planning_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications_for_coastal_planning_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Applications for coastal planning and management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications_for_coastal_planning_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A8" title="ترسب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترسب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkumulyasiya_(geologiya)" title="Akkumulyasiya (geologiya) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Akkumulyasiya (geologiya)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposici%C3%B3_(geologia)" title="Deposició (geologia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Deposició (geologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwaddodiad" title="Gwaddodiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwaddodiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settimine" title="Settimine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Settimine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Απόθεση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Απόθεση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposici%C3%B3n_(geolog%C3%ADa)" title="Deposición (geología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Deposición (geología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalkitze" title="Jalkitze – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jalkitze" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نهشته‌گذاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نهشته‌گذاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9p%C3%B4t_(g%C3%A9ologie)" title="Dépôt (géologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dépôt (géologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D6%80" title="Կուտակումային հարթավայր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կուտակումային հարթավայր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_(geologi)" title="Deposit (geologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Deposit (geologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90)" title="აკუმულაცია (გეოლოგია) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აკუმულაცია (გეოლოგია)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аккумуляция – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аккумуляция" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depozisyon" title="Depozisyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Depozisyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%81_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8)" title="Тунадас (геологи) – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тунадас (геологи)" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depositie_(geologie)" title="Depositie (geologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Depositie (geologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkumulyatsiya" title="Akkumulyatsiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Akkumulyatsiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depozycja_(geologia)" title="Depozycja (geologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Depozycja (geologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(geologia)" title="Deposição (geologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Deposição (geologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depozit_(geologie)" title="Depozit (geologie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Depozit (geologie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Аккумуляция (геология) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аккумуляция (геология)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Deposition (geology)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usedanje_(geologija)" title="Usedanje (geologija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Usedanje (geologija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Акумуляція (геологія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Акумуляція (геологія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or landmass</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Depositional_environment" title="Depositional environment">Depositional environment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deposition_erosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Cape Cod showing shores undergoing erosion (cliffed sections) and shores characterized by marine deposition (barriers)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deposition_erosion.jpg/220px-Deposition_erosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deposition_erosion.jpg/330px-Deposition_erosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deposition_erosion.jpg/440px-Deposition_erosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod" title="Cape Cod">Cape Cod</a> showing shores undergoing erosion (cliffed sections) in yellow, and shores characterized by marine deposition (barriers) in blue.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Deposition</b> is the geological process in which <a href="/wiki/Sediments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sediments">sediments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a> are added to a <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landform</a> or <a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">landmass</a>. Wind, ice, water, and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> <a href="/wiki/Transportation_(sediment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation (sediment)">transport</a> previously <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathered</a> surface material, which, at the loss of enough <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of sediment. </p><p>This occurs when the forces responsible for sediment transportation are no longer sufficient to overcome the forces of gravity and <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>, creating a resistance to motion; this is known as the null-point hypothesis. Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organically derived matter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">chemical processes</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> is made up partly of the microscopic <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> skeletons of marine <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>, the deposition of which induced chemical processes (<a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a>) to deposit further calcium carbonate. Similarly, the formation of <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> begins with the deposition of organic material, mainly from plants, in <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">anaerobic</a> conditions. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Null-point_hypothesis">Null-point hypothesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Null-point hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The null-point hypothesis explains how <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> is deposited throughout a shore profile according to its grain size. This is due to the influence of hydraulic energy, resulting in a seaward-fining of sediment particle size, or where fluid forcing equals gravity for each grain size.<sup id="cite_ref-Jolliffe_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolliffe-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept can also be explained as "sediment of a particular size may move across the profile to a position where it is in equilibrium with the wave and flows acting on that sediment grain".