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id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/USSR_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="USSR (disambiguation)">USSR (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCCP_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="CCCP (disambiguation)">CCCP (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Soviet (disambiguation)">Soviet (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Soviet Union (disambiguation)">Soviet Union (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics<a href="#cite_note-25">[u]</a> (USSR),<a href="#cite_note-26">[v]</a> commonly known as the Soviet Union,<a href="#cite_note-27">[w]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_former_transcontinental_countries#Since_1700" title="List of former transcontinental countries">transcontinental country</a> that spanned much of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> from 1922 to 1991. During its existence, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">largest country by area</a>, extending across <a href="/wiki/Time_in_Russia" title="Time in Russia">eleven time zones</a> and sharing <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union#Borders_and_neighbors" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">borders with twelve countries</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">third-most populous country</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[x]</a> An overall successor to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, it was nominally organized as a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federal union</a> of <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">national republics</a>, the largest and most populous of which was the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[y]</a> In practice, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">its government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">economy</a> were <a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">highly centralized</a>. As a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> governed by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, it was a flagship <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist state</a>. Its capital and largest city was <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</div><div class="ib-country-names">Союз Советских Социалистических Республик Soyuz Sovyetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1922–1991</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Soviet Union"><img alt="Flag of Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> (1955–1991)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="State Emblem (1956–1991) of Soviet Union"><img alt="State Emblem (1956–1991) of Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/85px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/128px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605"></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">State Emblem</a> (1956–1991)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! "<a href="/wiki/Workers_of_the_world,_unite!" title="Workers of the world, unite!">Workers of the world, unite!</a>"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Интернационал "<a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a>" (1922–1944)<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="239" data-mwtitle="Internationale-ru.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Internationale-ru.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Internationale-ru.ogg/Internationale-ru.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=lzh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="lzh" label="文言 ‪(lzh)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=sr-ec&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sr-Cyrl" label="српски (ћирилица) ‪(sr-ec)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track 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src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh-my&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-MY" label="中文（马来西亚） ‪(zh-my)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh-sg&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-SG" label="中文（新加坡） ‪(zh-sg)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Union_national_anthem_%28instrumental%29%2C_1977.oga&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio></div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Soviet Union during the Cold War"><img alt="The Soviet Union during the Cold War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Soviet Union during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Soviet_Union&params=55_45_N_37_37_E_type:city">55°45′N 37°37′E / 55.750°N 37.617°E / 55.750; 37.617</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[c]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Recognised regional languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_language" title="Moldovan language">Moldavian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"> (1989)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>70% <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li><li>17% <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a></li><li>13% other</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">Secular state</a> (de jure)</li><li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a> (de facto)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Federal <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist–Leninist</a> one-party <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist republic</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leader</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922–1924 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[d]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1924–1953 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[e]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1953<a href="#cite_note-8">[g]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[f]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1953–1964 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[h]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1964–1982 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[i]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1982–1984 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1984–1985 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1985–1991 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[j]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1991<a href="#cite_note-13">[l]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Yanayev" title="Gennady Yanayev">Gennady Yanayev</a> (<a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">acting, disputed</a>)<a href="#cite_note-12">[k]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Head of State</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922–1946 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kalinin" title="Mikhail Kalinin">Mikhail Kalinin</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[m]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1988–1991 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Mikhail Gorbachev<a href="#cite_note-15">[n]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1922–1924 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Vladimir Lenin<a href="#cite_note-16">[o]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1991 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Silayev" title="Ivan Silayev">Ivan Silayev</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[p]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)<a href="#cite_note-18">[q]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1936–1991)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Nationalities" title="Soviet of Nationalities">Soviet of Nationalities</a> (1936–1991)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet of Republics">Soviet of Republics</a> (1991)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_the_Union" title="Soviet of the Union">Soviet of the Union</a> (1936–1991)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7 November 1917</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Treaty of Creation</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 December 1922</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1924_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union">First constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">31 January 1924</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">Second constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">5 December 1936</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Westward expansion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1939–1940</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1941–1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 February 1956</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">Last constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9 October 1977</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1988–1991</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">19–22 August 1991</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Belovezha_Accords" title="Belovezha Accords">Belovezha Accords</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 December 1991<a href="#cite_note-19">[r]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Formal dissolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">26 December 1991<a href="#cite_note-20">[s]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">22,402,200 km2 (8,649,500 sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">1st</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water</div></th><td class="infobox-data">2,767,198 km2 (1,068,421 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">12.3</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Census_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Census (1989)">1989</a> census</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Neutral increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/11px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/17px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/22px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="346"> 286,730,819<a href="#cite_note-21">[2]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">3rd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">12.7/km2 (32.9/sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">1990 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$2.7 trillion (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP)">2nd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$9,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">1990 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$2.7 trillion<a href="#cite_note-theodora.com-22">[3]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal)">2nd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$9,000 (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">28th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(1989)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.275 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>low inequality</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(1990 formula)</th><td class="infobox-data">0.920<a href="#cite_note-HDI-23">[4]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">very high</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Soviet ruble</a> (Rbl) (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">SUR</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data">(<a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+2 to +12)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone numbers in Soviet Union">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data">+7</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:SU" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 3166-2:SU">SU</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">.su</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[t]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">1922: Russian SFSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1929%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="960"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919%E2%80%931927%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="150"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR_%28variant%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasian SFSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia_(1920%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Estonia (1920–1939)">1940: Estonia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281918%E2%80%931940%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">1990: Lithuania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">1991: Georgia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ukraine_%28Soviet_shades%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/20px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/30px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/40px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="900"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/20px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/30px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan_%281991%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia_%281991%E2%80%931993%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_CIS_%28UEFA_Euro_1992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn">With the exception of the CIS – an intergovernmental organization and legal successor to the Soviet Union – only states that are former Soviet republics, now members of the United Nations, are listed as successors.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> The Soviet Union's roots lay in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> of 1917. The new government, led by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, established the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR),<a href="#cite_note-30">[z]</a> the world's first constitutionally <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist state</a>. The revolution was not accepted by all within the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Republic" title="Russian Republic">Russian Republic</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. The RSFSR and its subordinate republics were <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">merged into the Soviet Union</a> in 1922. Following <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">Lenin's death</a> in 1924, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> came to power, inaugurating <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">rapid industrialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">forced collectivization</a> that led to significant economic growth but contributed to a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">famine between 1930 and 1933</a> that killed millions. The <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Soviet forced labour camp</a> system of the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> was expanded. During the late 1930s, Stalin's government conducted the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> to remove opponents, resulting in mass death, imprisonment, and deportation. In 1939, the USSR and Nazi Germany signed <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">a nonaggression pact</a>, but in 1941, Germany <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invaded the Soviet Union</a> in the largest land invasion in history, opening the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front of World War II</a>. The Soviets played a decisive role in defeating the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>, suffering an estimated <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">27 million casualties</a>, which accounted for most <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> losses. In the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of the war</a>, the Soviet Union consolidated the territory occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>, forming <a href="/wiki/Soviet_satellite_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet satellite states">satellite states</a>, and undertook rapid economic development which cemented its status as a <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a>. Geopolitical tensions with the US led to the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The American-led <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> coalesced into <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> in 1949, prompting the Soviet Union to form its own military alliance, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>, in 1955. Neither side engaged in direct military confrontation, and instead fought <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">on an ideological basis</a> and through <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>. In 1953, following <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Stalin's death</a>, the Soviet Union undertook a campaign of <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> under <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, which saw reversals and rejections of Stalinist policies. This campaign caused <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">tensions with Communist China</a>. During the 1950s, the Soviet Union expanded <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">its efforts in space exploration</a> and took a lead in the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">first artificial satellite</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">first human spaceflight</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">first space station</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Venera_7" title="Venera 7">first probe to land on another planet</a>. In 1985, the last Soviet leader, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, sought to reform the country through his policies of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a>. In 1989, various countries of the Warsaw Pact <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">overthrew their Soviet-backed regimes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">separatist</a> movements erupted across the Soviet Union. In 1991, amid efforts to <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">preserve</a> the country as a <a href="/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">renewed federation</a>, an attempted <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">coup against Gorbachev</a> by hardline communists prompted the largest republics—Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus—to secede. On December 26, Gorbachev officially recognized the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>, the leader of the RSFSR, oversaw its reconstitution into the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states#Soviet_Union" title="Succession of states">became</a> the Soviet Union's successor state; all other republics emerged as fully independent <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a>. During its existence, the Soviet Union produced <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Soviet_innovation" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Soviet innovation">many significant social and technological achievements and innovations</a>. It <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_and_projected_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)">had the world's second-largest economy</a> and largest standing military. An <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">NPT-designated state</a>, it wielded the <a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">largest arsenal of nuclear weapons in the world</a>. As an Allied nation, it was a <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations" title="Member states of the United Nations">founding member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> as well as one of the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">five permanent members</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>. Before its dissolution, the USSR was one of the world's two superpowers through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, global diplomatic and ideological influence (particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global South</a>), military and economic strengths, and <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">scientific</a> accomplishments. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology">1 Etymology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Geography">3 Geography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Government_and_politics">4 Government and politics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Communist_Party">4.1 Communist Party</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Government">4.2 Government</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Separation_of_power_and_reform">4.3 Separation of power and reform</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Judicial_system">4.4 Judicial system</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Human_rights">4.5 Human rights</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Foreign_relations">4.6 Foreign relations</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Early_policies_(1919%E2%80%931939)">4.6.1 Early policies (1919–1939)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#World_War_II_(1939%E2%80%931945)">4.6.2 World War II (1939–1945)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Cold_War_(1945%E2%80%931991)">4.6.3 Cold War (1945–1991)</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Administrative_divisions">4.7 Administrative divisions</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Military">5 Military</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Economy">6 Economy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Energy">6.1 Energy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Science_and_technology">6.2 Science and technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Space_program">6.3 Space program</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Transport">6.4 Transport</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Demographics">7 Demographics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Urbanism">7.1 Urbanism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Women_and_fertility">7.2 Women and fertility</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Education">7.3 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Nationalities_and_ethnic_groups">7.4 Nationalities and ethnic groups</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Health">7.5 Health</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Dentistry">7.5.1 Dentistry</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Language">7.6 Language</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Religion">7.7 Religion</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Culture">8 Culture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Sport">9 Sport</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Legacy">10 Legacy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#In_the_former_Soviet_republics">10.1 In the former Soviet republics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#By_the_political_left">10.2 By the political left</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#See_also">11 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Notes">12 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#References">13 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Bibliography">14 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#External_links">15 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Official_names_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Official names of the Soviet Union">Official names of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Names of Russia">Names of Russia</a></div> The word <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviet</a> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> word sovet (Russian: совет), meaning 'council', 'assembly', 'advice',<a href="#cite_note-31">[aa]</a> ultimately deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">proto-Slavic</a> verbal stem of *vět-iti ('to inform'), related to Slavic věst ('news'), English wise. The word sovietnik means 'councillor'.<a href="#cite_note-americana-32">[5]</a> Some organizations in Russian history were called council (Russian: совет). In the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_(Russian_Empire)" title="State Council (Russian Empire)">State Council</a>, which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers.<a href="#cite_note-americana-32">[5]</a> The Soviets as <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">workers' councils</a> first appeared during the <a href="/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1905 Russian Revolution">1905 Russian Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763-33">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487-34">[7]</a> Although they were quickly suppressed by the Imperial army, after the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution of 1917</a>, workers' and soldiers' Soviets emerged throughout the country and shared power with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Russian Provisional Government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763-33">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-br1-35">[8]</a> The Bolsheviks, led by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, demanded that all power be transferred to the Soviets, and gained support from the workers and soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-36">[9]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> seized power from the Provisional Government in the name of the Soviets,<a href="#cite_note-br1-35">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-37">[10]</a> Lenin proclaimed the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Socialist_Federal_Soviet_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic">Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic</a> (RSFSR).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200584-38">[11]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Affair">Georgian Affair</a> of 1922, Lenin called for the Russian SFSR and other national Soviet republics to form a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (Russian: Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Soyuz Sovyetskikh Respublik Evropy i Azii).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1964608Lewin196950Leggett1981354Volkogonov1994421Service2000452%E2%80%93455White2001175-39">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> initially resisted Lenin's proposal but ultimately accepted it, and with Lenin's agreement he changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), although all republics began as socialist soviet and did not change to the other order until <a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936</a>. In addition, in the regional languages of several republics, the word council or conciliar in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian soviet and never in others, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>. СССР (in the Latin alphabet: SSSR) is the abbreviation of the Russian-language cognate of USSR, as written in <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic letters">Cyrillic letters</a>. The Soviets used this abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. After this, the most common Russian initialization is Союз ССР (transliteration: Soyuz SSR) which essentially translates to Union of SSRs in English. In addition, the Russian short form name Советский Союз (transliteration: Sovyetsky Soyuz, which literally means Soviet Union) is also commonly used, but only in its unabbreviated form. Since the start of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a> at the latest, abbreviating the Russian name of the Soviet Union as СС has been taboo, the reason being that СС as a Russian Cyrillic abbreviation is associated with the infamous <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, as SS is in English. In English-language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. The Russian SFSR dominated the Soviet Union to such an extent that, for most of the Soviet Union's existence, it was colloquially, but incorrectly, referred to as Russia. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">History of Russia</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_in_1920_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1835" data-file-height="2447"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="150" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, founder of the Soviet Union and the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:199px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068,_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/134px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="939"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 134px;height: 199px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/134px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="134" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/201px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/268px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and a key figure in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></div></div></div></div></div> The history of the Soviet Union began with the ideals of the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Revolution">Bolshevik Revolution</a> and ended in dissolution amidst economic collapse and political disintegration. Established in 1922 following the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, the Soviet Union quickly became a one-party state under the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>. Its early years under <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> were marked by the implementation of socialist policies and the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP), which allowed for market-oriented reforms. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in the late 1920s ushered in an era of intense centralization and totalitarianism. Stalin's rule was characterized by the forced <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">collectivization of agriculture</a>, rapid <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">industrialization</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>, which eliminated perceived enemies of the state. The Soviet Union played a crucial role in the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied victory</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, but at a tremendous human cost, with millions of Soviet citizens perishing in the conflict. The Soviet Union emerged as one of the world's two superpowers, leading the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. This period saw the USSR engage in an arms race, the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a> around the globe. The post-Stalin leadership, particularly under <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, initiated a <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">de-Stalinization</a> process, leading to a period of liberalization and relative openness known as the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>. However, the subsequent era under <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a>, was marked by economic decline, political corruption, and a rigid <a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">gerontocracy</a>. Despite efforts to maintain the Soviet Union's superpower status, the economy struggled due to its centralized nature, technological backwardness, and inefficiencies. The vast military expenditures and burdens of maintaining the Eastern Bloc, further strained the Soviet economy. In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>'s policies of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a> (openness) and <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> (restructuring) aimed to revitalize the Soviet system but instead accelerated its unraveling. Nationalist movements gained momentum across the <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a>, and the control of the Communist Party weakened. The failed <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">coup attempt</a> in August 1991 against Gorbachev by hardline communists hastened the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">end of the Soviet Union</a>, which formally dissolved on December 26, 1991, ending nearly seven decades of Soviet rule. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Russia" title="Geography of Russia">Geography of Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_(Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_(6,995_m)_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg/170px-The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="959"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 239px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg/170px-The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="239" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg/255px-The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg/340px-The_Soviet_Union_1964_CPA_3139_stamp_%28Development_of_mountaineering_in_Russia._Mountain_Khan_Tengri_%286%2C995_m%29_of_the_Tian_Shan_mountain_range%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mountain <a href="/wiki/Khan_Tengri" title="Khan Tengri">Khan Tengri</a> (6,995 m) of the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> mountain range.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karabash_mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Karabash_mountain.jpg/220px-Karabash_mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1629" data-file-height="1205"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Karabash_mountain.jpg/220px-Karabash_mountain.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Karabash_mountain.jpg/330px-Karabash_mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Karabash_mountain.jpg/440px-Karabash_mountain.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Landscape near <a href="/wiki/Karabash,_Chelyabinsk_Oblast" title="Karabash, Chelyabinsk Oblast">Karabash, Chelyabinsk Oblast</a>, an area that was previously covered with forests until acid rainfall from a nearby copper smelter killed all vegetation</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AralSea1989_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AralSea1989_2014.jpg/220px-AralSea1989_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="870"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 187px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AralSea1989_2014.jpg/220px-AralSea1989_2014.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="187" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AralSea1989_2014.jpg/330px-AralSea1989_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/AralSea1989_2014.jpg/440px-AralSea1989_2014.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>One of the many impacts of the approach to the environment in the USSR and post-Soviet states is the <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>. (See status in 1989 and 2014.)<a href="#cite_note-40">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> With an area of 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 sq mi), the Soviet Union was the world's largest country,<a href="#cite_note-:0-41">[14]</a> a status that is retained by the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian Federation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[15]</a> Covering a sixth of Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[16]</a> Two other successor states, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, rank among the top 10 countries by land area, and the largest country entirely in Europe, respectively. The <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> extended to the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> to the east and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> to the south, and, except some areas in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, was much less populous. It spanned over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) east to west across 11 <a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">time zones</a>, and over 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) north to south. It had five climate zones: <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountains</a>. The USSR, like <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, had the world's longest <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">border</a>, measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), or <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1+1⁄2 circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coastline</a>. The country bordered <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> from 1945 to 1991. The <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a> separated the USSR from the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. The country's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now <a href="/wiki/Ismoil_Somoni_Peak" title="Ismoil Somoni Peak">Ismoil Somoni Peak</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a>, at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). The USSR also included most of the world's largest lakes; the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> (shared with <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>, the world's largest (by volume) and deepest freshwater lake that is also an internal body of water in Russia. Neighbouring countries were aware of the high levels of pollution in the Soviet Union<a href="#cite_note-44">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[18]</a> but after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> it was discovered that its environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted.<a href="#cite_note-46">[19]</a> The Soviet Union was the world's second largest producer of harmful emissions. In 1988, total emissions in the Soviet Union were about 79% of those in the United States. But since the Soviet <a href="/wiki/GNP" class="mw-redirect" title="GNP">GNP</a> was only 54% of that of the United States, this means that the Soviet Union generated 1.5 times more pollution than the United States per unit of GNP.<a href="#cite_note-47">[20]</a> The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[23]</a> Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses were scattered relatively far.<a href="#cite_note-51">[24]</a> Although long-term effects of the accident were unknown, 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer which resulted from the accident's contamination were reported at the time of the accident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005).<a href="#cite_note-52">[25]</a> Another major radioactive accident was the <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kola_Peninsula" title="Kola Peninsula">Kola Peninsula</a> was one of the places with major problems.<a href="#cite_note-54">[27]</a> Around the industrial cities of <a href="/wiki/Monchegorsk" title="Monchegorsk">Monchegorsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions.<a href="#cite_note-55">[28]</a> During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">nuclear submarines</a>, and the processing of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[30]</a> It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the <a href="/wiki/Barents_Sea" title="Barents Sea">Barents Sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kara_Sea" title="Kara Sea">Kara Sea</a>, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the <a href="/wiki/K-141_Kursk" class="mw-redirect" title="K-141 Kursk">K-141 Kursk</a> submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns.