Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="pb-page" data-request-id="cb33a652-fa33-4394-8405-f48a1272925e" ><head data-pb-dropzone="head"><meta name="pbContext" content=";requestedJournal:journal:slast;website:website:slast-site;ctype:string:Journal Content;journal:journal:slast;pageGroup:string:Article View;wgroup:string:Migrated Websites;page:string:Show Full Text;subPage:string:Full Text;article:article:pii\:S2472630323000419;product:product:elsevier\:product\:ha;issue:issue:pii\:S2472630323X00065"/>  <meta name="robots" content="noarchive,nocache" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,initial-scale=1,maximum-scale=1, user-scalable=1"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development" /> <meta property="og:type" content="Article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://slas-technology.org/article/S2472-6303(23)00041-9/abstract" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SLAS Technology" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://slas-technology.org/cms/asset/74248fa5-266f-49d8-aaf5-6facc45964c4/sc1.jpg" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Laboratory automation uses large amounts of plastic consumables, generating substantial single-use plastic waste. Automated ELISAs are an indispensable analytical tool in vaccine formulation and process development. Current workflows, however, rely on disposable liquid handling tips. In progress toward sustainability, we developed workflows for washing 384-well format liquid handling tips, using nontoxic reagents, for re-use during ELISA testing. We estimate that this workflow reduces plastic and cardboard waste in our facility by 989 kg/year and 202 kg/year, respectively, without introducing new chemicals into our waste steam." /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://slas-technology.org/cms/asset/74248fa5-266f-49d8-aaf5-6facc45964c4/sc1.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Laboratory automation uses large amounts of plastic consumables, generating substantial single-use plastic waste. Automated ELISAs are an indispensable analytical tool in vaccine formulation and process development. Current workflows, however, rely on disposable liquid handling tips. In progress toward sustainability, we developed workflows for washing 384-well format liquid handling tips, using nontoxic reagents, for re-use during ELISA testing. We estimate that this workflow reduces plastic and cardboard waste in our facility by 989 kg/year and 202 kg/year, respectively, without introducing new chemicals into our waste steam." /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://slas-technology.org/article/S2472-6303(23)00041-9/fulltext"> <title>Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development - SLAS Technology</title><meta name="citation_journal_title" content="SLAS Technology"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="SLAS Technology"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Elsevier"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development"/> <meta name="citation_date" content="2023/10/01"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2023/06/13"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="28"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="5"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="375"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="379"/> <meta name="citation_pmid" content="37327946"/> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="http://slas-technology.org/article/S2472630323000419/abstract"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="http://slas-technology.org/article/S2472630323000419/fulltext"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="http://slas-technology.org/article/S2472630323000419/pdf"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2472-6303"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2472-6311"/> <meta name="citation_language" content="English"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003"/> <meta name="citation_pmid" content="37327946"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Brittney Pedrazzi"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="Aleksandr Treyer"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="Rachael Cohen"></meta><meta name="citation_author_orcid" content="0000-0001-9851-2394"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="Amy Bowman"></meta><meta name="citation_author_orcid" content="0000-0003-1912-1921"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="Jillian Acevedo-Skrip"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="Kristine Kearns"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="David Westover"></meta><meta name="citation_author_email" content="David.Westover@Merck.com"></meta><meta name="citation_author" content="John W. Loughney"></meta><meta name="citation_author_email" content="John_Loughney@Merck.com"></meta><meta name="citation_keywords" content="ELISA; Automation; sustainability; vaccine"></meta><meta name="citation_keywords" content="ANOVA; analysis of variance; ELISA; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; LiHa; liquid handling arm; MCA; multi-channel arm"></meta><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=A Review of Polylactic Acid as a Replacement Material for Single-Use Laboratory Components; citation_author=B. Freeland; citation_author=et al.; citation_journal_title=Materials (Basel); citation_volume=15; citation_number=9; citation_firstpage=2989; citation_publication_date=2022; "></meta><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Can laboratories move away from single-use plastic?; citation_author=L. 