<sup id="cite_ref-Horn_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sorting mechanism combines the influence of the down-slope gravitational force of the profile and forces due to flow asymmetry; the position where there is zero net transport is known as the null point and was first proposed by Cornaglia in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-Horn_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Figure 1 illustrates this relationship between sediment grain size and the depth of the marine environment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Null_point_theory_image1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Null_point_theory_image1.png/220px-Null_point_theory_image1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Null_point_theory_image1.png/330px-Null_point_theory_image1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Null_point_theory_image1.png/440px-Null_point_theory_image1.png 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1. Illustrating the sediment size distribution over a shoreline profile, where finer sediments are transported away from high energy environments and settle out of suspension, or deposit in calmer environments. Coarse sediments are maintained in the upper shoreline profile and are sorted by the wave-generated hydraulic regime</figcaption></figure> <p>The first principle underlying the null point theory is due to the gravitational force; finer sediments remain in the water column for longer durations allowing transportation outside the surf zone to deposit under calmer conditions. The gravitational effect or settling velocity determines the location of deposition for finer sediments, whereas a grain's internal angle of friction determines the deposition of larger grains on a shore profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Horn_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The secondary principle to the creation of seaward sediment fining is known as the hypothesis of asymmetrical thresholds under waves; this describes the interaction between the oscillatory flow of waves and tides flowing over the wave ripple bedforms in an asymmetric pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The relatively strong onshore stroke of the waveforms an eddy or vortex on the lee side of the ripple, provided the onshore flow persists, this eddy remains trapped in the lee of the ripple. When the flow reverses, the eddy is thrown upwards off the bottom and a small cloud of suspended sediment generated by the eddy is ejected into the water column above the ripple, the sediment cloud is then moved seaward by the offshore stroke of the wave."<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where there is symmetry in ripple shape the vortex is neutralised, the eddy and its associated sediment cloud develops on both sides of the ripple.<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This creates a cloudy water column which travels under the tidal influence as the wave orbital motion is in equilibrium. </p><p>The Null-point hypothesis has been quantitatively proven in <a href="/wiki/Akaroa" title="Akaroa">Akaroa</a> Harbour, New Zealand, <a href="/wiki/The_Wash" title="The Wash">The Wash</a>, U.K., <a href="/wiki/Bohai_Bay" title="Bohai Bay">Bohai Bay</a> and West Huang Sera, Mainland China, and in numerous other studies; Ippen and Eagleson (1955), Eagleson and Dean (1959, 1961) and Miller and Zeigler (1958, 1964). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deposition_of_non-cohesive_sediments">Deposition of non-cohesive sediments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Deposition of non-cohesive sediments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large-grain sediments transported by either bedload or suspended load will come to rest when there is insufficient bed shear stress and fluid turbulence to keep the sediment moving;<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the suspended load this can be some distance as the particles need to fall through the water column. This is determined by the grain's downward acting weight force being matched by a combined buoyancy and fluid drag force<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can be expressed by: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho _{s}g={\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho g+{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbb {C} _{d}\rho \pi R^{2}w_{s}^{2}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>4</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>g</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>4</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msubsup> <mi>w</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho _{s}g={\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho g+{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbb {C} _{d}\rho \pi R^{2}w_{s}^{2}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4d46f8e43a486bea92c4cb12877a5d4b6910d55" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:37.102ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho _{s}g={\frac {4}{3}}\pi R^{3}\rho g+{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbb {C} _{d}\rho \pi R^{2}w_{s}^{2}\,}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>Downward acting weight force = Upward-acting buoyancy force + Upward-acting fluid drag force<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>where: </p> <ul><li><i>π</i> is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.</li> <li><i>R</i> is the radius of the spherical object (in m),</li> <li><i>ρ</i> is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m<sup>3</sup>),</li> <li><i>g</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's gravity">gravitational acceleration</a> (m/s<sup>2</sup>),</li> <li><i>C<sub>d</sub></i> is the drag coefficient, and</li> <li><i>w<sub>s</sub></i> is the particle's settling velocity (in m/s).</li></ul> <p>In order to calculate the drag coefficient, the grain's <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a> needs to be discovered, which is based on the type of fluid through which the sediment particle is flowing, laminar flow, turbulent flow or a hybrid of both. When the fluid becomes more viscous due to smaller grain sizes or larger settling velocities, the prediction is less straightforward and it is applicable to incorporate <a href="/wiki/Stokes_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes Law">Stokes Law</a> (also known as the frictional force, or drag force) of settling.<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deposition_of_cohesive_sediments">Deposition of cohesive sediments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deposition of cohesive sediments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cohesion of sediment occurs with the small grain sizes associated with silts and clays, or particles smaller than 4ϕ on the <a href="/wiki/Phi" title="Phi">phi</a> scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If these fine particles remain dispersed in the water column, <a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_law" title="Stokes' law">Stokes law</a> applies to the settling velocity of the individual grains,<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although due to seawater being a strong <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> bonding agent, <a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">flocculation</a> occurs where individual particles create an electrical bond adhering each other together to form flocs.<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The face of a clay platelet has a slight negative charge where the edge has a slight positive charge when two platelets come into close proximity with each other the face of one particle and the edge of the other are electrostatically attracted."