<a href="#cite_note-58">[31]</a> In the past, there were accidents involving submarines <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-8" title="Soviet submarine K-8">K-8</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-129_(1960)" title="Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)">K-129</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">K-27</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-219" title="Soviet submarine K-219">K-219</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-278_Komsomolets" title="Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets">K-278 Komsomolets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[35]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Government_and_politics">Government and politics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics of the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></div> There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a>, the government represented by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Council of Ministers</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.<a href="#cite_note-sakwa-63">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_Party">Communist Party</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/220px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1850"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/220px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/330px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/440px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Military parade on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a> in Moscow, 7 November 1964</figcaption></figure> At the top of the Communist Party was the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>, elected at <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Party Congresses</a> and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a> and the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">general secretary</a> (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-64">[37]</a> Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country<a href="#cite_note-65">[38]</a> (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941).<a href="#cite_note-66">[39]</a> They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a>, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.<a href="#cite_note-67">[40]</a> The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">system of appointments</a>. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership,<a href="#cite_note-68">[41]</a> but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a>, the nominal <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">head of state</a>. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Kraikom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraikom">primary party organizations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[42]</a> However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party,<a href="#cite_note-70">[43]</a> nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although <a href="/wiki/Ban_on_factions_in_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ban on factions in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">factions were officially banned</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/220px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="728"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/220px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/330px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/440px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Kremlin_Palace" title="Grand Kremlin Palace">Grand Kremlin Palace</a>, the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a>, 1982</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (successor of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a>) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history,<a href="#cite_note-72">[45]</a> at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Government_budget" title="Government budget">government budget</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[46]</a> The Supreme Soviet elected a <a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a> (successor of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Executive_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union">Central Executive Committee</a>) to wield its power between plenary sessions,<a href="#cite_note-COMSSP-74">[47]</a> ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a>,<a href="#cite_note-75">[48]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">Procurator General</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[49]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Council of Ministers</a> (known before 1946 as the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union">Council of People's Commissars</a>), headed by the <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society.<a href="#cite_note-COMSSP-74">[47]</a> State and party structures of the <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">constituent republics</a> largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into <a href="/wiki/Raikom" class="mw-redirect" title="Raikom">party committees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">local Soviets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Executive_committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive committee">executive committees</a>. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.<a href="#cite_note-77">[50]</a> The state security police (the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> and <a href="/wiki/Template:Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Template:Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">its predecessor agencies</a>) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>,<a href="#cite_note-78">[51]</a> but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure,<a href="#cite_note-79">[52]</a> culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-80">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_of_power_and_reform">Separation of power and reform</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots,_February_1990.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="690"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 148px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="148" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Nationalist anti-government <a href="/wiki/1990_Dushanbe_riots" title="1990 Dushanbe riots">riots in Dushanbe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a>, 1990</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">constitution</a>, which was promulgated in <a href="/wiki/1924_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1924 Soviet Constitution">1924</a>, <a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936</a> and <a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977</a>,<a href="#cite_note-81">[54]</a> did not limit state power. No formal <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers<a href="#cite_note-82">[55]</a> that represented executive and <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin<a href="#cite_note-83">[56]</a> and Stalin,<a href="#cite_note-84">[57]</a> as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal,<a href="#cite_note-85">[58]</a> itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee.<a href="#cite_note-Khrushchevgoner-86">[59]</a> All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[60]</a> and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.<a href="#cite_note-Khrushchevgoner-86">[59]</a> Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989, the first in Soviet history. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers.<a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-88">[61]</a> In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a>, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government,<a href="#cite_note-89">[62]</a> now renamed the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Ministers_(Soviet_Union)" title="Cabinet of Ministers (Soviet Union)">Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR</a>, to himself.<a href="#cite_note-90">[63]</a> Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> and controlling the newly elected <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_Russia" title="Supreme Soviet of Russia">Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR</a>, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">coup attempt</a>. The coup failed, and the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Council of the Soviet Union">State Council of the Soviet Union</a> became the highest organ of state power 'in the period of transition'.<a href="#cite_note-91">[64]</a> Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.<a href="#cite_note-92">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_system">Judicial system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></div> The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> supervised the lower courts (<a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Soviet_Union)" title="People's Court (Soviet Union)">People's Court</a>) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, where the judge, <a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">procurator</a>, and defence attorney collaborate to "establish the truth".<a href="#cite_note-93">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> in the Soviet Union were severely limited. The Soviet Union was a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian state">totalitarian state</a> from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%9353)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)">1927 until 1953</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[70]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> state until 1990.<a href="#cite_note-98">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a> was suppressed and dissent was punished. Independent political activities were not tolerated, whether these involved participation in free <a href="/wiki/Labour_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour union">labour unions</a>, private <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, independent churches or opposition <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political parties</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> within and especially outside the country was limited. The state restricted rights of citizens to <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>. <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">The rest of this section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union#Soviet_concept_of_human_rights_and_legal_system" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union § Soviet concept of human rights and legal system</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> According to the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> are the "basic <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (political)">freedoms</a> to which all humans are entitled."<a href="#cite_note-99">[72]</a> including the right to <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of expression</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">right to food</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">right to work</a>, and the right to <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. The Soviet conception of human rights was very different from <a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">international law</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Soviet legal theory</a>, "it is the government who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted against the individual".<a href="#cite_note-100">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet state">Soviet state</a> was considered as the source of human rights.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_shiman-101">[74]</a> Therefore, the Soviet legal system considered <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> an arm of politics and it also considered courts agencies of the government.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">[75]</a> Extensive <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">extrajudicial powers</a> were given to the <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Soviet secret police agencies</a>. In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">protection of law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">guarantees of property</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes2001-103">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes1994-104">[77]</a> which were considered as examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet law theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Vyshinsky" title="Andrey Vyshinsky">Andrey Vyshinsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Vyshinsky1949-105">[78]</a> The USSR and other countries in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Soviet Bloc</a> had abstained from affirming the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> (1948), saying that it was "overly juridical" and potentially infringed on national sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-106">[79]</a>: 167–169 The Soviet Union later signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> in 1973 (and the 1966 <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a>), but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_thomas-hrideas-107">[80]</a>: 117 Under <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935.<a href="#cite_note-108">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Kovalev" title="Sergei Kovalev">Sergei Kovalev</a> recalled "the famous article 125 of the Constitution which enumerated all basic civil and political rights" in the Soviet Union. But when he and other prisoners attempted to use this as a legal basis for their abuse complaints, their prosecutor's argument was that "the Constitution was written not for you, but for American Negroes, so that they know how happy the lives of Soviet citizens are".<a href="#cite_note-111">[84]</a> Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, instead, it was determined as any action which could threaten the Soviet state and society. For example, <a href="/wiki/Speculation" title="Speculation">a desire to make a profit</a> could be interpreted as a <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">counter-revolutionary activity</a> punishable by death.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">The liquidation and deportation of millions of peasants in 1928–31</a> was carried out within the terms of the Soviet Civil Code.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">[75]</a> Some Soviet legal scholars even said that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt.<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Latsis" title="Martin Latsis">Martin Latsis</a>, chief of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Ukraine">Soviet Ukraine</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">secret police</a> explained: "Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> he belongs, what is his background, his <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>. These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_State-112">[85]</a> The purpose of <a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">public trials</a> was "not to demonstrate the existence or absence of a crime – that was predetermined by the appropriate <a href="/wiki/CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU">party authorities</a> – but to provide yet another forum for <a href="/wiki/Soviet_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet propaganda">political agitation and propaganda</a> for the instruction of the citizenry (see <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow Trials</a> for example). Defense lawyers, who had to be <a href="/wiki/CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU">party members</a>, were required to take their client's guilt for granted..."<a href="#cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">[75]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg/220px-Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="365"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg/220px-Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg/330px-Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg/440px-Soekarno_and_Voroshilov.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Voroshilov</a> in a state meeting on 1958</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg/170px-Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2384" data-file-height="3328"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 237px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg/170px-Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="237" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg/255px-Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg/340px-Soviet_stamp_1974_for_friendship_between_USSR_and_India_4k.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Soviet <a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Russia#Soviet_Union" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Russia">stamps</a> 1974 for friendship between the USSR and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg/220px-President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5932" data-file-height="3899"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 145px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg/220px-President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="145" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg/330px-President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg/440px-President_Ford_informally_concludes_the_Vladivostok_Summit_-_NARA_-_7062568.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> speaking informally at the <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok_Summit_Meeting_on_Arms_Control" title="Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control">Vladivostok Summit</a> in 1974</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="680"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mikhail Gorbachev and <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> signing bilateral documents during Gorbachev's official visit to the United States in 1990</figcaption></figure> During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, or by the party's highest body the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a>. Operations were handled by the separate <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a>. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Chicherin" title="Georgy Chicherin">Georgy Chicherin</a> (1872–1936), <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a> (1876–1951), <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> (1890–1986), <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Vyshinsky" title="Andrey Vyshinsky">Andrey Vyshinsky</a> (1883–1954) and <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a> (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_Institute_of_International_Relations" title="Moscow State Institute of International Relations">Moscow State Institute of International Relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[86]</a> <ul><li>Comintern (1919–1943), or <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a>, was an international communist organization based in the Kremlin that advocated <a href="/wiki/World_communism" title="World communism">world communism</a>. The Comintern intended to 'struggle by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the state'.<a href="#cite_note-114">[87]</a> It was abolished as a conciliatory measure toward Britain and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-115">[88]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a>, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Совет Экономической Взаимопомощи, Sovet Ekonomicheskoy Vzaimopomoshchi, СЭВ, SEV) was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under Soviet control that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with several communist states elsewhere in the world. Moscow was concerned about the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>, and Comecon was meant to prevent countries in the Soviets' sphere of influence from moving towards that of the Americans and Southeast Asia. Comecon was the Eastern Bloc's reply to the formation in Western Europe of the Organization for European Economic Co-Operation (OEEC),<a href="#cite_note-loc-cs-116">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[90]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Collective_defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective defence">collective defence</a> alliance formed in 1955 among the USSR and its <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a> in Eastern Europe during the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-118">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yoder1993-119">[92]</a> The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Comecon, the regional economic organization for the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist states</a> of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> into <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrump2015-120">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-118">[91]</a> Although nominally a "defensive" alliance, the Pact's primary function was to safeguard the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Union's hegemony</a> over its <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Bloc">Eastern European</a> satellites, with the Pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away.<a href="#cite_note-history.com-121">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinalda2009-118">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrump20151,_17-122">[95]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a> (1947–1956), informally the Communist Information Bureau and officially the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties, was the first official agency of the international Marxist-Leninist movement since the dissolution of the Comintern in 1943. Its role was to coordinate actions between Marxist-Leninist parties under Soviet direction. Stalin used it to order Western European communist parties to abandon their exclusively parliamentarian line and instead concentrate on politically impeding the operations of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a>, the U.S. program of rebuilding Europe after the war and developing its economy.<a href="#cite_note-123">[96]</a> It also coordinated international aid to Marxist-Leninist insurgents during the Greek Civil War in 1947–1949.<a href="#cite_note-124">[97]</a> It expelled Yugoslavia in 1948 after <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> insisted on an independent program. Its newspaper, For a Lasting Peace, for a People's Democracy!, promoted Stalin's positions. The Cominform's concentration on Europe meant a deemphasis on world revolution in Soviet foreign policy. By enunciating a uniform ideology, it allowed the constituent parties to focus on personalities rather than issues.<a href="#cite_note-125">[98]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_policies_(1919–1939)">Early policies (1919–1939)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)#Soviet_Union" title="International relations (1919–1939)">International relations (1919–1939) § Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1987_CPA_5896.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/170px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/170px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/255px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/340px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1987 Soviet stamp</figcaption></figure> The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and changed directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.<a href="#cite_note-126">[99]</a> During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Russian responsibility to assist them. The <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Comintern</a> was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Hungarian Soviet Republic">Hungarian Soviet Republic</a>—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help. By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo,_1922" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Rapallo, 1922">Treaty of Rapallo</a> that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.<a href="#cite_note-127">[100]</a> Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and de facto diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> came to power in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-128">[101]</a> All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.<a href="#cite_note-129">[102]</a> In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labour unions or other organizations on the left, which they labelled <a href="/wiki/Social_fascism" title="Social fascism">social fascists</a>. In the usage of the Soviet Union, and of the Comintern and its affiliated parties in this period, the epithet <a href="/wiki/Fascist_(insult)" title="Fascist (insult)">fascist</a> was used to describe capitalist society in general and virtually any <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">anti-Soviet</a> or anti-Stalinist activity or opinion.<a href="#cite_note-Richter-130">[103]</a> Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Front">Popular Front</a> program that called on all Marxist parties to join with all <a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">anti-Fascist</a> political, labour, and organizational forces that were opposed to <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, especially of the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> variety.<a href="#cite_note-131">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[105]</a> The rapid growth of power in Nazi Germany encouraged both Paris and Moscow to form a military alliance, and the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Soviet_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance" title="Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance">Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance</a> was signed in May 1935. A firm believer in collective security, Stalin's foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Litvinov" title="Maxim Litvinov">Maxim Litvinov</a> worked very hard to form a closer relationship with France and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-133">[106]</a> In 1939, half a year after the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a>, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-134">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_War_II_(1939–1945)">World War II (1939–1945)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes of World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II#Soviet_Union" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II § Soviet Union</a></div> Up until his death in 1953, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> controlled all foreign relations of the Soviet Union during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>. Despite the increasing build-up of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>'s war machine and the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, the Soviet Union did not cooperate with any other nation, choosing to follow its own path.<a href="#cite_note-136">[109]</a> However, after <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the Soviet Union's priorities changed. Despite previous conflict with the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> dropped his post war border demands.<a href="#cite_note-137">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cold_War_(1945–1991)">Cold War (1945–1991)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins of the Cold War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> was a period of <a href="/wiki/Geopolitical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geopolitical">geopolitical</a> tension between the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, which began following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in 1945. The term <a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">cold war</a> is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two <a href="/wiki/Superpowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Superpowers">superpowers</a>, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>. The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">alliance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">victory</a> against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in 1945. Aside from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arsenal development</a> and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>, propaganda campaigns, <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_espionage" title="Cold War espionage">espionage</a>, far-reaching <a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">embargoes</a>, rivalry at <a href="/wiki/Politics_and_sports" title="Politics and sports">sports events</a> and technological competitions such as the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions of the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic_(system_of_government)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet republic (system of government)">Soviet republic (system of government)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics of the Soviet Union</a></div> Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a> (SSRs), or federations, such as <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasia</a> (SFSRs),<a href="#cite_note-sakwa-63">[36]</a> all four being the founding republics who signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a> in December 1922. In 1924, during the <a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">national delimitation</a> in Central Asia, <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmenistan</a> were formed from parts of Russia's <a href="/wiki/Turkestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkestan ASSR</a> and two Soviet dependencies, the <a href="/wiki/Khorezm_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Khorezm People's Soviet Republic">Khorezm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_People%27s_Soviet_Republic" title="Bukharan People's Soviet Republic">Bukharan PSPs</a>. In 1929, <a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a> was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan</a> being elevated to Union Republics, while <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a> were split off from the Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status.<a href="#cite_note-138">[111]</a> In August 1940, <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavia</a> was formed from parts of Ukraine and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_northern_Bukovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina">Soviet-occupied Bessarabia</a>, and Ukrainian SSR. <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a> were also <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">annexed by the Soviet Union</a> and turned into SSRs, which was <a href="/wiki/State_continuity_of_the_Baltic_states" title="State continuity of the Baltic states">not recognized by most of the international community</a> and was considered an <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">illegal occupation</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Soviet invasion of Finland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic">Karelo-Finnish SSR</a> was formed on annexed territory as a Union Republic in March 1940 and then incorporated into Russia as the <a href="/wiki/Karelian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Karelian ASSR</a> in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).<a href="#cite_note-139">[112]</a> While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as 'Russia'. While the Russian SFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, and most highly developed. The Russian SFSR was also the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was 'window dressing' for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called 'Russians', not 'Soviets', since 'everyone knew who really ran the show'.<a href="#cite_note-White_2012_368-140">[113]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Republic </th> <th>Map of the Union Republics between 1956 and 1991 </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> </td> <td rowspan="15" style="width:350px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Republics_of_the_USSR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Republics_of_the_USSR.svg/600px-Republics_of_the_USSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="410" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 600px;height: 410px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Republics_of_the_USSR.svg/600px-Republics_of_the_USSR.svg.png" data-width="600" data-height="410" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Republics_of_the_USSR.svg/900px-Republics_of_the_USSR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Republics_of_the_USSR.svg/1200px-Republics_of_the_USSR.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbek SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakh SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuanian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghiz SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajik SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenian SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmen SSR</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 </td> <td><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonian SSR</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Heroes_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Lists of Heroes of the Soviet Union">Lists of Heroes of the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military history of the Soviet Union">Military history of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/220px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 122px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/220px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="122" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/330px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/440px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A medium-range <a href="/wiki/RSD-10" class="mw-redirect" title="RSD-10">SS-20</a> non-<a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">ICBM</a> ballistic missile, the deployment of which by the Soviet Union in the late 1970s launched a new <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> in Europe when NATO responded by deploying <a href="/wiki/Pershing_II" title="Pershing II">Pershing II</a> missiles in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, among other things</figcaption></figure> Under the Military Law of September 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Land Forces</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Air Force</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">Joint State Political Directorate</a> (OGPU) and the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Troops" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Troops">Internal Troops</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[114]</a> The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> secret police, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic Missile Forces">Strategic Missile Forces</a> (1959), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Defence_Forces" title="Soviet Air Defence Forces">Air Defense Forces</a> (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force fourth, and Navy fifth). The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean crisis</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Gorshkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Gorshkov">Sergei Gorshkov</a>, it expanded significantly. It became known for <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruisers</a> and submarines. In 1989, there served 500 000 men. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Air Force">Soviet Air Force</a> focused on a fleet of <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">strategic bombers</a> and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighters</a> and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers. In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad.<a href="#cite_note-theodora.com-22">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[116]</a> These included the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">uprising in East Germany</a> (1953), <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian revolution</a> (1956) and the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989</a>. In the Soviet Union, general <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> applied, meaning all able-bodied males aged 18 and older were drafted in the armed forces.<a href="#cite_note-144">[117]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gdp_per_capita_1965.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gdp_per_capita_1965.png/250px-Gdp_per_capita_1965.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="117" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="597"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 117px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gdp_per_capita_1965.png/250px-Gdp_per_capita_1965.png" data-width="250" data-height="117" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gdp_per_capita_1965.png/375px-Gdp_per_capita_1965.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Gdp_per_capita_1965.png/500px-Gdp_per_capita_1965.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Soviet Union in comparison to other countries by GDP (nominal) per capita in 1965 based on a West-German school book (1971) <table width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> > 5,000 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> 2,500–5,000 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> 1,000–2,500 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> </td> <td valign="top"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> 500–1,000 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> 250–500 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> < 250 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">DM</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></figcaption></figure> The Soviet Union adopted a <a href="/wiki/Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">command economy</a>, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of <a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">war communism</a>, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive or forced requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Barrier_troops" title="Barrier troops">barrier troops</a> were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population.<a href="#cite_note-145">[118]</a> After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> by the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy steadily recovered as a result.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a> After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">forced collectivization of agriculture</a> and enacting draconian labour legislation. Resources were mobilized for <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%9353)#Industrialization_in_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)">rapid industrialization</a>, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a> The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world.<a href="#cite_note-147">[120]</a> As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-148">[121]</a> The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.<a href="#cite_note-149">[122]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DneproGES_1947.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/220px-DneproGES_1947.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="314"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/220px-DneproGES_1947.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/330px-DneproGES_1947.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/440px-DneproGES_1947.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_Hydroelectric_Station" title="Dnieper Hydroelectric Station">DneproGES</a>, one of many <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectric</a> power stations in the Soviet Union</figcaption></figure> By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">self-sufficient</a>; for most of the period until the creation of <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a>, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally.<a href="#cite_note-foreign_trade-150">[123]</a> After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a> on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on <a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign trade of the Soviet Union">foreign trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[124]</a> Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-foreign_trade-150">[123]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a> of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>. A portion of Soviet resources during the Cold War were <a href="/wiki/International_relations_within_the_Comecon" title="International relations within the Comecon">allocated in aid</a> to the Soviet-aligned states.<a href="#cite_note-foreign_trade-150">[123]</a> The Soviet Union's <a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">military budget</a> in the 1970s was gigantic, forming 40–60% of the entire federal budget and accounting to 15% of the USSR's GDP (13% in the 1980s).<a href="#cite_note-152">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armenian_cotton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Armenian_cotton.jpg/220px-Armenian_cotton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="878" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Armenian_cotton.jpg/220px-Armenian_cotton.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Armenian_cotton.jpg/330px-Armenian_cotton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Armenian_cotton.jpg/440px-Armenian_cotton.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Picking cotton in <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a> in the 1930s</figcaption></figure> From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by <a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">central planning</a>, carried out by <a href="/wiki/Gosplan" title="Gosplan">Gosplan</a> and organized in <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">five-year plans</a>. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ad hoc intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">rubles</a> rather than in physical goods. <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">Credit</a> was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a> A number of basic <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> were state-funded, such as <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">education</a> and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over <a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Consumer goods in the Soviet Union">consumer goods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-economy-153">[126]</a> Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices.<a href="#cite_note-hanson-154">[127]</a> A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the <a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">reform of 1965</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Workers of the <a href="/wiki/Salihorsk" title="Salihorsk">Salihorsk</a> potash plant, <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Belarus</a>, 1968</figcaption></figure> Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely,<a href="#cite_note-155">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[129]</a> by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West.<a href="#cite_note-157">[130]</a> However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">steadily declined</a> much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital <a href="/wiki/Stock" title="Stock">stock</a> (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti,_the_Samara_Region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="672"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/AvtoVAZ" title="AvtoVAZ">Volzhsky Avtomobilny Zavod</a> (VAZ) in 1969</figcaption></figure> Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19944-158">[131]</a> A 1986 study published in the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Public_Health" title="American Journal of Public Health">American Journal of Public Health</a> claimed that, citing <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> data, the Soviet model provided a better <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(economics)" title="Human development (economics)">human development</a> than market economies at the same level of economic development in most cases.<a href="#cite_note-159">[132]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fischer" title="Stanley Fischer">Stanley Fischer</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Easterly" title="William Easterly">William Easterly</a>, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19945-160">[133]</a> Steven Rosefielde states that the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.<a href="#cite_note-161">[134]</a> In 1987, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a>. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from <a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">reduced petroleum export revenues</a>, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-146">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-hanson-154">[127]</a> For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>) was <a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_by_past_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of regions by past GDP (PPP)">the second-largest in the world</a>, and third during the second half of the 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-162">[135]</a> although on a <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">per-capita</a> basis, it was behind that of <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a> countries.<a href="#cite_note-163">[136]</a> Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1990, the country had a <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> of 0.920, placing it in the 'high' category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.<a href="#cite_note-164">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1987_CPA_5858.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1987_CPA_5858.jpg/220px-1987_CPA_5858.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="567"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1987_CPA_5858.jpg/220px-1987_CPA_5858.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1987_CPA_5858.jpg/330px-1987_CPA_5858.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1987_CPA_5858.jpg/440px-1987_CPA_5858.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Soviet stamp depicting the 30th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>, published in 1987, a year following the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl nuclear disaster</a></figcaption></figure> The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983105%E2%80%93108-165">[138]</a> both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] only 2.6%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983295-166">[139]</a> David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297-167">[140]</a> The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297%E2%80%93299-168">[141]</a> However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983299-169">[142]</a> In 1991, the Soviet Union had a <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipeline</a> network of 82,000 kilometres (51,000 mi) for <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">crude oil</a> and another 206,500 kilometres (128,300 mi) for natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-ciacom-170">[143]</a> Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-171">[144]</a> In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn <a href="/wiki/Hard_currency" title="Hard currency">hard currency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-foreign_trade-150">[123]</a> At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology in the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/170px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="1836"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/170px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/255px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/340px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Soviet stamp showing the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a></figcaption></figure> The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">science and technology</a> within its economy,<a href="#cite_note-science&technology-173">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-174">[147]</a> however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">world's first space satellite</a>, typically were the responsibility of the military.<a href="#cite_note-economy-153">[126]</a> Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-175">[148]</a> By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as Energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">bureaucracy</a>, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a>. The Soviet government opposed and persecuted <a href="/wiki/Geneticists" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneticists">geneticists</a> in favour of <a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> rejected by the scientific community in the Soviet Union and abroad but supported by Stalin's inner circles. Implemented in the USSR and China, it resulted in reduced crop yields and is widely believed to have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[149]</a> The Soviet Union also had more <a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">scientists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Engineers">engineers</a>, relative to the world population, than any other major country due to the strong levels of state support for scientific developments by the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-177">[150]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Socrates" title="Project Socrates">Project Socrates</a> determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and use of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.<a href="#cite_note-178">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_program">Space program</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nedelin_catastrophe" title="Nedelin catastrophe">Nedelin catastrophe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev,_Valentina_Tereshkova,_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="712"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Popovich" title="Pavel Popovich">Pavel Popovich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Mausoleum" title="Lenin's Mausoleum">Lenin's Mausoleum</a> in 1963</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soyuz_18_booster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/170px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2723"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 249px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/170px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="249" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/255px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/340px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a> rocket at the <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a></figcaption></figure> At the end of the 1950s, the USSR constructed the first <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a>—<a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, which marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>—a competition to achieve superior spaceflight capability with the United States.<a href="#cite_note-181">[154]</a> This was followed by other successful satellites, most notably <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik 5">Sputnik 5</a>, where test dogs were sent to space. On 12 April 1961, the USSR launched <a href="/wiki/Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>, which carried <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, making him the first human to ever be launched into space and complete a space journey.<a href="#cite_note-182">[155]</a> The first plans for <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">space shuttles</a> and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but personal disputes between designers and management prevented their development. In terms of the <a href="/wiki/Luna_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna program">Luna program</a>, the USSR only had automated spacecraft launches with no crewed spacecraft, passing on the 'Moon' part of <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">won by the Americans</a>. The Soviet public's reaction to the American moon-landing was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about it, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it attention, and another portion was angered.<a href="#cite_note-183">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[157]</a> In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of a space shuttle emerged, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed it till the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the <a href="/wiki/Buran_(spacecraft)" title="Buran (spacecraft)">Buran</a>, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another, <a href="/wiki/Ptichka" title="Ptichka">Ptichka</a>, endured prolonged construction and was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, <a href="/wiki/Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a>, which is the most powerful in the world.<a href="#cite_note-185">[158]</a> In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union built the <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> orbital station. It was built on the construction of <a href="/wiki/Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut stations</a> and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Harland2020-186">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[160]</a> Mir was the only orbital station in operation from 1986 to 1998. Gradually, other modules were added to it, including American modules. However, the station deteriorated rapidly after a fire on board, so in 2001 it was decided to bring it into the atmosphere where it burned down.<a href="#cite_note-Harland2020-186">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1406" data-file-height="703"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 110px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="110" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Aeroflot.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aeroflot" title="Aeroflot">Aeroflot</a>'s flag during the Soviet era</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/220px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6438" data-file-height="4292"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/220px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/330px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/440px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Nuclear Icebreaker <a href="/wiki/Lenin_(1957_icebreaker)" title="Lenin (1957 icebreaker)">Lenin</a></figcaption></figure> Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan" title="First five-year plan">economic centralization</a> of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Aeroflot" title="Aeroflot">Aeroflot</a>, an aviation <a href="/wiki/Enterprises_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Enterprises in the Soviet Union">enterprise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[161]</a> The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air.<a href="#cite_note-ciacom-170">[143]</a> However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205-189">[162]</a> Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205-189">[162]</a> it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983201-190">[163]</a> By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Government_budget" title="Government budget">government budget</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985166%E2%80%93167-191">[164]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Street_network" title="Street network">street network</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Automotive industry in the Soviet Union">automotive industry</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985168-192">[165]</a> remained underdeveloped,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985165-193">[166]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dirt_road" title="Dirt road">dirt roads</a> were common outside major cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985167-194">[167]</a> Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985167-194">[167]</a> Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985169-195">[168]</a> The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.<a href="#cite_note-196">[169]</a> Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.<a href="#cite_note-197">[170]</a> The Soviet <a href="/wiki/Merchant_navy" title="Merchant navy">merchant navy</a> was one of the largest in the world.<a href="#cite_note-ciacom-170">[143]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Population_of_former_USSR.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Population_of_former_USSR.PNG/250px-Population_of_former_USSR.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1707" data-file-height="1004"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Population_of_former_USSR.PNG/250px-Population_of_former_USSR.PNG" data-width="250" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Population_of_former_USSR.PNG/375px-Population_of_former_USSR.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Population_of_former_USSR.PNG/500px-Population_of_former_USSR.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Population of the Soviet Union (red) and the <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a> (blue) from 1961 to 2009 as well as projection (dotted blue) from 2010 to 2100</figcaption></figure> Excess deaths throughout <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">famine of 1921–1922</a> that was triggered by Lenin's <a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">war communism</a> policies)<a href="#cite_note-198">[171]</a> amounted to a combined total of 18 million,<a href="#cite_note-199">[172]</a> some 10 million in the 1930s,<a href="#cite_note-1930s-200">[173]</a> and more than 20 million in 1941–1945. The postwar <a href="/wiki/Population_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Population of the Soviet Union">Soviet population</a> was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued.<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242-201">[174]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Catherine Merridale</a>, '... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million.'<a href="#cite_note-202">[175]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Birth_rate" title="Birth rate">birth rate</a> of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> demonstrated a gradual decrease as well—from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics.<a href="#cite_note-GSE-203">[176]</a> Soviet Europe moved towards <a href="/wiki/Sub-replacement_fertility" title="Sub-replacement fertility">sub-replacement fertility</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a> continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.<a href="#cite_note-204">[177]</a> The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country.<a href="#cite_note-205">[178]</a> An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again.<a href="#cite_note-206">[179]</a> The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services.<a href="#cite_note-207">[180]</a> The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Soviet government</a> stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.<a href="#cite_note-208">[181]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219497266">.mw-parser-output .largestCities-table-background{background:#f9f9f9;color:#222}.mw-parser-output .largestCities-cell-background{background:#f0f0f0;color:#222}</style> <div> <table style="font-size:88%;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 100%; border: 1px solid darkgray;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10" style="padding:0.3em 0.75em;"><div style="float:right; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div><div style="float:left; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div> <div style="height:2.6em;line-height:1.3em;">Largest cities or towns in the Soviet Union <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal;">Sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unstats.un.org/unsd/Demographic/Products/dyb/DYBHist/HistTab02.pdf">1989 Soviet census</a></div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in the Soviet Union">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republic</a> </th> <th>Pop. </th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cities in the Soviet Union">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republic</a> </th> <th>Pop.</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moscow"><noscript><img alt="Moscow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg/120px-Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2385" data-file-height="1485"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 75px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg/120px-Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg" data-alt="Moscow" data-width="120" data-height="75" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg/180px-Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg/240px-Red_Square_Lenin%27s_mausoleum_02.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Hermitage,_Leningrad_(St._Petersburg).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leningrad"><noscript><img alt="Leningrad" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg/120px-Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2965" data-file-height="2054"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 83px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg/120px-Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg" data-alt="Leningrad" data-width="120" data-height="83" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg/180px-Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg/240px-Hermitage%2C_Leningrad_%28St._Petersburg%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a> </td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">1</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">8,967,332</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">11</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian SSR">Georgian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,246,936 </td> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev,_1985.JPEG" class="mw-file-description" title="Kiev"><noscript><img alt="Kiev" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG/120px-Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2890" data-file-height="1900"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 79px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG/120px-Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG" data-alt="Kiev" data-width="120" data-height="79" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG/180px-Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG/240px-Peremohy_Square_in_Kiev%2C_1985.JPEG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kiev</a> <a href="/wiki/File:%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tashkent"><noscript><img alt="Tashkent" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg/120px-%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3063" data-file-height="2015"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 79px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg/120px-%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg" data-alt="Tashkent" data-width="120" data-height="79" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg/180px-%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg/240px-%D0%97%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%92%D0%9E.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">2</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">4,990,749</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">12</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Samara" title="Samara">Kuybyshev</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,254,460 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">3</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kiev</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,571,000</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">13</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian SSR">Armenian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,201,539 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">4</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbek SSR">Uzbek SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,072,459</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">14</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Dnepropetrovsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,178,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">5</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijan SSR">Azerbaijan SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,727,000</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">15</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Omsk" title="Omsk">Omsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,148,418 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">6</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkov</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,593,970</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">16</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk" title="Chelyabinsk">Chelyabinsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,141,777 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">7</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Byelorussian SSR">Byelorussian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,607,077</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">17</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odessa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,115,371 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">8</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod" title="Nizhny Novgorod">Gorki</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,438,133</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">18</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Donetsk" title="Donetsk">Donetsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,109,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">9</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Novosibirsk" title="Novosibirsk">Novosibirsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,436,516</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">19</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kazan" title="Kazan">Kazan</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,094,378 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">10</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Sverdlovsk</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,364,621</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">20</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Almaty" title="Almaty">Alma-Ata</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh SSR">Kazakh SSR</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,071,900 </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanism">Urbanism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg/220px-Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg/220px-Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg/330px-Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg/440px-Largest_cities_USSR_1989.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Largest cities of the USSR close to its dissolution</figcaption></figure> The Soviet Union imposed heavy control on city growth, preventing some cities from reaching their full potential while promoting others.<a href="#cite_note-CTRL-209">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-TSKT-210">[183]</a> For the entirety of its existence, the most populous cities were <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> (both in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>), with the third far place taken by <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>). At its inception, the Top 5 was completed by <a href="/wiki/Kharkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharkov">Kharkov</a> (Ukrainian SSR) and <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a> (<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan SSR</a>), but, by the end of the century, <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbek SSR</a>), which had assumed the position of capital of Soviet Central Asia, had risen to fourth place. Another city worth mentioning is <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a>), which saw rapid growth during the 20th century, rising from the 32nd most populous in the union to the 7th.<a href="#cite_note-TSKT-210">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harris_1945-211">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-Census-212">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_and_fertility">Women and fertility</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Russia">LGBT history in Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 209px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="209" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/255px-RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg/340px-RIAN_archive_16735_Cosmonaut_Valentina_Tereshkova.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, the first woman in space, visiting the <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lvov</a> confectionery, Ukrainian SSR, 1967</figcaption></figure> Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in 1932), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms.<a href="#cite_note-213">[186]</a> However, without <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children.<a href="#cite_note-214">[187]</a> The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.<a href="#cite_note-215">[188]</a> By 1917, Russia became the first <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> to grant women the right to vote.<a href="#cite_note-216">[189]</a> After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio.<a href="#cite_note-217">[190]</a> This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg/220px-Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="762"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg/220px-Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg/330px-Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg/440px-Young_Pioneers_in_Kazakh_SSR.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Young_Pioneer_organization_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union">Young Pioneers</a> at a Young Pioneer camp in Kazakh SSR</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lunacharsky" title="Anatoly Lunacharsky">Anatoly Lunacharsky</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Commissar" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Commissar">People's Commissar</a> for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Likbez" title="Likbez">elimination of illiteracy</a>. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system.<a href="#cite_note-218">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-219">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[194]</a> Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education.<a href="#cite_note-222">[195]</a> In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the <a href="/wiki/New_Soviet_man" title="New Soviet man">New Man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[196]</a> Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free <a href="/wiki/Vocational-technical_school" title="Vocational-technical school">vocational training</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">education system</a> was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> for applicants from nations associated with <a href="/wiki/Cultural_backwardness" title="Cultural backwardness">cultural backwardness</a>. However, as part of a general <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">antisemitic policy</a>, an unofficial <a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a> was applied[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations.<a href="#cite_note-224">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[200]</a> The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local <a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">Komsomol</a> party secretary.<a href="#cite_note-228">[201]</a> According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.<a href="#cite_note-education-229">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalities_and_ethnic_groups">Nationalities and ethnic groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG/220px-Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3128" data-file-height="2080"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG/220px-Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG/330px-Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG/440px-Samarkand-1981-0013.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>People in <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, Uzbek SSR, 1981</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mestia,_Svaneti._October_30,_1929.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/220px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="493"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 218px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/220px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/330px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/440px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Svaneti" title="Svaneti">Svaneti</a> man in <a href="/wiki/Mestia" title="Mestia">Mestia</a>, Georgian SSR, 1929</figcaption></figure> The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> (50.78%), followed by <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> (15.45%) and <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a> (5.84%).<a href="#cite_note-cia-230">[203]</a> Overall, in 1989 the ethnic demography of the country showed that 69.8% was <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavic</a>, 17.5% was <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a>, 1.6% were <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, 1.6% were <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a>, 1.5% were <a href="/wiki/Finnic_peoples" title="Finnic peoples">Finnic</a>, 1.5% were <a href="/wiki/Tajiks" title="Tajiks">Tajik</a>, 1.4% were <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>, 1.2% were <a href="/wiki/Moldovans" title="Moldovans">Moldovan</a> and 4.1% were of other various ethnic groups.<a href="#cite_note-231">[204]</a> All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19812-232">[205]</a> If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mingrelians" title="Mingrelians">Mingrelians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a>, who were classified with the linguistically related <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-233">[206]</a> Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, <a href="/wiki/Belarusians" title="Belarusians">Belarusians</a>, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflicts_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ethnic conflicts in the Soviet Union">ethnic antagonisms</a> developed over the years.<a href="#cite_note-234">[207]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:Soviet_Union" title="Talk:Soviet Union">disputed</a>] Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Soviet leadership</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Nikolai Podgorny</a> or <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a>. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian 'diaspora' in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.<a href="#cite_note-235">[208]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnographic map of the USSR, 1930"><noscript><img alt="Ethnographic map of the USSR, 1930" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg/285px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg" decoding="async" width="285" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3287" data-file-height="2422"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 285px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg/285px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg" data-alt="Ethnographic map of the USSR, 1930" data-width="285" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg/428px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg/570px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1930.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnographic map of the USSR, 1930</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_(USSR)_Ethnic_Groups_(Before_1939)_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="European Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Ethnic Groups (Before 1939)"><noscript><img alt="European Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Ethnic Groups (Before 1939)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg/148px-European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4174" data-file-height="5918"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 148px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg/148px-European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg" data-alt="European Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Ethnic Groups (Before 1939)" data-width="148" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg/222px-European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg/296px-European_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Ethnic_Groups_%28Before_1939%29_-_DPLA_-_9820cc06b72e7b131366b861f5ee351a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">European Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Ethnic Groups (Before 1939)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941"><noscript><img alt="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg/300px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="185" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3560" data-file-height="2194"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 185px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg/300px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg" data-alt="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941" data-width="300" data-height="185" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg/450px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg/600px-Ethnic_map_USSR_1941.