<sup id="cite_ref-Masselink_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flocs then have a higher combined mass which leads to quicker deposition through a higher fall velocity, and deposition in a more shoreward direction than they would have as the individual fine grains of clay or silt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_occurrence_of_null_point_theory">The occurrence of null point theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The occurrence of null point theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Akaroa_Harbour" title="Akaroa Harbour">Akaroa Harbour</a> is located on <a href="/wiki/Banks_Peninsula" title="Banks Peninsula">Banks Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canterbury,_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury, New Zealand">Canterbury, New Zealand</a>, <span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Deposition_(geology)&params=43_48_S_172_56_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">43°48′S</span> <span class="longitude">172°56′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">43.800°S 172.933°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-43.800; 172.933</span></span></span></a></span></span>. The formation of this harbour has occurred due to active erosional processes on an extinct shield volcano, whereby the sea has flooded the caldera, creating an inlet 16 km in length, with an average width of 2 km and a depth of −13 m relative to mean sea level at the 9 km point down the transect of the central axis.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The predominant storm wave energy has unlimited fetch for the outer harbour from a southerly direction, with a calmer environment within the inner harbour, though localised harbour breezes create surface currents and chop influencing the marine sedimentation processes.<sup id="cite_ref-HeuffSpigel2005_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeuffSpigel2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deposits of loess from subsequent glacial periods have in filled volcanic fissures over millennia,<sup id="cite_ref-Raeside1964_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raeside1964-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in volcanic basalt and loess as the main sediment types available for deposition in Akaroa Harbour </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png/220px-Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png/330px-Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png/440px-Akaroa_Harbour_jpeg.png 2x" data-file-width="1089" data-file-height="1445" /></a><figcaption>Figure 2. Map of Akaroa Harbour showing a fining of sediments with increased bathymetry toward the central axis of the harbour. Taken from Hart et al. (2009) and the University of Canterbury under the contract of Environment Canterbury.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Hart et al. (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discovered through bathymetric survey, <a href="/wiki/Sieve" title="Sieve">sieve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pipette" title="Pipette">pipette</a> analysis of subtidal sediments, that sediment textures were related to three main factors: depth, distance from shoreline, and distance along the central axis of the harbour. This resulted in the fining of sediment textures with increasing depth and towards the central axis of the harbour, or if classified into grain class sizes, "the plotted transect for the central axis goes from silty sands in the intertidal zone to sandy silts in the inner nearshore, to silts in the outer reaches of the bays to mud at depths of 6 m or more".<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See figure 2 for detail. </p><p>Other studies have shown this process of the winnowing of sediment grain size from the effect of hydrodynamic forcing; Wang, Collins and Zhu (1988)<sup id="cite_ref-Wang_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> qualitatively correlated increasing intensity of fluid forcing with increasing grain size. "This correlation was demonstrated at the low energy clayey tidal flats of <a href="/wiki/Bohai_Bay" title="Bohai Bay">Bohai Bay</a> (China), the moderate environment of the <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> coast (China) where the bottom material is silty, and the sandy flats of the high energy coast of <a href="/wiki/The_Wash" title="The Wash">The Wash</a> (U.K.)." This research shows conclusive evidence for the null point theory existing on tidal flats with differing hydrodynamic energy levels and also on flats that are both erosional and accretional. </p><p>Kirby R. (2002)<sup id="cite_ref-Kirby_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirby-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> takes this concept further explaining that the fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of the main bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form <a href="/wiki/Chenier" title="Chenier">chenier</a> ridges throughout the tidal zone, which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore. Cheniers can be found at any level on the foreshore and predominantly characterise an erosion-dominated regime.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirby_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirby-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications_for_coastal_planning_and_management">Applications for coastal planning and management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Applications for coastal planning and management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The null point theory has been controversial in its acceptance into mainstream coastal science as the theory operates in <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a> or unstable equilibrium, and many fields and laboratory observations have failed to replicate the state of a null point at each grain size throughout the profile.<sup id="cite_ref-Horn_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horn-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interaction of variables and processes over time within the environmental context causes issues; "a large number of variables, the complexity of the processes, and the difficulty in observation, all place serious obstacles in the way of systematisation, therefore in certain narrow fields the basic physical theory may be sound and reliable but the gaps are large"<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geomorphologists, engineers, governments and planners should be aware of the processes and outcomes involved with the null point hypothesis when performing tasks such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a>, issuing building consents or building <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal defence</a> structures. This is because sediment grain size analysis throughout a profile allows inference into the erosion or accretion rates possible if shore dynamics are modified. Planners and managers should also be aware that the coastal environment is dynamic and contextual science should be evaluated before the implementation of any shore profile modification. Thus theoretical studies, laboratory experiments, numerical and hydraulic modelling seek to answer questions pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Littoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoral">littoral</a> drift and sediment deposition, the results should not be viewed in isolation and a substantial body of purely qualitative observational data should supplement any planning or management decision.