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnic composition of the Soviet Union in 1949"><noscript><img alt="Ethnic composition of the Soviet Union in 1949" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg/300px-U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9226" data-file-height="6397"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg/300px-U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg" data-alt="Ethnic composition of the Soviet Union in 1949" data-width="300" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg/450px-U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg/600px-U.S._S.R._-_Ethnic_Compositions_-_DPLA_-_754227d4ec980a6b169104b656de499a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnic composition of the Soviet Union in 1949</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970"><noscript><img alt="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png/300px-Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="208" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1343" data-file-height="933"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 208px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png/300px-Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png" data-alt="Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970" data-width="300" data-height="208" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png/450px-Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png/600px-Map_of_the_ethnic_groups_of_the_Soviet_Union.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1970</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the ethnic groups living in USSR, 1970"><noscript><img alt="Map of the ethnic groups living in USSR, 1970" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png/300px-French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1494" data-file-height="939"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png/300px-French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png" data-alt="Map of the ethnic groups living in USSR, 1970" data-width="300" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png/450px-French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png/600px-French_map_of_the_ethnic_groups_living_in_USSR.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of the ethnic groups living in USSR, 1970</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ethnic Groups in the Soviet Union, 1979"><noscript><img alt="Ethnic Groups in the Soviet Union, 1979" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg/164px-Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2558" data-file-height="3276"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 164px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg/164px-Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg" data-alt="Ethnic Groups in the Soviet Union, 1979" data-width="164" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg/246px-Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg/328px-Ethnic_Groups_in_the_Soviet_Union_-_DPLA_-_d7a6475bd436c74e2b67e621a6b2afad.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ethnic Groups in the Soviet Union, 1979</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 335px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 330px; height: 240px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic,_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Comparative Soviet Nationalities by Republic, 1989"><noscript><img alt="Comparative Soviet Nationalities by Republic, 1989" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg/164px-Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3276"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 164px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg/164px-Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg" data-alt="Comparative Soviet Nationalities by Republic, 1989" data-width="164" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg/246px-Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg/328px-Comparative_Soviet_Nationalities_by_Republic%2C_1989_-_DPLA_-_23930ee870e66bd2efa5417463128b28.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Comparative Soviet Nationalities by Republic, 1989</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia#Healthcare_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Healthcare in Russia">Health care in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RussianAbortionPoster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RussianAbortionPoster.jpg/220px-RussianAbortionPoster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1117"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RussianAbortionPoster.jpg/220px-RussianAbortionPoster.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RussianAbortionPoster.jpg/330px-RussianAbortionPoster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RussianAbortionPoster.jpg/440px-RussianAbortionPoster.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An early Soviet-era poster discouraging unsafe abortion practices</figcaption></figure> In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice".<a href="#cite_note-lane-236">[209]</a> The Soviet health care system was conceived by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Health (Soviet Union)">People's Commissariat for Health</a> in 1918. Under the <a href="/wiki/Semashko_model" title="Semashko model">Semashko model</a>, health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the <a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977 Soviet Constitution</a> gave all citizens the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a> protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> became general secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>'s tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision.<a href="#cite_note-237">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Health (Soviet Union)">Minister of Health</a> <a href="/wiki/Yevgeniy_Chazov" title="Yevgeniy Chazov">Yevgeniy Chazov</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/19th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">rubles</a> were squandered.<a href="#cite_note-238">[211]</a> After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">socialist system</a> was superior to the <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist system</a>. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_consumption_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol consumption in Russia">alcohol abuse</a>. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-SeemingParadox-239">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dentistry">Dentistry</h4></div> Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.<a href="#cite_note-240">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages of the Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reforms_of_Russian_orthography" title="Reforms of Russian orthography">Reforms of Russian orthography</a></div> Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19813%E2%80%934-242">[215]</a> The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">multilingual</a> situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialectally</a> greatly from each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19814-243">[216]</a> When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain 'official language' status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198125-244">[217]</a> There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198126-245">[218]</a> During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198127-246">[219]</a> As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian de facto functioned as an official language, as the 'language of interethnic communication' (Russian: язык межнационального общения), but only assumed the <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> status as the official national language in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-247">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/220px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2688"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 308px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/220px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="308" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/330px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/440px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cover of <a href="/wiki/Bezbozhnik_(magazine)" title="Bezbozhnik (magazine)">Bezbozhnik</a> in 1929, magazine of the Society of the Godless. The first five-year plan of the Soviet Union is shown crushing the gods of the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 168px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="168" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/330px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/440px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a> in Moscow during its demolition in 1931</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sennaia-1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sennaia-1900.jpg/220px-Sennaia-1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2147" data-file-height="1531"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 157px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sennaia-1900.jpg/220px-Sennaia-1900.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="157" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sennaia-1900.jpg/330px-Sennaia-1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sennaia-1900.jpg/440px-Sennaia-1900.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Saviour_Church_on_Sennaya_Square" title="Saviour Church on Sennaya Square">Saviour Church on Sennaya Square</a> in Leningrad was one of many notable church buildings destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hujum.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Hujum.png/220px-Hujum.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="465"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Hujum.png/220px-Hujum.png" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Hujum.png/330px-Hujum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Hujum.png/440px-Hujum.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Paranja" title="Paranja">paranja</a> burning ceremony in the <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbek SSR</a> as part of Soviet <a href="/wiki/Hujum" title="Hujum">Hujum</a> policies</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg/220px-U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="7143" data-file-height="4775"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg/220px-U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg/330px-U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg/440px-U.S.S.R.-Major_religious_groups._4-61._LOC_75694086.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Major religious groups in the Soviet Union as published by the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens.<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-248">[221]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> being the largest <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denomination</a>. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunnis</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shias</a> being concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan SSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-248">[221]</a> Smaller groups included <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholics</a>, Jews, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> denominations (especially <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a>).<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-248">[221]</a> Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions.<a href="#cite_note-Simkin_2003-249">[222]</a> The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling classes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-250">[223]</a> In Soviet law, the 'freedom to hold religious services' was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> spirit of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">scientific materialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-250">[223]</a> In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact used a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-250">[223]</a> The 1918 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars" title="Council of People's Commissars">Council of People's Commissars</a> decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that 'the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately.'<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_209-251">[224]</a> Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized <a href="/wiki/Bible_study_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bible study (Christian)">Bible study</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-250">[223]</a> Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed; the majority of them were demolished or re-purposed for state needs with little concern for their historic and cultural value.<a href="#cite_note-Atwood_2001,_311-252">[225]</a> More than 85,000 Orthodox priests were shot in 1937 alone.<a href="#cite_note-253">[226]</a> Only a twelfth of the Russian Orthodox Church's priests were left functioning in their parishes by 1941.<a href="#cite_note-254">[227]</a> In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in Russia fell from 29,584 to less than 500 (1.7%).<a href="#cite_note-255">[228]</a> The Soviet Union was officially a <a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">secular state</a>,<a href="#cite_note-256">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[230]</a> but a 'government-sponsored program of forced conversion to <a href="/wiki/Marxist-Leninist_atheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist-Leninist atheism">atheism</a>' was conducted under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adappur2000-260">[233]</a> The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools.<a href="#cite_note-261">[234]</a> In 1925, the government founded the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Militant_Atheists" title="League of Militant Atheists">League of Militant Atheists</a> to intensify the propaganda campaign.<a href="#cite_note-262">[235]</a> Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I. Convinced that religious <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">anti-Sovietism</a> had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin administration began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-263">[236]</a> Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. <a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a> began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Sergius_of_Moscow" title="Patriarch Sergius of Moscow">Patriarch Sergius of Moscow</a> was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-263">[236]</a> The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.<a href="#cite_note-Ro'i_1995,_263-264">[237]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-263">[236]</a> During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97.<a href="#cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-265">[238]</a> The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.<a href="#cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-265">[238]</a> Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%9382)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–82)">Brezhnev era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Steinberg_&_Wanner_2008,-266">[239]</a> Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Alexy_I_of_Moscow" title="Patriarch Alexy I of Moscow">Alexy I</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Banner_of_Labour" title="Order of the Red Banner of Labour">Order of the Red Banner of Labour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_42-267">[240]</a> A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as 'active religious believers.'<a href="#cite_note-subculture-268">[241]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_cuisine" title="Soviet cuisine">Soviet cuisine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music of the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Broadcasting in the Soviet Union">Broadcasting in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media in the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="182" data-mwtitle="Марш_энтузиастов.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio><figcaption>The 'Enthusiast's March', a 1930s song famous in the Soviet Union</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/170px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 255px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/170px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/255px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/340px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Soviet singer-songwriter, poet and actor <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vysotsky" title="Vladimir Vysotsky">Vladimir Vysotsky</a> in 1979</figcaption></figure> The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Gumilyov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Gumilyov">Nikolay Gumilyov</a> who was shot for alleged conspiracy against the Bolsheviks, and <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Zamyatin" title="Yevgeny Zamyatin">Yevgeny Zamyatin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[242]</a> The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Maxim Gorky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky" title="Vladimir Mayakovsky">Vladimir Mayakovsky</a> were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein" title="Sergei Eisenstein">Sergei Eisenstein</a>'s best work dates from this period. During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of <a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">socialist realism</a>, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bulgakov" title="Mikhail Bulgakov">Mikhail Bulgakov</a>'s works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.<a href="#cite_note-270">[243]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The government loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author <a href="/wiki/Yury_Trifonov" title="Yury Trifonov">Yury Trifonov</a> concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a>, developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR. In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> significantly expanded <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of expression">freedom of expression</a> throughout the country in the media and the press.<a href="#cite_note-271">[244]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Sport">Sport</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Sports_Societies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Voluntary Sports Societies of the Soviet Union">Voluntary Sports Societies of the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/CSKA_Moscow" title="CSKA Moscow">CSKA Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_at_the_Olympics" title="Soviet Union at the Olympics">Soviet Union at the Olympics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_men%27s_national_ice_hockey_team" title="Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team">Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RR5110-0098R.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/RR5110-0098R.png/220px-RR5110-0098R.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="390"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 219px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/RR5110-0098R.png/220px-RR5110-0098R.png" data-width="220" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/RR5110-0098R.png/330px-RR5110-0098R.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/RR5110-0098R.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Valeri_Kharlamov" title="Valeri Kharlamov">Valeri Kharlamov</a> represented the Soviet Union at 11 <a href="/wiki/IIHF_Men%27s_World_Championship" class="mw-redirect" title="IIHF Men's World Championship">Ice Hockey World Championships</a>, winning eight gold medals, two silvers and one bronze.</figcaption></figure> In summer of 1923 in Moscow was established the <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_Sports_Club" title="Dynamo Sports Club">Proletarian Sports Society "Dynamo"</a> as a sports organization of Soviet secret police <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a>. On 13 July 1925 the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)</a> adopted a statement "About the party's tasks in sphere of physical culture". In the statement was determined the role of physical culture in Soviet society and the party's tasks in political leadership of physical culture movement in the country. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Olympic_Committee" title="Soviet Olympic Committee">Soviet Olympic Committee</a> formed on 21 April 1951, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">IOC</a> recognized the new body in its <a href="/wiki/List_of_IOC_meetings" title="List of IOC meetings">45th session</a>. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympic Movement">Olympic Movement</a>. The <a href="/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics" title="1952 Summer Olympics">1952 Summer Olympics</a> in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_at_the_Olympics#Medals_by_Summer_Games" title="Soviet Union at the Olympics">six of its nine appearances at the games</a> and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.<a href="#cite_note-guidedhistory-272">[245]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_national_ice_hockey_team" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Union national ice hockey team">Soviet Union national ice hockey team</a> won nearly every <a href="/wiki/Ice_Hockey_World_Championships" title="Ice Hockey World Championships">world championship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_Olympic_Games" title="Ice hockey at the Olympic Games">Olympic tournament</a> between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any <a href="/wiki/International_Ice_Hockey_Federation" title="International Ice Hockey Federation">International Ice Hockey Federation</a> (IIHF) tournament in which they competed. Soviet Olympic team was notorious for skirting the edge of amateur rules. All Soviet athletes held some nominal jobs, but were in fact state-sponsored and trained full-time. According to many experts, that gave the Soviet Union a huge advantage over the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and other Western countries, whose athletes were students or real amateurs.<a href="#cite_note-273">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[247]</a> Indeed, the Soviet Union monopolized the top place in the medal standings after 1968, and, until its collapse, placed second only once, in the <a href="/wiki/1984_Winter_Olympics" title="1984 Winter Olympics">1984 Winter games</a>, after another Eastern bloc nation, the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">GDR</a>. Amateur rules were relaxed only in the late 1980s and were almost completely abolished in the 1990s, after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">fall of the USSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guidedhistory-272">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-cia.gov-275">[248]</a> According to British journalist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jennings" title="Andrew Jennings">Andrew Jennings</a>, a <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) to undermine <a href="/wiki/Doping_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Doping test">doping tests</a> and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts".<a href="#cite_note-DG2011-276">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[250]</a> Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984 Summer Olympics</a> in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements.<a href="#cite_note-NYT160813-278">[251]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia for the Soviet Union</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this section is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Soviet_Union##" title="Talk:Soviet Union">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>. (June 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/300px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="724"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/300px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png" data-width="300" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/450px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png/600px-World_War_II_military_deaths_in_Europe_by_theater_and_by_year.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">World War II military deaths</a> in Europe by theatre and by year. Nazi Germany suffered 80% of its military deaths on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-279">[252]</a></figcaption></figure> The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a> such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic_collectivism" title="Bureaucratic collectivism">bureaucratic collectivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">state capitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">state socialism</a>, or a totally unique <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">mode of production</a>.<a href="#cite_note-280">[253]</a> The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-o-281">[254]</a> The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history.<a href="#cite_note-282">[255]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg/220px-Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="163"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg/220px-Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Stamp_of_Moldova_md383.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>2001 stamp of <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>, the first human in space.</figcaption></figure> Western academicians published various analyses of the post-Soviet states' development, claiming that the dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in these countries,<a href="#cite_note-283">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[257]</a> including a rapid increase in poverty,<a href="#cite_note-Scheidel-285">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[261]</a> crime,<a href="#cite_note-289">[262]</a> corruption,<a href="#cite_note-290">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-CPI2015-291">[264]</a> unemployment,<a href="#cite_note-292">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[266]</a> homelessness,<a href="#cite_note-294">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[268]</a> rates of disease,<a href="#cite_note-296">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[271]</a> infant mortality and domestic violence,<a href="#cite_note-299">[272]</a> as well as demographic losses,<a href="#cite_note-300">[273]</a> income inequality and the rise of an <a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarchs" title="Russian oligarchs">oligarchical class</a>,<a href="#cite_note-301">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scheidel-285">[258]</a> along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income.<a href="#cite_note-302">[275]</a> Between 1988 and 1989 and 1993–1995, the <a href="/wiki/Gini_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Gini ratio">Gini ratio</a> increased by an average of 9 points for all former Soviet republics.<a href="#cite_note-Scheidel-285">[258]</a> According to Western analysis, the economic shocks that accompanied wholesale <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> were associated with sharp increases in mortality,<a href="#cite_note-303">[276]</a> Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994,<a href="#cite_note-304">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[278]</a> and in the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.<a href="#cite_note-306">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[280]</a> However, virtually all the former Soviet republics were able to turn their economies around and increase GDP to multiple times what it was under the USSR,<a href="#cite_note-308">[281]</a> though with large wealth disparities, and many post-soviet economies described as oligarchic.<a href="#cite_note-309">[282]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, annual polling by the <a href="/wiki/Levada_Center" title="Levada Center">Levada Center</a> has shown that over 50% of Russia's population regretted this event, with the only exception to this being in the year 2012 when support for the Soviet Union dipped below 50 percent.<a href="#cite_note-CCCP-310">[283]</a> A 2018 poll showed that 66% of <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a> regretted the fall of the Soviet Union, setting a 15-year record, and the majority of these regretting opinions came from people older than 55.<a href="#cite_note-CCCP-310">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[284]</a> In 2020, polls conducted by the Levada Center found that 75% of Russians agreed that the Soviet era was the greatest era in their country's history.<a href="#cite_note-TMT-312">[285]</a> According to the New Russia Barometer (NRB) polls by the Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 50% of Russian respondents reported a positive impression of the Soviet Union in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-Pop-313">[286]</a> This increased to about 75% of NRB respondents in 2000, dropping slightly to 71% in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-Pop-313">[286]</a> Throughout the 2000s, an average of 32% of NRB respondents supported the restoration of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Pop-313">[286]</a> In a 2021 poll, a record 70% of Russians indicated they had a mostly/very favourable view of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-314">[287]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm.<a href="#cite_note-315">[288]</a> In a 2018 <a href="/wiki/Sociological_group_%22RATING%22" class="mw-redirect" title='Sociological group "RATING"'>Rating Sociological Group</a> poll, 47% of <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainian</a> respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, while viewing <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a>, Stalin, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a> very negatively.<a href="#cite_note-316">[289]</a> A 2021 poll conducted by the Levada Center found that 49% of Russians prefer the USSR's political system, while 18% prefer the current political system and 16% would prefer a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Western democracy</a>. A further 62% of people polled preferred the Soviet system of central planning, while 24% prefer a market-based system.<a href="#cite_note-317">[290]</a> According to the Levada Center's polls, the primary reasons cited for Soviet nostalgia are the advantages of the shared economic union between the Soviet republics, including perceived financial stability.<a href="#cite_note-WaPo2016-318">[291]</a> This was referenced by up to 53% of respondents in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-WaPo2016-318">[291]</a> At least 43% also lamented the loss of the Soviet Union's global political superpower status.<a href="#cite_note-WaPo2016-318">[291]</a> About 31% cited the loss of social trust and capital.<a href="#cite_note-319">[292]</a> The remainder of the respondents cited a mix of reasons ranging from practical travel difficulties to a sense of national displacement.<a href="#cite_note-WaPo2016-318">[291]</a> The 1941–1945 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the '<a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)" title="Great Patriotic War (term)">Great Patriotic War</a>'. The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">massive losses</a> suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, <a href="/wiki/Victory_Day_(9_May)" title="Victory Day (9 May)">Victory Day</a> celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-320">[293]</a> Catherine Wanner asserts that Victory Day commemorations are a vehicle for Soviet nostalgia, as they "kept alive a mythology of Soviet grandeur, of solidarity among the Sovietskii narod, and of a sense of self as citizen of a superpower state".<a href="#cite_note-Wanner-321">[294]</a> Russian Victory Day parades are organized annually in most cities, with the central military parade taking place in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> (just as during the Soviet times).<a href="#cite_note-322">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[296]</a> Additionally, the recently introduced <a href="/wiki/Immortal_Regiment" title="Immortal Regiment">Immortal Regiment</a> on May 9 sees millions of Russians carry the portraits of their relatives who fought in the war.<a href="#cite_note-324">[297]</a> Russia also <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Russia" title="Public holidays in Russia">retains other Soviet holidays</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Defender_of_the_Fatherland_Day" title="Defender of the Fatherland Day">Defender of the Fatherland Day</a> (February 23), <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">International Women's Day</a> (March 8), and <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day#Russia" title="International Workers' Day">International Workers' Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-325">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_former_Soviet_republics">In the former Soviet republics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Anti-Sovietism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Anti-Russian sentiment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decommunization_in_Ukraine" title="Decommunization in Ukraine">Decommunization in Ukraine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg/220px-2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg/220px-2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg/330px-2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg/440px-2018-05-09._%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_f171.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>People in the <a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk People's Republic</a> celebrate the annual <a href="/wiki/Victory_Day_(9_May)" title="Victory Day (9 May)">Victory Day</a> over <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, 9 May 2018.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg/220px-2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg/220px-2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg/330px-2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg/440px-2014-03-08._%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B5_006.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Protest against <a href="/wiki/Decommunization_in_Ukraine" title="Decommunization in Ukraine">Ukrainian decommunization policies</a> in Donetsk, 2014. The red banner reads, "Our homeland USSR".</figcaption></figure> In some post-Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>, ethnic <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Ukrainians</a> have a negative view of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-326">[299]</a> <a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Ukraine" title="Russian language in Ukraine">Russian</a>-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">post-Soviet conflicts</a> who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as <a href="/wiki/Transnistria" title="Transnistria">Transnistria</a> have in a general a positive remembrance of it.<a href="#cite_note-327">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_the_political_left">By the political left</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule#Left-wing_criticism" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule § Left-wing criticism</a></div> The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-328">[301]</a> <a href="/wiki/Council_communists" class="mw-redirect" title="Council communists">Council communists</a> generally view the USSR as failing to create <a href="/wiki/Class_consciousness" title="Class consciousness">class consciousness</a>, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. <a href="/wiki/Trotskyists" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotskyists">Trotskyists</a> believe that the ascendancy of the Stalinist bureaucracy ensured a <a href="/wiki/Degenerated_workers%27_state" title="Degenerated workers' state">degenerated</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deformed_workers%27_state" title="Deformed workers' state">deformed workers' state</a>, where the capitalist elite have been replaced by an unaccountable bureaucratic elite and there is no true democracy or workers' control of industry.<a href="#cite_note-329">[302]</a> In particular, American Trotskyist <a href="/wiki/David_North_(socialist)" title="David North (socialist)">David North</a> noted that the generation of <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">bureaucrats</a> that rose to power under Stalin's tutelage presided over the <a href="/wiki/Stagnation_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Stagnation of the Soviet Union">stagnation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">breakdown</a> of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-330">[303]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">anti-Stalinist leftists</a> such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and <a href="/wiki/Nabat#Decline" title="Nabat">repression</a>. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around <a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of massacres in the Soviet Union">massacres in the Soviet Union</a>, the centralized <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> present in the USSR and mass <a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">political repression</a> as well as violence towards government critics and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">political dissidents</a> such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial <a href="/wiki/Worker_cooperatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker cooperatives">worker cooperatives</a> or implementing worker liberation, as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Anarchists are also critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as <a href="/wiki/Red_fascism" title="Red fascism">red fascism</a>. Factors contributing to the anarchist animosity towards the USSR included the Soviet destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovist movement</a> after an initial alliance, the suppression of the anarchist <a href="/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a>, and the defeat of the rival anarchist factions by the Soviet-supported Communist faction during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-331">[304]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoists</a> also have a mixed opinion on the USSR, viewing it negatively during the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Split" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Soviet Split">Sino-Soviet Split</a> and denouncing it as revisionist and reverted to capitalism. The Chinese government in 1963 articulated its criticism of the USSR's system and promoted China's ideological line as an alternative.