<sup id="cite_ref-Jolliffe_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jolliffe-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_(geology)" title="Cementation (geology)">Cementation (geology)</a> – Process of chemical precipitation bonding sedimentary grains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-bedding" title="Cross-bedding">Cross-bedding</a> – Sedimentary rock strata at differing angles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift_(geology)" title="Drift (geology)">Drift (geology)</a> – Material of glacial origin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">Flocculation</a> – Process by which colloidal particles come out of suspension to precipitate as floc or flake</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a> – Sediment moved by the longshore current</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overbank" title="Overbank">Overbank</a> – Alluvial geological deposit</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rock</a> – Rock formed by the deposition and cementation of particles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">Sedimentary structures</a> – Geologic structures formed during sediment deposition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling" title="Settling">Settling</a> – Process by which particulates move towards the bottom of a liquid and form a sediment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shields_parameter" title="Shields parameter">Shields parameter</a> – Dimensionless parameter in fluid mechanics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorting_(sediment)" title="Sorting (sediment)">Sorting</a> - sediment sorting</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes%27_law" title="Stokes' law">Stokes' law</a> – Equation for the velocity of a body in viscous fluid</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_deposits" title="Superficial deposits">Superficial deposits</a> – Geological deposits</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deposition_(geology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOldale1999" class="citation journal cs1">Oldale, Robert N. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315040145/https://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/staffpages/boldale/capecod/index.html">"Coastal Erosion on Cape Cod: Some Questions and Answers"</a>. <i>Cape Naturalist, the Journal of the Cape Cod Museum of Natural History</i>. <b>25</b>: <span class="nowrap">70–</span>76. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/staffpages/boldale/capecod/index.html">the original</a> on 2016-03-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Littoral and offshore sediment transport". <i>Progress in Physical Geography</i>. <b>2</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">264–</span>308. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978PrPG....2..264J">1978PrPG....2..264J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030913337800200204">10.1177/030913337800200204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0309-1333">0309-1333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128679961">128679961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Physical+Geography&rft.atitle=Littoral+and+offshore+sediment+transport&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E264-%3C%2Fspan%3E308&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030913337800200204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128679961%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0309-1333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978PrPG....2..264J&rft.aulast=Jolliffe&rft.aufirst=I.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeposition+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horn-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horn_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horn_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horn_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horn_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHorn1992" class="citation journal cs1">Horn, Diane P (1992). "A review and experimental assessment of equilibrium grain size and the ideal wave-graded profile". <i>Marine Geology</i>. <b>108</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">161–</span>174. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992MGeol.108..161H">1992MGeol.108..161H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0025-3227%2892%2990170-M">10.1016/0025-3227(92)90170-M</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3227">0025-3227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Geology&rft.atitle=A+review+and+experimental+assessment+of+equilibrium+grain+size+and+the+ideal+wave-graded+profile&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E174&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0025-3227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0025-3227%2892%2990170-M&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992MGeol.108..161H&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Diane+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeposition+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masselink-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masselink_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasselinkHughesKnight2011" class="citation book cs1">Masselink, Gerd; Hughes, Michael; Knight, Jasper (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v5XsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">"Chapter Five—Sediments, boundary layers and transport: Coastal processes and geomorphology"</a>. <i>Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology</i> (2nd ed.). 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Part 1: Data obtained during the September-November, 1998 field survey"</a>. <i>New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research</i>. <b>39</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1097–</span>1109. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NZJMF..39.1097H">2005NZJMF..39.1097H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2005.9517378">10.1080/00288330.2005.9517378</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-8330">0028-8330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Marine+and+Freshwater+Research&rft.atitle=Evidence+of+a+significant+wind-driven+circulation+in+Akaroa+Harbour.+Part+1%3A+Data+obtained+during+the+September-November%2C+1998+field+survey&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1097-%3C%2Fspan%3E1109&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0028-8330&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00288330.2005.9517378&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005NZJMF..39.1097H&rft.aulast=Heuff&rft.aufirst=Darlene+N.&rft.au=Spigel%2C+Robert+H.&rft.au=Ross%2C+Alex+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00288330.2005.9517378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeposition+%28geology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raeside1964-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Raeside1964_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaeside1964" class="citation journal cs1">Raeside, J. 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<li><a href="/wiki/River_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="River valley">River valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_sinuosity" class="mw-redirect" title="River sinuosity">River sinuosity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_river" title="Alluvial river">Alluvial rivers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabranch" title="Anabranch">Anabranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion (river)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(river_morphology)" title="Bar (river morphology)">Bar (river morphology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">Braided river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_pattern" title="Channel pattern">Channel pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_bank" title="Cut bank">Cut bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander_cutoff" title="Meander cutoff">Meander cutoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">Oxbow lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_bar" title="Point bar">Point bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffle" title="Riffle">Riffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_bifurcation" title="River bifurcation">River bifurcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_channel_migration" title="River channel migration">River channel migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip-off_slope" title="Slip-off slope">Slip-off slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">Thalweg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bedrock_river" title="Bedrock river">Bedrock river</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knickpoint" title="Knickpoint">Knickpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bedform" title="Bedform">Bedforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ait" title="Ait">Ait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidune" title="Antidune">Antidune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripple_marks" title="Ripple marks">Current ripple</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggradation" title="Aggradation">Aggradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_level" title="Base level">Base level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degradation_(geology)" title="Degradation (geology)">Degradation (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">Erosion and tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_rejuvenation" title="River rejuvenation">River rejuvenation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deposition (geology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion#Water" title="Erosion">Water erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exner_equation" title="Exner equation">Exner equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicoidal_flow" title="Helicoidal flow">Helicoidal flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playfair%27s_law" title="Playfair's law">Playfair's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_that_have_reversed_direction" title="List of rivers that have reversed direction">List of rivers that have reversed direction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:River_morphology" title="Category:River morphology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rivers,_streams_and_springs876" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template talk:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rivers,_streams_and_springs876" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">lists</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_river" title="Alluvial river">Alluvial river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">Braided river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_river" title="Blackwater river">Blackwater river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_pattern" title="Channel pattern">Channel pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_types" title="Channel types">Channel types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confluence" title="Confluence">Confluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributary" title="Distributary">Distributary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Drainage basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_bifurcation" title="River bifurcation">River bifurcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_source" title="River source">River source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tributary" title="Tributary">Tributary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">Streams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arroyo_(watercourse)" title="Arroyo (watercourse)">Arroyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourne_(stream)" title="Bourne (stream)">Bourne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burn_(landform)" title="Burn (landform)">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_stream" title="Chalk stream">Chalk stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulee" title="Coulee">Coulee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream channel">Stream channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamflow" title="Streamflow">Streamflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gradient" title="Stream gradient">Stream gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial stream">Perennial stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winterbourne_(stream)" title="Winterbourne (stream)">Winterbourne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Springs</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_springs" title="List of springs">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">Geyser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_well" title="Holy well">Holy well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">Hot spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs" title="List of hot springs">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs_in_the_United_States" title="List of hot springs in the United States">list in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_karst_springs" title="List of karst springs">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_spring" title="Mineral spring">Mineral spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythmic_spring" title="Rhythmic spring">Rhythmic spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_horizon" title="Spring horizon">Spring horizon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sedimentary processes</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">Abrasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabranch" title="Anabranch">Anabranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggradation" title="Aggradation">Aggradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armor_(hydrology)" title="Armor (hydrology)">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_load" title="Bed load">Bed load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_material_load" title="Bed material load">Bed material load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granular_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Granular flow">Granular flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_load" title="Dissolved load">Dissolved load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downcutting" title="Downcutting">Downcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headward_erosion" title="Headward erosion">Headward erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knickpoint" title="Knickpoint">Knickpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeochannel" title="Palaeochannel">Palaeochannel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progradation" title="Progradation">Progradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrogradation" title="Retrogradation">Retrogradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(geology)" title="Saltation (geology)">Saltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow#River_bends" title="Secondary flow">Secondary flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspended_load" title="Suspended load">Suspended load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_load" title="Wash load">Wash load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_gap" title="Water gap">Water gap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ait" title="Ait">Ait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">Alluvial fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_drainage_stream" title="Antecedent drainage stream">Antecedent drainage stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_(geography)" title="Bank (geography)">Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(river_morphology)" title="Bar (river morphology)">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayou" title="Bayou">Bayou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billabong" title="Billabong">Billabong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chine" title="Chine">Chine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_bank" title="Cut bank">Cut bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_island" title="Floating island">Floating