<a href="#cite_note-332">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[306]</a> After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Communist_Party" title="Japanese Communist Party">Japanese Communist Party</a> (JCP) released a press statement titled "We welcome the end of a party which embodied the historical evil of <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemonism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-334">[307]</a> <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> called the collapse of the Soviet Union "a small victory for socialism, not only because of the fall of one of the most anti-socialist states in the world, where working people had fewer rights than in the West, but also because it freed the term 'socialism' from the burden of being associated in the propaganda systems of East and West with Soviet tyranny—for the East, in order to benefit from the aura of authentic socialism, for the West, in order to demonize the concept."<a href="#cite_note-335">[308]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession,_continuity_and_legacy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union">Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_states_under_Soviet_rule_(1944%E2%80%931991)" title="Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)">Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideocracy" title="Ideocracy">Ideocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Orphans in the Soviet Union">Orphans in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization" title="Sovietization">Sovietization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_patriotism" title="Soviet patriotism">Soviet patriotism</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> For names of the Soviet Union in other official languages, see <a href="/wiki/Official_names_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Official names of the Soviet Union">Official names of the Soviet Union</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> The original lyrics used from 1944 to 1956 <a href="/wiki/Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalin's cult of personality">praised Stalin</a>. No lyrics were used from 1956 to 1977. Revised lyrics were used from 1977 to 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> De facto, legally since 1990. <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Constituent republics</a> had the right to declare their own regional languages. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> As chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars" title="Council of People's Commissars">Council of People's Commissars</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> and chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (then the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union">Council of Ministers</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> As chairman of the Council of Ministers. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> March–September. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> As First Secretary of the Communist Party. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> As General Secretary of the Communist Party. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> As General Secretary of the Communist Party and <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President of the Soviet Union</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> As leader of the <a href="/wiki/State_Committee_on_the_State_of_Emergency" title="State Committee on the State of Emergency">State Committee on the State of Emergency</a> and de facto President of the Soviet Union. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> August 19–August 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> As Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union and Russian SFSR. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> As Chairman of the Committee on the Operational Management of the Soviet Economy. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Unicameral. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a> was signed by the remaining 11 of 12 republics on 21 December 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ru:%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%92%D0%A1_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BE%D1%82_26.12.1991_%E2%84%96_142-%D0%9D" class="extiw" title="s:ru:Декларация Совета Республик ВС СССР от 26.12.1991 № 142-Н">Declaration No. 142-Н</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Nationalities" title="Soviet of Nationalities">Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union</a>, formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law (in Russian). </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Assigned on 19 September 1990, existing onwards. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈsʲtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui='{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/21\/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_3.oga\/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_3.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-\u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437 \u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0421\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0420\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a 3.oga"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}'><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/21/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_3.oga/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_3.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA_3.oga" title="File:Ru-Союз Советских Социалистических Республик 3.oga">ⓘ</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Russian: СССР, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: SSSR. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Russian: Советский Союз, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Sovetskiy Soyuz, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[sɐˈvʲetskʲɪj sɐˈjus]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui='{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/af\/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg\/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ru-\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0421\u043e\u044e\u0437.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}'><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg" title="File:Ru-Советский Союз.ogg">ⓘ</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> As of 1989, the countries that bordered the Soviet Union were: <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> to the northwest; <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a> to the west; <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> to the southwest; <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a> to the south; <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> to the southeast. The Soviet Union also shared <a href="/wiki/Maritime_boundary" title="Maritime boundary">maritime boundaries</a> with Japan (which was bordered to the south until 1945) and the United States. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> As outlined in Part III of the <a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977 Soviet Constitution</a>, "The National-State Structure of the USSR". </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Named the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic in 1918, then renamed the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1936. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: рада (<a href="/wiki/Rada" title="Rada">rada</a>); <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: rada; <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: савет/рада; <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>: совет; <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>: совет / кеңес (sovet / kenges); <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>: საბჭოთა (sabch′ota); <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>: совет; <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: taryba; <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>: soviet (<a href="/wiki/Moldovan_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet">Moldovan Cyrillic</a>: совиет); <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>: padome; <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>: совет; <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tajik</a>: шӯравӣ / совет (šūravī / sovet); <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>: խորհուրդ / սովետ (xorhurd / sovet); <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>: совет; <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>: nõukogu. </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240221051317/https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/540/handouts/ussr/soviet2.html">"Language Policy in the former Soviet Union"</a>. H. Schiffman. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. 19 November 2002. 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Retrieved 29 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GDP+%E2%80%93+Million+%E2%80%93+Flags%2C+Maps%2C+Economy%2C+Geography%2C+Climate%2C+Natural+Resources%2C+Current+Issues%2C+International+Agreements%2C+Population%2C+Social+Statistics%2C+Political+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb%2F1990%2Frankings%2Fgdp_million_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDI-23"><a href="#cite_ref-HDI_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf">"Human Development Report 1990"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Report" title="Human Development Report">HDRO (Human Development Report Office)</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>. January 1990. p. 111. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190207194131/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Development+Report+1990&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=HDRO+%28Human+Development+Report+Office%29+United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.date=1990-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Freports%2F219%2Fhdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-americana-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-americana_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-americana_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Klein, Henri F. (1920). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Soviet">"Soviet" </a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/norilsk-russian-arctic-became-one-polluted-places-earth-rcna6481">the original</a> on 12 June 2024. Retrieved 19 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=How+Norilsk%2C+in+the+Russian+Arctic%2C+became+one+of+the+most+polluted+places+on+Earth&rft.date=2021-12-10&rft.aulast=Lavelle&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fnorilsk-russian-arctic-became-one-polluted-places-earth-rcna6481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroad1993" class="citation news cs1">Broad, William J. 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"Implementing Russia's International Environmental Commitments: Federal Prerogative or Regional Concern?". <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a>. 54 (8): 1223–1240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000025862">10.1080/0966813022000025862</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826384">826384</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156340249">156340249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Implementing+Russia%27s+International+Environmental+Commitments%3A+Federal+Prerogative+or+Regional+Concern%3F&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1223-1240&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156340249%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826384%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000025862&rft.aulast=H%C3%B8nneland&rft.aufirst=Geir&rft.au=J%C3%B8rgensen%2C+Anne-Kristin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuhn2020" class="citation web cs1">Luhn, Alec (1 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200901-the-radioactive-risk-of-sunken-nuclear-soviet-submarines">"Russia's 'slow-motion Chernobyl' at sea"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 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EurAsian Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231119114918/https://www.eurasiantimes.com/resting-with-nuke-payload-russias-sunken-nuclear-armed-submarine/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2023. 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(1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C">Russian Civilization</a>. Ardent Media. pp. 193–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8422-0529-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8422-0529-0"><bdi>978-0-8422-0529-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055909/http://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Civilization&rft.pages=193-194&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-8422-0529-0&rft.au=Law%2C+David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df3ky9qBavl4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZemtsov,_Ilya1989" class="citation book cs1">Zemtsov, Ilya (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chernenkolastbol00zemt">Chernenko: The Last Bolshevik: The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-260-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-260-4"><bdi>978-0-88738-260-4</bdi></a>. 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Princeton University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01093-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01093-9"><bdi>978-0-691-01093-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055028/http://books.google.com/books?id=PxiuUGRQhUIC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. 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Harvard University Press. p. 486. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41030-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-41030-5"><bdi>978-0-674-41030-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512054528/http://books.google.com/books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. 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Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD+%D0%BE%D1%84+%D1%82%D1%85%D0%B5+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%3A+%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%85+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%81+%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4+%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Brunswick+Publishing+Corp&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-55618-142-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mQjvzP8VSYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŌgushi,_Atsushi2008" class="citation book cs1">Ōgushi, Atsushi (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7mDUC1nOZsC">The Demise of the Soviet Communist Party</a>. Routledge. pp. 31–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43439-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43439-3"><bdi>978-0-415-43439-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512042443/http://books.google.com/books?id=N7mDUC1nOZsC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demise+of+the+Soviet+Communist+Party&rft.pages=31-32&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-43439-3&rft.au=%C5%8Cgushi%2C+Atsushi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN7mDUC1nOZsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaras,_Ray1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Taras" title="Raymond Taras">Taras, Ray</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AlcVAAAAIAAJ">Leadership change in Communist states</a>. Routledge. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445277-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445277-5"><bdi>978-0-04-445277-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512053745/http://books.google.com/books?id=AlcVAAAAIAAJ&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leadership+change+in+Communist+states&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-04-445277-5&rft.au=Taras%2C+Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAlcVAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._Triska,_JanSlusser,_Robert_M.1962" class="citation book cs1">F. Triska, Jan; Slusser, Robert M. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theorylawpoli00tris">The Theory, Law, and Policy of Soviet Treaties</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theorylawpoli00tris/page/63">63</a>–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0122-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0122-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-0122-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory%2C+Law%2C+and+Policy+of+Soviet+Treaties&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0122-8&rft.au=F.+Triska%2C+Jan&rft.au=Slusser%2C+Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheorylawpoli00tris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeb,_Kalipada1996" class="citation book cs1">Deb, Kalipada (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C">Soviet Union to Commonwealth: Transformation and Challenges</a>. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85880-95-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85880-95-2"><bdi>978-81-85880-95-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512053347/http://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Union+to+Commonwealth%3A+Transformation+and+Challenges&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=M.D.+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-85880-95-2&rft.au=Deb%2C+Kalipada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIvK6r-8Ogg0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-COMSSP-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-COMSSP_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-COMSSP_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenson,_Shirley2001" class="citation book cs1">Benson, Shirley (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC">Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_University_Press" title="Penn State University Press">Penn State University Press</a>. pp. XIV. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02170-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02170-6"><bdi>978-0-271-02170-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910233718/https://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nikita+Khrushchev+and+the+Creation+of+a+Superpower&rft.pages=XIV&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02170-6&rft.au=Benson%2C+Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdQeahlZdM7sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C">The Communist World</a>. Ardent Media. 2001. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02170-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02170-6"><bdi>978-0-271-02170-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051205/http://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Communist+World&rft.pages=441&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02170-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh9FFVgu-Ff0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Marie_Feldbrugge,_Ferdinand1993" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Marie Feldbrugge, Ferdinand (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C">Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of Law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Nijhoff Publishers">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2358-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2358-7"><bdi>978-0-7923-2358-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041218/http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Law%3A+The+End+of+the+Soviet+System+and+the+Role+of+Law&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-2358-7&rft.au=Joseph+Marie+Feldbrugge%2C+Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJWt7MN3Dch8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite,_StephenJ._Gill,_GraemeSlider,_Darrell1993" class="citation book cs1">White, Stephen; J. Gill, Graeme; Slider, Darrell (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsoftransi0000whit">The Politics of Transition: Shaping a post-Soviet Future</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsoftransi0000whit/page/108">108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44634-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44634-1"><bdi>978-0-521-44634-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Transition%3A+Shaping+a+post-Soviet+Future&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44634-1&rft.au=White%2C+Stephen&rft.au=J.+Gill%2C+Graeme&rft.au=Slider%2C+Darrell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsoftransi0000whit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Hoffmann,_ErikLaird,_Robin_Frederick1984" class="citation book cs1">P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC">The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. pp. 313–315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24165-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24165-4"><bdi>978-0-202-24165-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512045329/http://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Polity+in+the+Modern+Era&rft.pages=313-315&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-202-24165-4&rft.au=P.+Hoffmann%2C+Erik&rft.au=Laird%2C+Robin+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D63_obglArrMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Hoffmann,_ErikLaird,_Robin_Frederick1984" class="citation book cs1">P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC">The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. pp. 315–319. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24165-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-202-24165-4"><bdi>978-0-202-24165-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512045329/http://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Polity+in+the+Modern+Era&rft.pages=315-319&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-202-24165-4&rft.au=P.+Hoffmann%2C+Erik&rft.au=Laird%2C+Robin+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D63_obglArrMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era". <a href="/wiki/Great_Russian_Encyclopedia" title="Great Russian Encyclopedia">Great Russian Encyclopedia</a>. 1: 742. 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Great+Russian+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Polity+in+the+Modern+Era&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=742&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakwa,_Richard1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sakwa" title="Richard Sakwa">Sakwa, Richard</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC">Soviet Politics in Perspective</a>. Routledge. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07153-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07153-6"><bdi>978-0-415-07153-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512042437/http://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Politics+in+Perspective&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-07153-6&rft.au=Sakwa%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX1U5G_xnqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKucherov,_Samuel1970" class="citation book cs1">Kucherov, Samuel (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ">The Organs of Soviet Administration of Justice: Their History and Operation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Archive Publishers</a>. p. 31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512060346/http://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Organs+of+Soviet+Administration+of+Justice%3A+Their+History+and+Operation&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Brill+Archive+Publishers&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Kucherov%2C+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DssMUAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips,_Steve2000" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Steve (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC">Lenin and the Russian Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heinemann_(book_publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinemann (book publisher)">Heinemann</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32719-4"><bdi>978-0-435-32719-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055812/http://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin+and+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-435-32719-4&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_na0zfdhKQMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics". <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> 2005. p. 1014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Union+of+Soviet+Socialist+Republics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=1014&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService,_Robert2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ">History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Books Ltd">Penguin Books Ltd</a>. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-103797-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-103797-4"><bdi>978-0-14-103797-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090135/http://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Russia%3A+From+Tsarism+to+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-103797-4&rft.au=Service%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do8Z1QAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khrushchevgoner-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Khrushchevgoner_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Khrushchevgoner_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhrushchev,_Nikita2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Khrushchev, Nikita</a> (2007). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, Volume 3: Statesman. <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University Press">Pennsylvania State University Press</a>. p. 674. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02935-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02935-1"><bdi>978-0-271-02935-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Nikita+Khrushchev%2C+Volume+3%3A+Statesman&rft.pages=674&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02935-1&rft.au=Khrushchev%2C+Nikita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolley,_Martin2000" class="citation book cs1">Polley, Martin (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/azofmoderneurope0000poll">A–Z of modern Europe since 1789</a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/azofmoderneurope0000poll/page/88">88</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18597-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18597-4"><bdi>978-0-415-18597-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A%E2%80%93Z+of+modern+Europe+since+1789&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18597-4&rft.au=Polley%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fazofmoderneurope0000poll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies-88"><a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm">"Gorbachev's Reform Dilemma"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623125043/http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gorbachev%27s+Reform+Dilemma&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Frussia%2F18.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolmar,_Norman1991" class="citation book cs1">Polmar, Norman (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC">The Naval Institute Guide to the Soviet</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Institute" title="United States Naval Institute">United States Naval Institute</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-241-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-241-3"><bdi>978-0-87021-241-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naval+Institute+Guide+to+the+Soviet&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-87021-241-3&rft.au=Polmar%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtkGDkpkQh-sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley,_Martin2007" class="citation book cs1">McCauley, Martin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC">The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-78465-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-78465-9"><bdi>978-0-582-78465-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-582-78465-9&rft.au=McCauley%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DycCZqmhhceMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_the_USSR:_Gorbachev,_Mikhail1972" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the USSR">Government of the USSR</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev, Mikhail</a> (21 March 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html"><bdi lang="ru">УКАЗ: ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О МИНИСТЕРСТВЕ ЮСТИЦИИ СССР</bdi></a> [Law: About state governing bodies of USSR in a transition period on the bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR in Transition] (in Russian). sssr.su. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130425162517/http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A3%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%97%3A+%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%9E%D0%96%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%95+%D0%9E+%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%95+%D0%AE%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%98+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=sssr.su&rft.date=1972-03-21&rft.au=Government+of+the+USSR%3A+Gorbachev%2C+Mikhail&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sssr.su%2Fzopp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent_Daniels,_Robert1993" class="citation book cs1">Vincent Daniels, Robert (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C">A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_New_England" title="University Press of New England">University Press of New England</a> (UPNE). p. 388. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-616-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-616-6"><bdi>978-0-87451-616-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041324/http://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Documentary+History+of+Communism+in+Russia%3A+From+Lenin+to+Gorbachev&rft.pages=388&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England+%28UPNE%29&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-616-6&rft.au=Vincent+Daniels%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgTIZ2dvDKF0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288956/inquisitorial-procedure">"Inquisitorial procedure (law) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222225224/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288956/inquisitorial-procedure">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inquisitorial+procedure+%28law%29+%E2%80%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.au=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F288956%2Finquisitorial-procedure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism">"totalitarianism | Definition, Examples, & Facts"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 3 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=totalitarianism+%7C+Definition%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Ftotalitarianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rutland, Peter (1993). The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union: The Role of Local Party Organs in Economic Management. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 1993. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39241-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-39241-9"><bdi>978-0-521-39241-9</bdi></a>. <q>after 1953 ...This was still an oppressive regime, but not a totalitarian one."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rutland%2C+Peter+%281993%29.+The+Politics+of+Economic+Stagnation+in+the+Soviet+Union%3A+The+Role+of+Local+Party+Organs+in+Economic+Management&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-39241-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Krupnik, Igor (1995). "4. Soviet Cultural and Ethnic Policies Towards Jews: A Legacy Reassessed". In Ro'i, Yaacov (ed.). Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-714-64619-0. "The era of 'social engineering' in the Soviet Union ended with the death of Stalin in 1953 or soon after; and that was the close of the totalitarian regime itself.".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Krupnik%2C+Igor+%281995%29.+%224.+Soviet+Cultural+and+Ethnic+Policies+Towards+Jews%3A+A+Legacy+Reassessed%22.+In+Ro%27i%2C+Yaacov+%28ed.%29.+Jews+and+Jewish+Life+in+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union.+Routledge.+ISBN+978-0-714-64619-0.+%22The+era+of+%27social+engineering%27+in+the+Soviet+Union+ended+with+the+death+of+Stalin+in+1953+or+soon+after%3B+and+that+was+the+close+of+the+totalitarian+regime+itself.%22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">von Beyme, Klaus (2014). On Political Culture, Cultural Policy, Art and Politics. Springer. 19 November 2013. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01559-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01559-0"><bdi>978-3-319-01559-0</bdi></a>. <q>The Soviet Union after the death of Stalin moved from totalitarianism to authoritarian rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=von+Beyme%2C+Klaus+%282014%29.+On+Political+Culture%2C+Cultural+Policy%2C+Art+and+Politics&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013-11-19&rft.isbn=978-3-319-01559-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010070843/http://constitution.garant.ru/history/ussr-rsfsr/1977/zakony/185465/">"Zakon SSSR ot 14 marta 1990 g. N 1360-I "Ob uchrezhdenii posta Prezidenta SSSR i vnesenii izmeneniy i dopolneniy v Konstitutsiyu (Osnovnoy Zakon) SSSR"" <bdi lang="ru">Закон СССР от 14 марта 1990 г. N 1360-I "Об учреждении поста Президента СССР и внесении изменений и дополнений в Конституцию (Основной Закон) СССР"</bdi></a> [Law of the USSR of March 14, 1990 N 1360-I "On the establishment of the post of President of the USSR and amendments and additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the USSR"] (in Russian). 10 October 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constitution.garant.ru/history/ussr-rsfsr/1977/zakony/185465/">the original</a> on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zakon+SSSR+ot+14+marta+1990+g.+N+1360-I+%22Ob+uchrezhdenii+posta+Prezidenta+SSSR+i+vnesenii+izmeneniy+i+dopolneniy+v+Konstitutsiyu+%28Osnovnoy+Zakon%29+SSSR%22+%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%BE%D1%82+14+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0+1990+%D0%B3.+N+1360-I+%22%D0%9E%D0%B1+%D1%83%D1%87%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B2+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8E+%28%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%29+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0%22&rft.date=2017-10-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.garant.ru%2Fhistory%2Fussr-rsfsr%2F1977%2Fzakony%2F185465%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Houghton Mifflin Company (2006) </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Lambelet, Doriane. "The Contradiction Between Soviet and American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika and Pragmatism." 7 Boston University International Law Journal. 1989. pp. 61–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_shiman-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_shiman_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShiman1999" class="citation book cs1">Shiman, David (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/tb1b/Section1/tb1-2.htm">Economic and Social Justice: A Human Rights Perspective</a>. Amnesty International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0967533407" title="Special:BookSources/978-0967533407"><bdi>978-0967533407</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+and+Social+Justice%3A+A+Human+Rights+Perspective&rft.pub=Amnesty+International&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0967533407&rft.aulast=Shiman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.umn.edu%2Fhumanrts%2Fedumat%2Fhreduseries%2Ftb1b%2FSection1%2Ftb1-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes_102-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes_102-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes_102-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes_102-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime, Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50242-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-50242-6">0-394-50242-6</a>, pages 402–403 </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes2001-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes2001_103-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> (2001) Communism Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-64688-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-64688-5">0-297-64688-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes1994-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Pipes1994_104-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> (1994) Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Vintage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-76184-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-76184-5">0-679-76184-5</a>., pages 401–403. </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Vyshinsky1949-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_Vyshinsky1949_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyszyński1949" class="citation book cs1">Wyszyński, Andrzej (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echelon.pl/files/echelon/Wyszy%C5%84ski%20-%20Teoria%20dowod%C3%B3w%20s%C4%85dowych%20(OCR).pdf">Teoria dowodów sądowych w prawie radzieckim</a> (PDF). 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New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375760464" title="Special:BookSources/9780375760464"><bdi>9780375760464</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+Made+New%3A+Eleanor+Roosevelt+and+the+Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780375760464&rft.au=Mary+Ann+Glendon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_thomas-hrideas-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union_thomas-hrideas_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2005" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Daniel C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cws/summary/v007/7.2thomas.html">"Human Rights Ideas, the Demise of Communism, and the End of the Cold War"</a>. Journal of Cold War Studies. 7 (2): 110–141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F1520397053630600">10.1162/1520397053630600</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57570614">57570614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cold+War+Studies&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+Ideas%2C+the+Demise+of+Communism%2C+and+the+End+of+the+Cold+War&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=110-141&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F1520397053630600&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57570614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Daniel+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fcws%2Fsummary%2Fv007%2F7.2thomas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMccauley2013" class="citation book cs1">Mccauley, Martin (13 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ7dAAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+death+penalty+12+years+old&pg=PA49">Stalin and Stalinism: Revised 3rd Edition</a>. Routledge. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-86369-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-86369-4"><bdi>978-1-317-86369-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+Stalinism%3A+Revised+3rd+Edition&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-09-13&rft.isbn=978-1-317-86369-4&rft.aulast=Mccauley&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoQ7dAAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bdeath%2Bpenalty%2B12%2Byears%2Bold%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2009" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Patrick (28 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ps5wZUFnE7IC&dq=stalin+death+penalty+12+years+old&pg=PA342">Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-162284-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-162284-7"><bdi>978-0-19-162284-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+Curtain%3A+From+Stage+to+Cold+War&rft.pages=342&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2009-10-28&rft.isbn=978-0-19-162284-7&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPs5wZUFnE7IC%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bdeath%2Bpenalty%2B12%2Byears%2Bold%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoobbyer2000" class="citation book cs1">Boobbyer, Philip (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYMsIE5KjmMC&dq=stalin+death+penalty+12+years+old+boys&pg=PA160">The Stalin Era</a>. Psychology Press. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18298-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18298-0"><bdi>978-0-415-18298-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stalin+Era&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18298-0&rft.aulast=Boobbyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYMsIE5KjmMC%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bdeath%2Bpenalty%2B12%2Byears%2Bold%2Bboys%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOleg_Pshenichnyi2015" class="citation web cs1">Oleg Pshenichnyi (22 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grani.ru/Society/History/m.243716.html">"Засчитать поражение"</a>. 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The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia – Past, Present, and Future, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-52738-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-374-52738-5">0-374-52738-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlam1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ulam" title="Adam Ulam">Ulam, Adam B.</a> (1974). 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Retrieved 1 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+International+Organizations%3A+From+1815+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-134-02405-6&rft.aulast=Reinalda&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLn19AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoder1993-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Yoder1993_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoder1993" class="citation book cs1">Yoder, Amos (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communismintrans00yode">Communism in Transition: The End of the Soviet Empires</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communismintrans00yode/page/58">58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8448-1738-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8448-1738-5"><bdi>978-0-8448-1738-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communism+in+Transition%3A+The+End+of+the+Soviet+Empires&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8448-1738-5&rft.aulast=Yoder&rft.aufirst=Amos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunismintrans00yode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrump2015-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrump2015_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrump2015">Crump 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-history.com-121"><a href="#cite_ref-history.com_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/warsaw-pact-ends">"Warsaw Pact ends"</a>. 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Acta Poloniae Historica 78 (1998): 161–200. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0001-6829">0001-6829</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarantzidis2013" class="citation journal cs1">Marantzidis, Nikos (2013). 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Black Rabbit Books. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58340-606-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58340-606-9"><bdi>978-1-58340-606-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041101/http://books.google.com/books?id=LyqIDCc-cSsC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Republics&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Black+Rabbit+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58340-606-9&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLyqIDCc-cSsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldbrugge1993" class="citation book cs1">Feldbrugge, Ferdinand Joseph Maria (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C">Russian Law: The Rnd of the Soviet system and the Role of Law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Nijhoff Publishers">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2358-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2358-7"><bdi>978-0-7923-2358-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041218/http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Law%3A+The+Rnd+of+the+Soviet+system+and+the+Role+of+Law&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-2358-7&rft.aulast=Feldbrugge&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand+Joseph+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJWt7MN3Dch8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_2012_368-140"><a href="#cite_ref-White_2012_368_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2012" class="citation book cs1">White, Matthew (2012). <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Big_Book_of_Horrible_Things" title="The Great Big Book of Horrible Things">The Great Big Book of Horrible Things</a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Norton">W. W. Norton</a>. p. 368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3"><bdi>978-0-393-08192-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Big+Book+of+Horrible+Things&rft.pages=368&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-393-08192-3&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Scott and Scott, The Armed Forces of the Soviet Union, Westview Press, 1979, p.13 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Scott and Scott (1979) p. 305 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba">"October 30, 1961 – The Tsar Bomba: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160319201753/http://ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+30%2C+1961+%E2%80%93+The+Tsar+Bomba%3A+CTBTO+Preparatory+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctbto.org%2Fspecials%2Ftesting-times%2F30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.prlib.ru/history/619624">"Принят закон "О всеобщей воинской обязанности""</a>. Translated by A law on the mandatory military draft. prlib.ru. 12 October 1967.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD+%22%D0%9E+%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%22&rft.pub=prlib.ru&rft.date=1967-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prlib.ru%2Fhistory%2F619624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Lih, Lars T., Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, University of California Press (1990), p. 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-gregory2004-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_146-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2004" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Paul R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C">The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 218–220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53367-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53367-6"><bdi>978-0-521-53367-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512042222/http://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Stalinism%3A+Evidence+from+the+Soviet+Secret+Archives&rft.pages=218-220&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53367-6&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhFHU5kaXhu8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley1998" class="citation book cs1">Mawdsley, Evan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4600-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4600-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-4600-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321215327/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stalin+Years%3A+The+Soviet+Union%2C+1929%E2%80%931953&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-voAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-148"><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroftDaviesCooper1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, S. G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/R._W._Davies" title="R. W. Davies">Davies, R. W.</a>; Cooper, J. M. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941</a>. Vol. 39. <a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic History Review">Economic History Review</a>. pp. 30–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4600-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4600-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-4600-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321215327/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Industrialization+Reconsidered%3A+Some+Preliminary+Conclusions+about+Economic+Development+between+1926+and+1941&rft.pages=30-32&rft.pub=Economic+History+Review&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft.au=Davies%2C+R.+W.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-voAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm">"Reconstruction and Cold War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927170555/http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2006. Retrieved 23 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+and+Cold+War&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Frussia%2F12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-foreign_trade-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-foreign_trade_150-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foreign_trade_150-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foreign_trade_150-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foreign_trade_150-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0391%29">"Reconstruction and Cold War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309155830/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0391%29">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+and+Cold+War&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%2528DOCID%2Bsu0391%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIMFOECD1991" class="citation book cs1">IMF & OECD (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AQFk8R18f0C">A Study of the Soviet Economy</a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a>. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-103797-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-103797-4"><bdi>978-0-14-103797-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+the+Soviet+Economy&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=International+Monetary+Fund+and+Organisation+for+Economic+Co-operation+and+Development&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-14-103797-4&rft.au=IMF&rft.au=OECD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AQFk8R18f0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://su90.ru/defence.html">"Raskhody na oboronu i chislennost' vooruzhennykh sil SSSR" <bdi lang="ru">Расходы на оборону и численность вооруженных сил СССР</bdi></a> [Defense spending and size of the Armed Forces of the USSR] (in Russian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Raskhody+na+oboronu+i+chislennost%27+vooruzhennykh+sil+SSSR+%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83+%D0%B8+%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsu90.ru%2Fdefence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-economy-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-economy_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-economy_153-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0009%29">"Economy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. 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London: Longman, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergson,_Abram1997" class="citation journal cs1">Bergson, Abram (1997). "How Big was the Soviet GDP?". Comparative Economic Studies. 39 (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fces.1997.1">10.1057/ces.1997.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155781882">155781882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=How+Big+was+the+Soviet+GDP%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fces.1997.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155781882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Bergson%2C+Abram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison,_Mark1993" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, Mark (1993). "Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928: The Alternative Statistics of G. I. Khanin". Europe-Asia Studies. 45 (1): 141–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139308412080">10.1080/09668139308412080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Economic+Growth+Since+1928%3A+The+Alternative+Statistics+of+G.+I.+Khanin&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-167&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139308412080&rft.au=Harrison%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGvosdev,_Nikolas2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikolas_Gvosdev" title="Nikolas Gvosdev">Gvosdev, Nikolas</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC">The Strange Death of Soviet communism: A Postscript</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-0698-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-0698-5"><bdi>978-1-4128-0698-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819204015/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+Death+of+Soviet+communism%3A+A+Postscript&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-0698-5&rft.au=Gvosdev%2C+Nikolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ_xTyZUEqkYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19944-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19944_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischerEasterly1994">Fischer & Easterly 1994</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCereseto1986" class="citation journal cs1">Cereseto, Shirley (June 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1646771">"Economic Development, Political-Economic System, and the Physical Quality of Life"</a>. American Journal of Public Health. 76 (6): 661–666. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2Fajph.76.6.661">10.2105/ajph.76.6.661</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1646771">1646771</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3706593">3706593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Economic+Development%2C+Political-Economic+System%2C+and+the+Physical+Quality+of+Life&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=661-666&rft.date=1986-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1646771%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3706593&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2Fajph.76.6.661&rft.aulast=Cereseto&rft.aufirst=Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1646771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19945-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19945_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFischerEasterly1994">Fischer & Easterly 1994</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde1996" class="citation journal cs1">Rosefielde, Steven (1996). "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s". Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (6): 956–987. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412393">10.1080/09668139608412393</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152635">152635</a>. <q>The new evidence shows that administrative command planning and Stalin's forced industrialization strategies failed in the 1930s and beyond. The economic miracle chronicled in official hagiographies and until recently faithfully recounted in Western textbooks has no basis in fact. It is the statistical artefact not of index number relativity (the Gerschenkron effect) but of misapplying to the calculation of growth cost prices that do not accurately measure competitive value. The standard of living declined during the 1930s in response to Stalin's despotism, and after a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation. Glasnost and post-communist revelations interpreted as a whole thus provide no basis for Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov's relatively favorable characterization of the methods, economic achievements and human costs of Stalinism. The evidence demonstrates that the suppression of markets and the oppression of vast segments of the population were economically counterproductive and humanly calamitous, just as anyone conversant with classical economic theory should have expected.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Stalinism+in+Post-Communist+Perspective%3A+New+Evidence+on+Killings%2C+Forced+Labour+and+Economic+Growth+in+the+1930s&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=956-987&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412393&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosefielde&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html">"GDP – Million 1990"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151109124727/http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2015. 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Retrieved 12 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=GDP+Per+Capita+%E2%80%93+1991&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb%2F1991%2Frankings%2Fgdp_per_capita_0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990">"Human Development Report 1990 | Human Development Reports"</a>. hdr.undp.org. 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019062220/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=hdr.undp.org&rft.atitle=Human+Development+Report+1990+%7C+Human+Development+Reports&rft.date=1990&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fen%2Freports%2Fglobal%2Fhdr1990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983105–108-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983105%E2%80%93108_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, pp. 105–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983295-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983295_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, p. 295. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, p. 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297–299-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983297%E2%80%93299_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, pp. 297–299. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983299-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983299_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-ciacom-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ciacom_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ciacom_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ciacom_170-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101005005759/http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html">"Soviet Union – Communications"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. 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Sharpe</a>. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1208-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1208-3"><bdi>978-0-7656-1208-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512044209/http://books.google.com/books?id=IvKF3PKGYAcC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. 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Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210201090705/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mir&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2020-01-28&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FMir-Soviet-Russian-space-station&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/NASA_FACTS/Russian_Space_Stations">NASA FACTS/Russian Space Stations </a>. NASA. January 1997. 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Routledge. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4784-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4784-5"><bdi>978-0-7146-4784-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116193139/https://books.google.com/books?id=cpynoFM-Jf4C">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2020. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89424-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89424-1"><bdi>978-0-521-89424-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211223/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2020. 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Retrieved 24 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Wrong+Hand%2FWrong+Children%3A+Education+of+Left+Handed+Children+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2016-08-23&rft.aulast=Daniela&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft.au=Rubene%2C+Zanda&rft.au=Medne%2C+Dace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feera-ecer.de%2Fecer-programmes%2Fconference%2F21%2Fcontribution%2F38628%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sheila_Fitzpatrick" title="Sheila Fitzpatrick">Sheila Fitzpatrick</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/education-and-social-mobility-soviet-union-19211934">Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 1921–1934</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141118133419/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/education-and-social-mobility-soviet-union-19211934">Archived</a> 18 November 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> (2002), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89423-4">978-0-521-89423-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw1975" class="citation book cs1">Law, David A. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C">Russian Civilization</a>. Ardent Media. pp. 300–301. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8422-0529-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8422-0529-0"><bdi>978-0-8422-0529-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055909/http://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Civilization&rft.pages=300-301&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-8422-0529-0&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df3ky9qBavl4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikhail_Shifman2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shifman" title="Mikhail Shifman">Mikhail Shifman</a>, ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ho6fMF8ehogC">You Failed Your Math Test, Comrade Einstein: Adventures and Misadventures of Young Mathematicians Or Test Your Skills in Almost Recreational Mathematics</a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-270-116-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-270-116-9"><bdi>978-981-270-116-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=You+Failed+Your+Math+Test%2C+Comrade+Einstein%3A+Adventures+and+Misadventures+of+Young+Mathematicians+Or+Test+Your+Skills+in+Almost+Recreational+Mathematics&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-981-270-116-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dho6fMF8ehogC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Frenkel2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Frenkel" title="Edward Frenkel">Edward Frenkel</a> (October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/The-Fifth-problem--math---anti-Semitism-in-the-Soviet-Union-7446">"The Fifth problem: math & anti-Semitism in the Soviet Union"</a>. The New Criterion. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151207161404/http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/The-Fifth-problem--math---anti-Semitism-in-the-Soviet-Union-7446">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 12 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Criterion&rft.atitle=The+Fifth+problem%3A+math+%26+anti-Semitism+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2012-10&rft.au=Edward+Frenkel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newcriterion.com%2Farticles.cfm%2FThe-Fifth-problem--math---anti-Semitism-in-the-Soviet-Union-7446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDominic_Lawson2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Lawson" title="Dominic Lawson">Dominic Lawson</a> (11 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/dominic-lawson/dominic-lawson-more-migrants-please-especially-the-clever-ones-2368622.html">"More migrants please, especially the clever ones"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204140558/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/dominic-lawson/dominic-lawson-more-migrants-please-especially-the-clever-ones-2368622.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=More+migrants+please%2C+especially+the+clever+ones&rft.date=2011-10-11&rft.au=Dominic+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fopinion%2Fcommentators%2Fdominic-lawson%2Fdominic-lawson-more-migrants-please-especially-the-clever-ones-2368622.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndre_Geim2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Andre Geim</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2010/geim-bio.html">"Biographical"</a>. Nobelprize.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170616114451/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2010/geim-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biographical&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Andre+Geim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F2010%2Fgeim-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlapentokh1990" class="citation book cs1">Shlapentokh, Vladimir (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC">Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power: The Post-Stalin Era</a>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-284-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-284-5"><bdi>978-1-85043-284-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041316/http://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Intellectuals+and+Political+Power%3A+The+Post-Stalin+Era&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-284-5&rft.aulast=Shlapentokh&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7VFqqE5995UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-education-229"><a href="#cite_ref-education_229-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPejovich1990" class="citation book cs1">Pejovich, Svetozar (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ocQKHRReKdcC">The Economics of Property Rights: Towards a Theory of Comparative Systems</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0878-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0878-2"><bdi>978-0-7923-0878-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617225600/https://books.google.com/books?id=ocQKHRReKdcC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+Property+Rights%3A+Towards+a+Theory+of+Comparative+Systems&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-0878-2&rft.aulast=Pejovich&rft.aufirst=Svetozar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DocQKHRReKdcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cia-230"><a href="#cite_ref-cia_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html">"Soviet Union – People"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101004135453/http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Soviet+Union+%E2%80%93+People&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb1991%2Fsoviet_union%2Fsoviet_union_people.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php">"Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей"</a>. www.demoscope.ru.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.demoscope.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF+Weekly+%E2%80%93+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5.+%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.demoscope.ru%2Fweekly%2Fssp%2Fsng_nac_89.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19812-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie19812_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosking,_Geoffrey2006" class="citation web cs1">Hosking, Geoffrey (13 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union">"Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_Today" title="History Today">History Today</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501085443/http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Rulers+and+Victims%3A+The+Russians+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2006-03-13&rft.au=Hosking%2C+Geoffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fgeoffrey-hosking%2Frulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> (pay-fee) </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Pål Kolstø, "Political construction sites: Nation-building in Russia and the post-Soviet States". Boulder, Colorado: Westview press 2000, pp. 81–104 uncorrected version, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Chapter 2, par. "Nations and Nation-Building in Eastern Europe"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171219130957/http://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Archived</a> 19 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Chapter 5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050102081015/http://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Archived</a> 2 January 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-lane-236"><a href="#cite_ref-lane_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane1992">Lane 1992</a>, p. 353 </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane1992">Lane 1992</a>, p. 352 </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLane1992">Lane 1992</a>, pp. 352–353 </li> <li id="cite_note-SeemingParadox-239"><a href="#cite_ref-SeemingParadox_239-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDinkel,_R.H.1990" class="citation journal cs1">Dinkel, R.H. 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Retrieved 30 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Dentistry+in+Russia+is+finally+leaving+the+Dark+Ages+behind&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Niedowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fct-xpm-2007-03-04-0703040477-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerberBedrick1979" class="citation journal cs1">Ferber, Irwin; Bedrick, Anthony E. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177(79)83017-2/pdf">"Dental survey of 620 Soviet immigrants"</a>. JADA. 98 (3): 379–383. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/283158">283158</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221556/https://jada.ada.org/article/S0002-8177%2879%2983017-2/pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JADA&rft.atitle=Dental+survey+of+620+Soviet+immigrants&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=379-383&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F283158&rft.aulast=Ferber&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft.au=Bedrick%2C+Anthony+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjada.ada.org%2Farticle%2FS0002-8177%2879%2983017-2%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19813–4-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie19813%E2%80%934_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19814-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie19814_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198125-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie198125_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198126-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie198126_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie198127-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie198127_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508201331/http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm"><bdi lang="ru">ЗАКОН СССР ОТ 24 April 1990 О ЯЗЫКАХ НАРОДОВ СССР</bdi></a> [Law of the USSR from 24 April 1990 on languages of the USSR] (in Russian). <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government of the Soviet Union</a>. 24 April 1990. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm">the original</a> on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%97%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%9D+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%9E%D0%A2+24+April+1990+%D0%9E+%D0%AF%D0%97%D0%AB%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%A5+%D0%9D%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%92+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=Government+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=1990-04-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegal-ussr.narod.ru%2Fdata01%2Ftex10935.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dailylife-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_248-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_248-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton,_Katherine_Bliss2004" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Katherine Bliss (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinsovie00eato">Daily life in the Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinsovie00eato/page/285">285</a> and 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31628-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31628-9"><bdi>978-0-313-31628-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=285+and+286&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31628-9&rft.au=Eaton%2C+Katherine+Bliss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinsovie00eato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simkin_2003-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Simkin_2003_249-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvio_FerrariW._Cole_DurhamElizabeth_A._Sewell2003" class="citation book cs1">Silvio Ferrari; W. Cole Durham; Elizabeth A. Sewell (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QEucgny-0k4C">Law and religion in post-communist Europe</a>. Peeters Pub & Booksellers. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1262-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1262-5"><bdi>978-90-429-1262-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200622083150/https://books.google.com/books?id=QEucgny-0k4C">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+religion+in+post-communist+Europe&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Peeters+Pub+%26+Booksellers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1262-5&rft.au=Silvio+Ferrari&rft.au=W.+Cole+Durham&rft.au=Elizabeth+A.+Sewell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQEucgny-0k4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_250-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_250-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_250-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon1974">Simon 1974</a>, pp. 64–65 </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon_1974,_209-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_209_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon1974">Simon 1974</a>, p. 209 </li> <li id="cite_note-Atwood_2001,_311-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Atwood_2001,_311_252-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtwood,_Craig_D.2001" class="citation book cs1">Atwood, Craig D. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alwaysreformingh0000atwo">Always Reforming: A History of Christianity Since 1300</a>. Macon, Georgia: <a href="/wiki/Mercer_University_Press" title="Mercer University Press">Mercer University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alwaysreformingh0000atwo/page/311">311</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86554-679-0"><bdi>978-0-86554-679-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Always+Reforming%3A+A+History+of+Christianity+Since+1300&rft.place=Macon%2C+Georgia&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-86554-679-0&rft.au=Atwood%2C+Craig+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falwaysreformingh0000atwo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYork2001" class="citation web cs1">York, Geoffrey (9 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120105914/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/5141.html">"Johnson's Russia List #5141 - Why father of glasnost is despised in Russia"</a>. The Globe and Mail (Canada). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/5141.html#">the original</a> on 20 January 2012 – via CDI. <q>In his new book, Maelstrom of Memory, Mr. Yakovlev lists some of the nightmares uncovered by his commission. More than 41 million Soviets were imprisoned from 1923 to 1953. More than 884,000 children were in internal exile by 1954. More than 85,000 Orthodox priests were shot in 1937 alone.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail+%28Canada%29&rft.atitle=Johnson%27s+Russia+List+%235141+-+Why+father+of+glasnost+is+despised+in+Russia&rft.date=2001-03-09&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdi.org%2Frussia%2Fjohnson%2F5141.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> D. Pospielovsky, The Russian Orthodox Church under the Soviet Regime, vol. 1, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 2: Soviet Antireligious Campaigns and Persecutions, St Martin's Press, New York (1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons04.html">"ARTICLE 124"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190102163245/http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons04.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARTICLE+124.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.departments.bucknell.edu%2Frussian%2Fconst%2F36cons04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html">"Article 52"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216062245/http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+52.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.departments.bucknell.edu%2Frussian%2Fconst%2F77cons02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adappur2000-260"><a href="#cite_ref-Adappur2000_260-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdappur2000" class="citation book cs1">Adappur, Abraham (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West</a>. Intercultural Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85574-47-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85574-47-9"><bdi>978-81-85574-47-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314065732/https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2016. <q>Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government—that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Cultural+Crisis+in+India+and+the+West&rft.pub=Intercultural+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-85574-47-9&rft.aulast=Adappur&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D44DYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> USGOV1.