island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvial_terrace" title="Fluvial terrace">Fluvial terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gill_(ravine)" title="Gill (ravine)">Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulch" title="Gulch">Gulch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gully" title="Gully">Gully</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glen" title="Glen">Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander_scar" title="Meander scar">Meander scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">Oxbow lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffle-pool_sequence" title="Riffle-pool sequence">Riffle-pool sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_bar" title="Point bar">Point bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravine" title="Ravine">Ravine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rill" title="Rill">Rill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_island" title="River island">River island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_basin" title="Rock-cut basin">Rock-cut basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">Sedimentary basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">Sedimentary structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strath" title="Strath">Strath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">Thalweg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">River valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">Wadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial flow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicoidal_flow" title="Helicoidal flow">Helicoidal flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_scale_of_river_difficulty" title="International scale of river difficulty">International scale of river difficulty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">Log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffle" title="Riffle">Riffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_capture" title="Stream capture">Stream capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">Waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater" title="Whitewater">Whitewater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural wastewater">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_flush" title="First flush">First flush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crevasse_splay" title="Crevasse splay">Crevasse splay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-water_floods" title="List of non-water floods">Non-water flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_barrier" title="Flood barrier">Flood barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_forecasting" title="Flood forecasting">Flood forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood-meadow" title="Flood-meadow">Flood-meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_pulse_concept" title="Flood pulse concept">Flood pulse concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Inundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_Water_Management_Model" title="Storm Water Management Model">Storm Water Management Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">Return period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution#Pollution_from_point_sources" title="Water pollution">Point source pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">Effluent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial wastewater">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">River measurement<br />and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baer%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Baer's law">Baer's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseflow" title="Baseflow">Baseflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradshaw_model" title="Bradshaw model">Bradshaw model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">Discharge (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_density" title="Drainage density">Drainage density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exner_equation" title="Exner equation">Exner equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">Groundwater model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjulstr%C3%B6m_curve" title="Hjulström curve">Hjulström curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrograph" title="Hydrograph">Hydrograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">Hydrological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">Hydrological transport model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_stem" title="Main stem">Main stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playfair%27s_law" title="Playfair's law">Playfair's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Relief ratio">Relief ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Continuum_Concept" title="River Continuum Concept">River Continuum Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouse_number" title="Rouse number">Rouse number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_curve_number" title="Runoff curve number">Runoff curve number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)" title="Runoff model (reservoir)">Runoff model (reservoir)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gauge" title="Stream gauge">Stream gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Soil_Loss_Equation" title="Universal Soil Loss Equation">Universal Soil Loss Equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAFLEX" title="WAFLEX">WAFLEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetted_perimeter" title="Wetted perimeter">Wetted perimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">Volumetric flow rate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">Aqueduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drop_structure" title="Drop structure">Drop structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(streams)" title="Daylighting (streams)">Daylighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_ladder" title="Fish ladder">Fish ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain_restoration" title="Floodplain restoration">Floodplain restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flume" title="Flume">Flume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leat" title="Leat">Leat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levee" title="Levee">Levee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_morphology" title="River morphology">River morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian-zone_restoration" title="Riparian-zone restoration">Riparian-zone restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">Stream restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">Weir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">River sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canyoning" title="Canyoning">Canyoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_fishing" title="Fly fishing">Fly fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafting" title="Rafting">Rafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_surfing" title="River surfing">River surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverboarding" title="Riverboarding">Riverboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_skipping" title="Stone skipping">Stone skipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triathlon" title="Triathlon">Triathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_canoeing" title="Whitewater canoeing">Whitewater canoeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_kayaking" title="Whitewater kayaking">Whitewater kayaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_slalom" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitewater slalom">Whitewater slalom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic 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