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlainey2011" class="citation book cs1">Blainey, Geoffrey (2011). A Short History of Christianity. Viking. p. 494.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=494&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Blainey&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_38-39_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_38-39_263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_38-39_263-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanz1998">Janz 1998</a>, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ro'i_1995,_263-264"><a href="#cite_ref-Ro'i_1995,_263_264-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRo'i,_Yaacov1995" class="citation book cs1">Ro'i, Yaacov (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC">Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Frank_Cass" title="Frank Cass">Frank Cass</a>. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4619-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4619-0"><bdi>978-0-7146-4619-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055620/http://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Jewish+Life+in+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=London&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4619-0&rft.au=Ro%27i%2C+Yaacov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJBH5pxzSyMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144_265-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahaylo,_BohdanVictor_Swoboda1990" class="citation book cs1">Nahaylo, Bohdan & Victor Swoboda (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC">Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Hamish_Hamilton" title="Hamish Hamilton">Hamish Hamilton</a>. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-922401-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-922401-4"><bdi>978-0-02-922401-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512050225/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. 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Indiana University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22038-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22038-7"><bdi>978-0-253-22038-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211211/https://books.google.com/books?id=LR6X3EY8oPIC">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+morality%2C+and+community+in+post-Soviet+societies&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22038-7&rft.au=Mark+D.+Steinberg&rft.au=Catherine+Wanner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLR6X3EY8oPIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janz_1998,_42-267"><a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_42_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanz1998">Janz 1998</a>, p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-subculture-268"><a href="#cite_ref-subculture_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKay,_GeorgeWilliams,_Christopher2009" class="citation book cs1">McKay, George; Williams, Christopher (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC">Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publishing_company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Lang (publishing company)">Peter Lang</a>. pp. 231–232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-921-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-921-9"><bdi>978-3-03911-921-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512035801/http://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subcultures+and+New+Religious+Movements+in+Russia+and+East-Central+Europe&rft.pages=231-232&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-03911-921-9&rft.au=McKay%2C+George&rft.au=Williams%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxpNBm-z7aOYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> 'On the other hand ...' See the index of Stalin and His Hangmen by Donald Rayfield, 2004, Random House </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRayfield2004">Rayfield 2004</a>, pp. 317–320 </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mikhail-Gorbachev">"Mikhail Gorbachev | Biography, Facts, Cold War, & Significance | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 26 August 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Mikhail+Gorbachev+%7C+Biography%2C+Facts%2C+Cold+War%2C+%26+Significance+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2023-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FMikhail-Gorbachev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-guidedhistory-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guidedhistory_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guidedhistory_272-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenson" class="citation web cs1">Benson, Tyler. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.bu.edu/guidedhistory/russia-and-its-empires/tyler-benson/">"The Role of Sports in the Soviet Union | Guided History"</a>. BU Blogs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022002522/http://blogs.bu.edu/guidedhistory/russia-and-its-empires/tyler-benson/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 8 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BU+Blogs&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Sports+in+the+Soviet+Union+%26%23124%3B+Guided+History&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Tyler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.bu.edu%2Fguidedhistory%2Frussia-and-its-empires%2Ftyler-benson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashburn1974" class="citation news cs1">Washburn, J. N. (21 July 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/07/21/archives/soviet-amateur-athlete-a-real-pro-dr-john-nelson-washburn-is-an.html">"Soviet Amateur Athlete: A Real Pro"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Soviet+Amateur+Athlete%3A+A+Real+Pro&rft.date=1974-07-21&rft.aulast=Washburn&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1974%2F07%2F21%2Farchives%2Fsoviet-amateur-athlete-a-real-pro-dr-john-nelson-washburn-is-an.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-07-22-sp-30740-story.html">"Sports in Soviet Union Only for Elite : There Are Top Athletes, and then There Are Those Who Sunbathe and Watch Drawbridges Go up"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>. 22 July 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Sports+in+Soviet+Union+Only+for+Elite+%3A+There+Are+Top+Athletes%2C+and+then+There+Are+Those+Who+Sunbathe+and+Watch+Drawbridges+Go+up&rft.date=1986-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1986-07-22-sp-30740-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cia.gov-275"><a href="#cite_ref-cia.gov_275-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170123110037/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A005600130009-0.pdf">"Info"</a> (PDF). www.cia.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A005600130009-0.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cia.gov&rft.atitle=Info&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Freadingroom%2Fdocs%2FCIA-RDP80-00810A005600130009-0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DG2011-276"><a href="#cite_ref-DG2011_276-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2011" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Thomas M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0292739575">Drug Games: The International Olympic Committee and the Politics of Doping</a>. University of Texas Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-73957-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-73957-4"><bdi>978-0-292-73957-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drug+Games%3A+The+International+Olympic+Committee+and+the+Politics+of+Doping&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-292-73957-4&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D0292739575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAleksandrovAleksandrovRunets2020" class="citation web cs1">Aleksandrov, Alexei; Aleksandrov, Grebeniuk; Runets, Volodymyr (22 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/the-1980-moscow-olympics-rank-as-the-cleanest-in-history-athletes-recall-how-the-u-s-s-r-cheated-the-system-/30741567.html">"The 1980 Olympics Are The 'Cleanest' In History. Athletes Recall How Moscow Cheated The System"</a>. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 26 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.atitle=The+1980+Olympics+Are+The+%27Cleanest%27+In+History.+Athletes+Recall+How+Moscow+Cheated+The+System.&rft.date=2020-07-22&rft.aulast=Aleksandrov&rft.aufirst=Alexei&rft.au=Aleksandrov%2C+Grebeniuk&rft.au=Runets%2C+Volodymyr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Fthe-1980-moscow-olympics-rank-as-the-cleanest-in-history-athletes-recall-how-the-u-s-s-r-cheated-the-system-%2F30741567.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT160813-278"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT160813_278-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuiz2016" class="citation news cs1">Ruiz, Rebecca R. (13 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/14/sports/olympics/soviet-doping-plan-russia-rio-games.html">"The Soviet Doping Plan: Document Reveals Illicit Approach to '84 Olympics"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 3 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Doping+Plan%3A+Document+Reveals+Illicit+Approach+to+%2784+Olympics&rft.date=2016-08-13&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F08%2F14%2Fsports%2Folympics%2Fsoviet-doping-plan-russia-rio-games.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuiker2015" class="citation book cs1">Duiker, William J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd0bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159">"The Crisis Deepens: The Outbreak of World War II"</a>. Contemporary World History (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-44790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-44790-2"><bdi>978-1-285-44790-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202093539/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd0bCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2021. 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A Short History Of Soviet Socialism. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 265–266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203500279">10.4324/9780203500279</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36640-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36640-7"><bdi>978-1-135-36640-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+Of+Soviet+Socialism&rft.pages=265-266&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-09-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203500279&rft.isbn=978-1-135-36640-7&rft.aulast=Sandle&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-o-281"><a href="#cite_ref-o_281-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesson1972" class="citation journal cs1">Wesson, Robert G. 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(December 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232446718">"Integrative Complexity of American and Soviet Foreign Policy Rhetoric: A Time Series Analysis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Personality_and_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Personality and Social Psychology">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>. 49 (6): 1565–1585. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.49.6.1565">10.1037/0022-3514.49.6.1565</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221555/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232446718_Integrative_Complexity_of_American_and_Soviet_Foreign_Policy_Rhetoric_A_Time-Series_Analysis">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Integrative+Complexity+of+American+and+Soviet+Foreign+Policy+Rhetoric%3A+A+Time+Series+Analysis&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1565-1585&rft.date=1985-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.49.6.1565&rft.aulast=Tetlock&rft.aufirst=Philip+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F232446718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/966616.stm">"Child poverty soars in eastern Europe"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110512034826/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/966616.stm">Archived</a> 12 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, BBC News, 11 October 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParenti1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti, Michael</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackshirtsredsr00pare">Blackshirts and Reds: Rational Fascism and the Overthrow of Communism</a>. <a href="/wiki/City_Lights_Bookstore" title="City Lights Bookstore">City Lights Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackshirtsredsr00pare/page/n70">118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-329-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-329-3"><bdi>978-0-87286-329-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackshirts+and+Reds%3A+Rational+Fascism+and+the+Overthrow+of+Communism&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=City+Lights+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87286-329-3&rft.aulast=Parenti&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackshirtsredsr00pare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scheidel-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scheidel_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheidel_285-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheidel_285-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidel2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a> (2017). 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Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51">51</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222">222–223</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16502-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16502-8"><bdi>978-0-691-16502-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Leveler%3A+Violence+and+the+History+of+Inequality+from+the+Stone+Age+to+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=51+%26+222-223&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16502-8&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAaley" class="citation book cs1">McAaley, Alastair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crop.org/viewfile.aspx?id=381">Russia and the Baltics: Poverty and Poverty Research in a Changing World</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170123224044/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3A8M3JFdbXA7sJ%3Awww.crop.org%2Fviewfile.aspx%3Fid%3D381+&cd=10&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=nz">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Baltics%3A+Poverty+and+Poverty+Research+in+a+Changing+World&rft.aulast=McAaley&rft.aufirst=Alastair&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crop.org%2Fviewfile.aspx%3Fid%3D381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/an-epidemic-of-street-kids-overwhelms-russian-cities/article4141933/">"An epidemic of street kids overwhelms Russian cities"</a>. 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Challenging Late Capitalism, Neoliberal Globalization, & Militarism.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Challenging+Late+Capitalism%2C+Neoliberal+Globalization%2C+%26+Militarism&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Targ&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> Theodore P. Gerber & Michael Hout, "More Shock than Therapy: Market Transition, Employment, and Income in Russia, 1991–1995", AJS Volume 104 Number 1 (July 1998): 1–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/15731344">"Cops for hire"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208110401/http://www.economist.com/node/15731344">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Cops+for+hire&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F15731344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CPI2015-291"><a href="#cite_ref-CPI2015_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results">"Corruption Perceptions Index 2014"</a>. Transparency International. 3 December 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151202072021/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2015. Retrieved 18 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Corruption+Perceptions+Index+2014&rft.pub=Transparency+International&rft.date=2014-12-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transparency.org%2Fcpi2014%2Fresults&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardt2003" class="citation book cs1">Hardt, John (2003). Russia's Uncertain Economic Future: With a Comprehensive Subject Index. <a href="/wiki/M._E._Sharpe" title="M. E. Sharpe">M. E. Sharpe</a>. p. 481.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Uncertain+Economic+Future%3A+With+a+Comprehensive+Subject+Index&rft.pages=481&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hardt&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattei2022" class="citation book cs1">Mattei, Clara E. 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Urban Life in Post-Soviet Asia. CRC Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Life+in+Post-Soviet+Asia&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Catharine&rft.au=Buchil%2C+Victor&rft.au=Humphrey%2C+Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmorodinskaya" class="citation book cs1">Smorodinskaya. Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Russian. 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Retrieved 18 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Non-communicable+Diseases+and+Former+Soviet+Union+countries&rft.aulast=Shubnikov&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~super4%2F33011-34001%2F33991.ppt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhartonVitek1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wharton, Melinda; Vitek, Charles (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640235">"Diphtheria in the Former Soviet Union: Reemergence of a Pandemic Disease"</a>. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 4 (4): 539–550. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0404.980404">10.3201/eid0404.980404</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640235">2640235</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9866730">9866730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Diphtheria+in+the+Former+Soviet+Union%3A+Reemergence+of+a+Pandemic+Disease&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=539-550&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2640235%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9866730&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0404.980404&rft.aulast=Wharton&rft.aufirst=Melinda&rft.au=Vitek%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2640235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParenti1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti, Michael</a> (1997). 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San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/City_Lights_Bookstore" title="City Lights Bookstore">City Lights Books</a>. pp. 107, 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-329-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-329-3"><bdi>978-0-87286-329-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackshirts+and+Reds%3A+Rational+Fascism+and+the+Overthrow+of+Communism&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=107%2C+115&rft.pub=City+Lights+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87286-329-3&rft.aulast=Parenti&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudsonSommers2010" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Hudson, Michael</a>; Sommers, Jeffrey (20 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/dec/20/latvia-debt-economy-europe-austerity">"Latvia provides no magic solution for indebted economies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171025021924/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/dec/20/latvia-debt-economy-europe-austerity">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017. <q>Neoliberal austerity has created demographic losses exceeding Stalin's deportations back in the 1940s (although without the latter's loss of life). As government cutbacks in education, healthcare and other basic social infrastructure threaten to undercut long-term development, young people are emigrating to better their lives rather than suffer in an economy without jobs. More than 12% of the overall population (and a much larger percentage of its labour force) now works abroad.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Latvia+provides+no+magic+solution+for+indebted+economies&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Sommers%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2010%2Fdec%2F20%2Flatvia-debt-economy-europe-austerity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoepller2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hoepller, C (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kon.org/urc/v10/hoeppler.html">"Russian Demographics: The Role of the Collapse of the Soviet Union"</a>. Undergraduate Research Journal for the Human Sciences. 10 (1). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806005855/http://www.kon.org/urc/v10/hoeppler.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 18 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Undergraduate+Research+Journal+for+the+Human+Sciences&rft.atitle=Russian+Demographics%3A+The+Role+of+the+Collapse+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hoepller&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kon.org%2Furc%2Fv10%2Fhoeppler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoland" class="citation web cs1">Poland, Marshall. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160708010129/http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/baker%20poland%20p1/ussr.htm">"Russian Economy in the Aftermath of the Collapse of the Soviet Union"</a>. Needham K12. 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Retrieved 21 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Truthout&rft.atitle=Noam+Chomsky+on+Anarchism%2C+Communism+and+Revolutions&rft.date=2016-07-17&rft.aulast=Polychroniou&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftruthout.org%2Farticles%2Fnoam-chomsky-on-anarchism-communism-and-revolutions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_post-Stalinist_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the post-Stalinist Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Bibliography of the Cold War">Bibliography of the Cold War</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985" class="citation book cs1">Ambler, John; Shaw, Denis J.B.; Symons, Leslie (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rpg9AAAAIAAJ">Soviet and East European Transport Problems</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-0557-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-0557-8"><bdi>978-0-7099-0557-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+and+East+European+Transport+Problems&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-0557-8&rft.aulast=Ambler&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Denis+J.B.&rft.au=Symons%2C+Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRpg9AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Comrie, Bernard</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/languagesofsovie0000comr">The Languages of the Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> (CUP) Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29877-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29877-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29877-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28CUP%29+Archive&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29877-3&rft.aulast=Comrie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flanguagesofsovie0000comr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrump2015" class="citation book cs1">Crump, Laurien (2015). 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Retrieved 23 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Economic+Decline%2C+Historical+and+Republican+Data&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft.au=Easterly%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-wds.worldbank.org%2Fexternal%2Fdefault%2FWDSContentServer%2FIW3P%2FIB%2F1994%2F04%2F01%2F000009265_3961006063138%2FRendered%2FPDF%2Fmulti0page.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2013" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Erik (2013). The First World War Peace Settlements, 1919–1925. 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In Palmowski, Tadeusz; Vaitekūnas, Stasys (eds.). The Problems of Development and International Cooperation in the Region of the Southern Baltic. Wydawnictwo "Bernardinum. pp. 134–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7380-819-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7380-819-5"><bdi>978-83-7380-819-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+transformation+disparity+in+European+post-Soviet+countries+in+the+period+of+transformation&rft.btitle=The+Problems+of+Development+and+International+Cooperation+in+the+Region+of+the+Southern+Baltic&rft.pages=134-143&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+%22Bernardinum&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-83-7380-819-5&rft.aulast=Michalski&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft.au=Hlynskyy%2C+Nazar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvcharovaBiryukova2018" class="citation book cs1">Ovcharova, Lilia; Biryukova, Svetlana (2018). "Poverty and the Poor in Post-Soviet Russia". In Rauhut, Daniel; Hatti, Neelambar (eds.). Poverty, Politics and the Poverty of Politics. B.R. Publishing Corporation. pp. 157–183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poverty+and+the+Poor+in+Post-Soviet+Russia&rft.btitle=Poverty%2C+Politics+and+the+Poverty+of+Politics&rft.pages=157-183&rft.pub=B.R.+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Ovcharova&rft.aufirst=Lilia&rft.au=Biryukova%2C+Svetlana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonsService2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silvio_Pons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silvio Pons (page does not exist)">Pons, Silvio</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2010). A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3452-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3452-5"><bdi>978-1-4008-3452-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+20th-Century+Communism&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-3452-5&rft.aulast=Pons&rft.aufirst=Silvio&rft.au=Service%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRayfield2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rayfield" title="Donald Rayfield">Rayfield, Donald</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/Stalin_and_His_Hangmen" title="Stalin and His Hangmen">Stalin and His Hangmen: An Authoritative Portrait of a Tyrant and Those Who Served Him</a>. <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-75771-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-75771-6"><bdi>978-0-375-75771-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+His+Hangmen%3A+An+Authoritative+Portrait+of+a+Tyrant+and+Those+Who+Served+Him&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-375-75771-6&rft.aulast=Rayfield&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRead2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Read" title="Christopher Read">Read, Christopher</a> (2005). From Tsar to Soviets. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36625-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-36625-4"><bdi>978-1-135-36625-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Tsar+to+Soviets&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-135-36625-4&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2018" class="citation report cs1">Russell, Martin (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS_ATA(2018)620225_EN.pdf">Socioeconomic inequality in Russia</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Socioeconomic+inequality+in+Russia&rft.pub=European+Parliament&rft.date=2018-04&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.europarl.europa.eu%2FRegData%2Fetudes%2FATAG%2F2018%2F620225%2FEPRS_ATA%282018%29620225_EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, James (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XJ6LAgAAQBAJ">Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138815681" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138815681"><bdi>978-1138815681</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Terror%3A+The+Ideological+Origins+of+Early+Soviet+State+Violence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1138815681&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXJ6LAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2000). <a href="/wiki/Lenin:_A_Biography" title="Lenin: A Biography">Lenin: A Biography</a>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72625-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72625-9"><bdi>978-0-333-72625-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-333-72625-9&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2005). A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Vladimir Putin. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01801-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01801-3"><bdi>978-0-674-01801-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Russia+from+Nicholas+II+to+Vladimir+Putin&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01801-3&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1974" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Gerard (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTLc8H3b4vUC">Church, State, and Opposition in the U.S.S.R</a>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02612-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02612-4"><bdi>978-0-520-02612-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church%2C+State%2C+and+Opposition+in+the+U.S.S.R&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02612-4&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTLc8H3b4vUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewartKleinSchmitzSchröder2012" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Susan; Klein, Margarete; Schmitz, Andrea; Schröder, Hans-Henning (2012). "Introduction". In Stewart, Susan; Klein, Margarete; Schröder, Hans-Henning (eds.). Presidents, Oligarchs and Bureaucrats: Forms of Rule in the Post-Soviet Space. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. pp. 1–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138278790" title="Special:BookSources/9781138278790"><bdi>9781138278790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Presidents%2C+Oligarchs+and+Bureaucrats%3A+Forms+of+Rule+in+the+Post-Soviet+Space&rft.pages=1-14&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781138278790&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Klein%2C+Margarete&rft.au=Schmitz%2C+Andrea&rft.au=Schr%C3%B6der%2C+Hans-Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkogonov1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Volkogonov" title="Dmitri Volkogonov">Volkogonov, Dmitri</a> (1994). Lenin: Life and Legacy. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Shukman" title="Harold Shukman">Shukman, Harold</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-255123-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-255123-6"><bdi>978-0-00-255123-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%3A+Life+and+Legacy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-00-255123-6&rft.aulast=Volkogonov&rft.aufirst=Dmitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2001" class="citation book cs1">White, James D. (2001). Lenin: The Practice and Theory of Revolution. European History in Perspective. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72157-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-72157-5"><bdi>978-0-333-72157-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%3A+The+Practice+and+Theory+of+Revolution&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+England&rft.series=European+History+in+Perspective&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-333-72157-5&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1983" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, David (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qgOAAAAQAAJ">The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-2704-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-2704-4"><bdi>978-0-7099-2704-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demand+for+Energy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-2704-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1qgOAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, Stephen</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a>. 48 (8): 1319–1353. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+German+and+Soviet+Repression+and+Mass+Killings%2C+1930%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1319-1353&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412415&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-German_Soviet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoviet+Union" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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style="clear: both"> Soviet Union at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="wikt:Soviet Union">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="20" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="c:Soviet Union">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Soviet Union">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="q:Soviet Union">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 26px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="26" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="s:National Anthem of the Soviet Union">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="voy:Soviet Union">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15180" class="extiw" title="d:Q15180">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/16px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/16px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/24px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/32px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of the Soviet Union">Wikimedia Atlas of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ariwatch.com/VS/JD/ImpressionsOfSovietRussia.htm">Impressions of Soviet Russia</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/97007563/">A Country Study: Soviet Union</a> (PDF)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union&oldid=1258497631">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union&oldid=1258497631</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Soviet_Union&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 20 November 2024, at 02:05 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8D_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%97%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Республикэ Совет Социал Зэгуэтхэр – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Республикэ Совет Социал Зэгуэтхэр" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunie" title="Sowjetunie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sowjetunie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%89%AA%E1%8B%AC%E1%89%B5_%E1%88%95%E1%89%A5%E1%88%A8%E1%89%B5" title="ሶቪዬት ሕብረት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሶቪዬት ሕብረት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetlitto" title="Sovjetlitto – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Sovjetlitto" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofiet_Gesamnung" title="Sofiet Gesamnung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Sofiet Gesamnung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%9B%D3%99%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Асоветтә Социалисттә Республикақәа Реидгыла – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Асоветтә Социалисттә Республикақәа Реидгыла" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="الاتحاد السوفيتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاتحاد السوفيتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_de_Republicas_Socialistas_Sovieticas" title="Unión de Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Unión de Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խորհրդային Միութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Խորհրդային Միութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%27%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%98" title="ছ'ভিয়েট সংঘ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছ'ভিয়েট সংঘ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Xunión Soviética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xunión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaty_Sovi%C3%A9tiko" title="Joaty Soviétiko – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Joaty Soviétiko" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Советияб Союзалъул Социялизмаялъул Республикаби – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Советияб Союзалъул Социялизмаялъул Республикаби" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSR%C4%B0" title="SSRİ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="SSRİ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="شوروی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شوروی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%CD%98-li%C3%A2n" title="So͘-liân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="So͘-liân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Союзы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Союзы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="सोवियत यूनियन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सोवियत यूनियन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Съюз на съветските социалистически републики – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Съюз на съветските социалистически републики" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B" title="སུའུ་ལེན་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སུའུ་ལེན་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unaniezh_ar_Republiko%C3%B9_Sokialour_Soviedel" title="Unaniezh ar Republikoù Sokialour Soviedel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Unaniezh ar Republikoù Sokialour Soviedel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%8D_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Зүблэлтэ холбоото улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Зүблэлтэ холбоото улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3_de_Rep%C3%BAbliques_Socialistes_Sovi%C3%A8tiques" title="Unió de Repúbliques Socialistes Soviètiques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Unió de Repúbliques Socialistes Soviètiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9F%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%88%C4%95%D0%B2%C4%95" title="Совет Социализм Республикисен Пĕрлешĕвĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Совет Социализм Республикисен Пĕрлешĕвĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyong_Sobyet" title="Unyong Sobyet – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Unyong Sobyet" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sov%C4%9Btsk%C3%BD_svaz" title="Sovětský svaz – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sovětský svaz" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Undeb_Sofietaidd" title="Yr Undeb Sofietaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Undeb Sofietaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="لإتحاد السوڤياتي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لإتحاد السوڤياتي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetlihttu" title="Sovjetlihttu – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Sovjetlihttu" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AF%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%AC%DE%93%DE%B0_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%8C%DE%A8%DE%80%DE%A7%DE%8B%DE%AA" title="ސޯވިއެޓް އިއްތިހާދު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސޯވިއެޓް އިއްތިހާދު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetski_zw%C4%9Bzk" title="Sowjetski zwězk – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Sowjetski zwězk" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B5ukogude_Liit" title="Nõukogude Liit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nõukogude Liit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ένωση Σοβιετικών Σοσιαλιστικών Δημοκρατιών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ένωση Σοβιετικών Σοσιαλιστικών Δημοκρατιών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovetunio" title="Sovetunio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sovetunio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobietar_Errepublika_Sozialisten_Batasuna" title="Sobietar Errepublika Sozialisten Batasuna – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sobietar Errepublika Sozialisten Batasuna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetsamveldi%C3%B0" title="Sovjetsamveldið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sovjetsamveldið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_des_r%C3%A9publiques_socialistes_sovi%C3%A9tiques" title="Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Uny" title="Sovjet-Uny – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sovjet-Uny" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietiche" title="Union Sovietiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Union Sovietiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tAontas_S%C3%B3iv%C3%A9adach" title="An tAontas Sóivéadach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tAontas Sóivéadach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnaneys_ny_Pobblaghtyn_Soveidjagh_Soshiallagh" title="Unnaneys ny Pobblaghtyn Soveidjagh Soshiallagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Unnaneys ny Pobblaghtyn Soveidjagh Soshiallagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Aonadh_Sobhiatach" title="An t-Aonadh Sobhiatach – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Aonadh Sobhiatach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Советий Социализма Республикай Союз – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Советий Социализма Республикай Союз" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A" title="شؤروي – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="شؤروي" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%A8" title="સોવિયેત યુનિયન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સોવિયેત યુનિયન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B8" title="𐌲𐌲𐌲𐌸 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌲𐌲𐌲𐌸" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BB-li%C3%A8n" title="Sû-lièn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sû-lièn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EB%A0%A8" title="소련 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소련" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarayyar_Sobiyet" title="Tarayyar Sobiyet – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarayyar Sobiyet" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետությունների Միություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետությունների Միություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="सोवियत संघ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सोवियत संघ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetski_zwjazk" title="Sowjetski zwjazk – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Sowjetski zwjazk" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-Uniono" title="Soviet-Uniono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Soviet-Uniono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappon_ti_Sobiet" title="Kappon ti Sobiet – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kappon ti Sobiet" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietic" title="Union Sovietic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Union Sovietic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-Union" title="Soviet-Union – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Soviet-Union" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suviatam_Nunaa" title="Suviatam Nunaa – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Suviatam Nunaa" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A6%C3%A6%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Советон Цæдис – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Советон Цæдис" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoviet_Union" title="Isoviet Union – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Isoviet Union" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sov%C3%A9tr%C3%ADkin" title="Sovétríkin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sovétríkin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unione_Sovietica" title="Unione Sovietica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Unione Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ברית המועצות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברית המועצות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Sovy%C3%A8t" title="Uni Sovyèt – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Uni Sovyèt" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%92%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F" title="ಸೊವಿಯೆಟ್ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೊವಿಯೆಟ್ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D1%83" title="Совет Социалист Республикаланы Союзу – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Совет Социалист Республикаланы Союзу" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკების კავშირი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკების კავშირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%90%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%90%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82" title="صؤوِت اِتِفاق – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="صؤوِت اِتِفاق" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Кеңестік Социалистік Республикалар Одағы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кеңестік Социалистік Республикалар Одағы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/URSS" title="URSS – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="URSS" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umoja_wa_Kisovyeti" title="Umoja wa Kisovyeti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Umoja wa Kisovyeti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%A7%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%A7%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%BB%D3%A7%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Сӧветскӧй Социалистическӧй Республикаяслӧн Союз – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Сӧветскӧй Социалистическӧй Республикаяслӧн Союз" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSSS" title="TSSS – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="TSSS" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyon_repiblik_sosyalis_sovyetik" title="Inyon repiblik sosyalis sovyetik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Inyon repiblik sosyalis sovyetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyon_di_s%C3%A9_r%C3%A9piblik_sosyalis_sovy%C3%A9tik" title="Inyon di sé répiblik sosyalis sovyétik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Inyon di sé répiblik sosyalis sovyétik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yek%C3%AEtiya_Komar%C3%AAn_Sovyet_%C3%AAn_Sosyal%C3%AEst" title="Yekîtiya Komarên Sovyet ên Sosyalîst – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Yekîtiya Komarên Sovyet ên Sosyalîst" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Кеңештер Бирлиги – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кеңештер Бирлиги" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietica" title="Union Sovietica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Union Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovyetika" title="Union Sovyetika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Union Sovyetika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%9A%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%BD%E0%BA%94" title="ສະຫະພາບໂຊວຽດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະຫະພາບໂຊວຽດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unio_Rerum_Publicarum_Sovieticarum_Socialisticarum" title="Unio Rerum Publicarum Sovieticarum Socialisticarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Unio Rerum Publicarum Sovieticarum Socialisticarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padomju_Savien%C4%ABba" title="Padomju Savienība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Padomju Savienība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunioun" title="Sowjetunioun – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sowjetunioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D3%80" title="Советрин Социализмдин Республикайрин ГалкӀ – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Советрин Социализмдин Республикайрин ГалкӀ" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%C5%B3_S%C4%85junga" title="Sovietų Sąjunga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sovietų Sąjunga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietica" title="Union Sovietica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Union Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_de_Republicas_Sosialiste_Soviet" title="Uni de Republicas Sosialiste Soviet – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Uni de Republicas Sosialiste Soviet" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevvostoliitto" title="Nevvostoliitto – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Nevvostoliitto" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sofygu%27e" title="sofygu'e – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sofygu'e" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_di_Republegh_Socialista_Sovietegh" title="Union di Republegh Socialista Sovietegh – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Union di Republegh Socialista Sovietegh" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szovjetuni%C3%B3" title="Szovjetunió – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szovjetunió" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98" title="सोभियत सङ्घ – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सोभियत सङ्घ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Советски Сојуз – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Советски Сојуз" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firaisan%27_ny_Repoblika_S%C3%B4sialista_S%C3%B4vietika" title="Firaisan' ny Repoblika Sôsialista Sôvietika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Firaisan' ny Repoblika Sôsialista Sôvietika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB" title="സോവിയറ്റ് യൂണിയൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സോവിയറ്റ് യൂണിയൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unjoni_Sovjetika" title="Unjoni Sovjetika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Unjoni Sovjetika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hononga_Howete" title="Hononga Howete – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hononga Howete" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="सोव्हिएत संघ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सोव्हिएत संघ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A3" title="სხუნუეფიშ სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკეფიშ რსხუ – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სხუნუეფიშ სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკეფიშ რსხუ" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%89" title="الاتحاد السوفييتى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاتحاد السوفييتى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="شوروی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="شوروی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesatuan_Soviet" title="Kesatuan Soviet – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesatuan Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%AD-li%C3%A8ng" title="Sŭ-lièng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sŭ-lièng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ounion_Sobi%C3%A9tica" title="Ounion Sobiética – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ounion Sobiética" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Советонь Соткс – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Советонь Соткс" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D3%A9%D0%B2%D0%BB%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%82_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Зөвлөлт Холбоот Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Зөвлөлт Холбоот Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%99%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="ဆိုဗီယက်ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆိုဗီယက်ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetuny" title="Sovjetuny – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sovjetuny" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98" title="सोभियत सङ्घ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सोभियत सङ्घ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%93%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88%E9%80%A3%E9%82%A6" title="ソビエト連邦 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソビエト連邦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aunione_Sovieteca" title="Aunione Sovieteca – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Aunione Sovieteca" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Советийн Социалистийн Республикийн Союз – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Советийн Социалистийн Республикийн Союз" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunioon" title="Sowjetunioon – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sowjetunioon" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnion_Sovi%C3%A9tique" title="Unnion Soviétique – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Unnion Soviétique" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_de_las_Republicas_Socialistas_Sovieticas" title="Union de las Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Union de las Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA-%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A3%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Совет Социализм Республик-влак Ушем – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Совет Социализм Республик-влак Ушем" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovet_Sotsialistik_Respublikalari_Ittifoqi" title="Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikalari Ittifoqi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikalari Ittifoqi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸੋਵੀਅਤ ਯੂਨੀਅਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੋਵੀਅਤ ਯੂਨੀਅਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سویت یونین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سویت یونین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietiko" title="Union Sovietiko – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Union Sovietiko" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="شوروي اتحاد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شوروي اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suoviet_Yuunian" title="Suoviet Yuunian – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Suoviet Yuunian" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%8F" title="សហភាពសូវៀត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សហភាពសូវៀត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/URSS" title="URSS – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="URSS" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Union Soviética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Union Soviética" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwi%C4%85zek_Socjalistycznych_Republik_Radzieckich" title="Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="União Soviética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="União Soviética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Euralar_Sotsialistik_Cumhuriyetleri_Birligi" title="Şuralar Sotsialistik Cumhuriyetleri Birligi – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Şuralar Sotsialistik Cumhuriyetleri Birligi" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniunea_Republicilor_Sovietice_Socialiste" title="Uniunea Republicilor Sovietice Socialiste – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Uniunea Republicilor Sovietice Socialiste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniun_sovietica" title="Uniun sovietica – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Uniun sovietica" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susyalista_Suwit_Ripuwlikakunap_Hu%C3%B1un" title="Susyalista Suwit Ripuwlikakunap Huñun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Susyalista Suwit Ripuwlikakunap Huñun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Союз Совітскых Соціалістічных Републик – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Союз Совітскых Соціалістічных Републик" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Союз Советских Социалистических Республик – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Союз Советских Социалистических Республик" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сэбиэскэй Социалистыы Республикалар Сойуустара – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сэбиэскэй Социалистыы Республикалар Сойуустара" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B4_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B6%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱚᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱴ ᱥᱟᱶᱛᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱚᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱴ ᱥᱟᱶᱛᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سوویت یونین – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سوویت یونین" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unione_Sovietica" title="Unione Sovietica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Unione Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkimi_Sovjetik" title="Bashkimi Sovjetik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bashkimi Sovjetik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unioni_Suvi%C3%A8tica" title="Unioni Suviètica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Unioni Suviètica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="සෝවියට් සංගමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සෝවියට් සංගමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سوويت يونين – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سوويت يونين" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovietsky_zv%C3%A4z" title="Sovietsky zväz – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sovietsky zväz" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetska_zveza" title="Sovjetska zveza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sovjetska zveza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D1%A3%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%97%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D1%AB%EA%99%81%D1%8A" title="Съвѣтьскъ Социалистичьскъ Димократїи Съвѫꙁъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Съвѣтьскъ Социалистичьскъ Димократїи Съвѫꙁъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojusz_Socjalistycznych_Sowjeckich_Republik" title="Sojusz Socjalistycznych Sowjeckich Republik – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Sojusz Socjalistycznych Sowjeckich Republik" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midowga_Sofiyet" title="Midowga Sofiyet – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Midowga Sofiyet" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%86%DA%A4%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA" title="یەکێتیی سۆڤیەت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یەکێتیی سۆڤیەت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Совјетски Савез – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Совјетски Савез" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Sovi%C3%A9t" title="Uni Soviét – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Uni Soviét" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuvostoliitto" title="Neuvostoliitto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neuvostoliitto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyong_Sobyetiko" title="Unyong Sobyetiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Unyong Sobyetiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சோவியத் ஒன்றியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சோவியத் ஒன்றியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadukli_n_Tegdudiwin_Tinemlayin_Tisuvyitiyin" title="Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Берлеге – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Берлеге" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="సోవియట్ యూనియన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సోవియట్ యూనియన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%95" title="สหภาพโซเวียต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สหภาพโซเวียต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D3%A3" title="Иттиҳоди Шуравӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Иттиҳоди Шуравӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovyetler_Birli%C4%9Fi" title="Sovyetler Birliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sovyetler Birliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muna%CC%B1pyia%CC%B1_Soviyet" title="Muna̱pyia̱ Soviyet – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Muna̱pyia̱ Soviyet" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0%D0%AD" title="ССРЭ – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="ССРЭ" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Советской Социалистической Республикаослэн Союззы – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Советской Социалистической Республикаослэн Союззы" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Союз Радянських Соціалістичних Республік – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Союз Радянських Соціалістичних Республік" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="سوویت اتحاد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سوویت اتحاد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8B%DB%90%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%83_%D8%AC%DB%87%D9%85%DA%BE%DB%87%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95%D8%AA%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B1_%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%AA%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%89" title="سوۋېت سوتسىيالىستىك جۇمھۇرىيەتلەر ئىتتىپاقى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سوۋېت سوتسىيالىستىك جۇمھۇرىيەتلەر ئىتتىپاقى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhlienz" title="Suhlienz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Suhlienz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovi%C3%A8tega" title="Union Soviètega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Union Soviètega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevondkundali%C5%BEiden_Socialisti%C5%BEiden_Tazovaldkundoiden_%C3%9Chti%C5%A1tuz" title="Nevondkundaližiden Socialistižiden Tazovaldkundoiden Ühtištuz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Nevondkundaližiden Socialistižiden Tazovaldkundoiden Ühtištuz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%AAn_X%C3%B4" title="Liên Xô – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Liên Xô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovy%C3%A4tabalatam" title="Sovyätabalatam – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Sovyätabalatam" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B5vvokogoliit" title="Nõvvokogoliit – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Nõvvokogoliit" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.R.S.S." title="U.R.S.S. – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="U.R.S.S." data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyon_Sovyetika" title="Unyon Sovyetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Unyon Sovyetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Yi_Benno" title="Soviet Yi Benno – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Soviet Yi Benno" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="苏联" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%9F_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93" title="סאוועטן פארבאנד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאוועטן פארבאנד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cs%E1%BB%8D%CC%80kan_S%C3%B3f%C3%AC%E1%BA%B9%CC%80t%C3%AC" title="Ìsọ̀kan Sófìẹ̀tì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìsọ̀kan Sófìẹ̀tì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yewiya_Sovyetan" title="Yewiya Sovyetan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Yewiya Sovyetan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar%C4%ABbu_S%C4%81jonga" title="Tarību Sājonga – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Tarību Sājonga" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="苏联" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisaan_Soviet" title="Koisaan Soviet – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Koisaan Soviet" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovet_Sosialist_Respublikon_Ibemon" title="Sovet Sosialist Respublikon Ibemon – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Sovet Sosialist Respublikon Ibemon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-x6txf","wgBackendResponseTime":354,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.493","walltime":"5.242","ppvisitednodes":{"value":31474,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1283100,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":194416,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":114,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1134492,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4271.399 1 -total"," 36.93% 1577.626 3 Template:Reflist"," 14.58% 622.807 120 Template:Cite_book"," 11.22% 479.450 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 8.90% 380.051 65 Template:Cite_web"," 5.60% 239.015 28 Template:Sfn"," 5.11% 218.065 2 Template:Navboxes"," 4.53% 193.585 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.09% 174.627 17 Template:Nowrap"," 4.01% 171.345 14 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.632","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23783349,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdams2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdappur2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAleksandrovAleksandrovRunets2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexanderBuchilHumphrey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson,_Barbara_A.1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndre_Geim2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArkhipov2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtwood,_Craig_D.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaverstockWilliams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeloff1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenson,_Shirley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergson,_Abram1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerkman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlainey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroad1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1992\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCereseto1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaytonRichardson1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComrie1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrump2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanielaRubeneMedne2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDas2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis,_ChristopherFeshbach,_Murray\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeb,_Kalipada1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeckert1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDewdneyConquestPipesMcCauley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDietsch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinkel,_R.H.1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDominic_Lawson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuiker2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton,_Katherine_Bliss2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Frenkel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnglund\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF._Triska,_JanSlusser,_Robert_M.1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldbrugge1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerberBedrick1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiges2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischerEasterly1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalazkaa2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGao2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeoffrey_A._Hosking2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhodsee2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhodseeOrenstein2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovernment_of_the_USSR1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovernment_of_the_USSR:_Gorbachev,_Mikhail1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraff2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregory2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGvosdev,_Nikolas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabibov2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardt2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHarland2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison,_Mark1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHighman,_Robert_D.S.Greenwood,_John_T.Hardesty,_Von1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoepller2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosking,_Geoffrey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHosking2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHough,_Jerry_F.Fainsod,_Merle1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowardKing2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudsonSommers2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHønnelandJørgensen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIMFOECD1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJanz1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Marie_Feldbrugge,_Ferdinand1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaser1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhrushchev,_Nikita2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKireeva2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight,_Amy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrimins,_Juris1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKucherov,_Samuel1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLane1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavelle2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw,_David_A.1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeggett1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewin1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLibmanObydenkova2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLočmeleProcevskaZelče2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuhn2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacFarland1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarantzidis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_D._SteinbergCatherine_Wanner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Harrison1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathews1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattei2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMawdsley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaza2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAaley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCauley,_Martin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKay,_GeorgeWilliams,_Christopher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMccauley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichalskiHlynskyy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikhail_Shifman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilanović2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMueller1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNahaylo,_BohdanVictor_Swoboda1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiedowski2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorth2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOfford\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOvcharovaBiryukova2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._Hoffmann,_ErikLaird,_Robin_Frederick1984\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFParenti1997\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPejovich1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips,_Steve2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoland\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolley,_Martin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolmar,_Norman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolychroniou2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPonsService2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRayfield2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaymer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRead2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinalda2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRo\u0026#039;i,_Yaacov1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoseMishlerMunro2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosefielde1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuiz2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahakyan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSakwa,_Richard1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandle2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheidel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFService,_Robert2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFService2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFService2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahgedanovaBurt1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlapentokh1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShubnikov\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilvio_FerrariW._Cole_DurhamElizabeth_A._Sewell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmorodinskaya\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartKleinSchmitzSchröder2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrachan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStronski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaaffe1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaras,_Ray1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarg2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTetlock1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Editors_of_Encyclopaedia_Britannica2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimmermann1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiwari2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlam1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVallin,_J.Chesnais,_J.C.1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVincent_Daniels,_Robert1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVolkogonov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWanner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWashburn1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWesson1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhartonVitek1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheatcroft1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheatcroftDaviesCooper1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite,_StephenJ._Gill,_GraemeSlider,_Darrell1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinterSivan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoder1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYork2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZemtsov,_Ilya1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZinchenko2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŌgushi,_Atsushi2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 26,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Autonomous Oblasts of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Autonomous Republics of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite Americana\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 114,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 64,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 2,\n [\"Convert\"] = 7,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Eastern Bloc\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 27,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Frac\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 15,\n [\"History of Russia\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"IncreaseNeutral\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 21,\n [\"Lang-ka\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang-rus\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 18,\n [\"Largest cities\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 26,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 4,\n [\"POV section\"] = 1,\n [\"POV statement\"] = 1,\n [\"Parabr\"] = 3,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-several\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Republics of the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Russia topics\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 13,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 28,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"Socialism by state\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet Bloc disinformation in the Cold War\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet Union topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"USSR Map\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n [\"Ubli\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 8,\n [\"When\"] = 2,\n [\"Wikiatlas\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","17.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","12.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","11.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","160","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","100","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","3.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","2.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","2.8"],["[others]","920","32.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-mhg5j","timestamp":"20241124053044","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Soviet Union","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soviet_Union","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q15180","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q15180","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-08T17:06:53Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T02:05:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg","headline":"former country in Eurasia 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