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Zawawi; citation_journal_title=Aust J Basic Appl Sci; citation_volume=7; citation_number=2; citation_firstpage=421; citation_lastpage=431; citation_publication_date=2013; "></meta><meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Environmental outcomes of the US renewable fuel standard; citation_author=T.J. Lark; citation_author=et al.; citation_journal_title=Proceed Nat Acad Sci; citation_volume=119; citation_number=9; citation_publication_date=2022; "></meta><meta name="citation_abstract" content="<h2>Abstract</h2><p>Laboratory automation uses large amounts of plastic consumables, generating substantial single-use plastic waste. Automated ELISAs are an indispensable analytical tool in vaccine formulation and process development. Current workflows, however, rely on disposable liquid handling tips. In progress toward sustainability, we developed workflows for washing 384-well format liquid handling tips, using nontoxic reagents, for re-use during ELISA testing. 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var gpt_DisableAdsFlagFound = false; var gptEvent_Debug = ''; var gptCustomTargeting_Debug = ''; var gptSite_Debug = ""; var gptPage_Debug = ""; var gptContextualEnabled = false; var gptContextualResult_Debug = ''; var gptContextualInit_Debug = ''; var gptContextualURL_Debug = ''; var gptContextualReady_Debug = ''; var gptMoatReady_Debug = ''; var gptMoatInit_Debug = ''; var gptTestENV_Debug = ''; var gptDisableAds_Debug = ''; var gptStatus_Debug = 'GPT Still Loading - Refresh Values'; var gptInvalidAdSize_Debug = ''; //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- $(document).ready(function () { //Check to see if we are on a development env gpt_CheckEnvironment(); if (!gpt_DisableAdsFlagFound) { gpt_StartTime = new Date(); if (gpt_AdFile !== "PU") { //Once the dom has loaded, begin the process to init the ads. gpt_InitScripts(); gpt_CheckForMOATInit(); } } }); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> function gpt_CheckEnvironment() { if ($('#gptDisableAds').length > 0) { gptDisableAds_Debug = 'Flag Detected - Ads Disabled'; gpt_DisableAdsFlagFound = true; } else { gptDisableAds_Debug = 'Ads Enabled'; gpt_DisableAdsFlagFound = false; } switch (gpt_AdFile) { case 'PU': gptContextualEnabled = true; if ($("#Environment").val() !== "Prod") { gpt_IsProd = false; gptTestENV_Debug = 'Test Environment Detected'; } else { gptTestENV_Debug = 'Production Environment Detected'; } break; case 'JBS': case 'LANCET': gptContextualEnabled = true; if ($(".gpt-ad").length > 0) { //Other ads exist, allow the Prestitial $(document.body).append("<div class='gpt-ad' data-adsize='prestitial'></div>"); } if (window.location.hostname.toLowerCase().indexOf('.literatumonline.') >= 0) { gpt_IsProd = false; gptTestENV_Debug = 'Test Environment Detected'; } else { gptTestENV_Debug = 'Production Environment Detected'; } break; default: //Cell gptContextualEnabled = false; if (window.location.hostname.toLowerCase().indexOf('.literatumonline.') >= 0) { gpt_IsProd = false; gptTestENV_Debug = 'Test Environment Detected'; } else { gptTestENV_Debug = 'Production Environment Detected'; } break; } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GetNonCMEArticle() { var url; $('.articleCitation').each(function (i, obj) { if ($(obj).find('.toc__item__detials').length > 0) { var itemDetails = $(obj).first().find('.toc__item__detials'); var cmeFound = 0; if (cmeFound == 0) { cmeFound = $(itemDetails).find("img[title~='CME']").length; } if (cmeFound == 0) { cmeFound = $(itemDetails).find("img[title~='(CME)']").length; } if (cmeFound == 0) { cmeFound = $(itemDetails).find("img[title~='Education']").length; } if (cmeFound == 0) { cmeFound = $(itemDetails).find("img[title~='education']").length; } if (cmeFound == 0) { var itemLink = $(itemDetails).first().find('.toc__item__title'); var linkCount = $(itemLink).first().find("a:contains('CME')").length; if (linkCount == 0) { url = $(itemLink).first().find('a').attr('href'); return false; //Found a URL, break the loop } } } }); return url; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GetElapsedTime() { var endTime = new Date(); var timeDiff = endTime - gpt_StartTime; //in ms // strip the ms timeDiff /= 1000; // get seconds return seconds = Math.round(timeDiff) + " seconds"; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_CheckSSC() { //Check for ScreenShot Client var gpt_SSC = gpt_GetQuerystring('gpt_ssc', ''); if (gpt_SSC == '1') { //it's the ScreenShotClient, disable MOAT IVT Detection $('#gpt-Variables').append('<input type="hidden" id="gptm_data">'); $('#gptm_data').val(0); gpt_Target("m_data"); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_LocalSS(adTypeId) { window.scrollTo(0, 0); gpt_Sleep(1000); gpt_ScrollToAd(adTypeId); gpt_PreTearsheet(adTypeId); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_InitScripts() { if (gpt_AdFile == "PU") { if (gpt_IsProd) { gpt_ContextualURL = gpt_CheckForNULL($('#canonicalurl').val()); if (gpt_ContextualURL === null) { gpt_ContextualURL = window.location.href.split('?')[0].split('#')[0]; } else { gpt_ContextualURL = window.location.origin + gpt_ContextualURL; } var useSSL = 'https:' == document.location.protocol; var gs = document.createElement('script'); gs.async = true; gs.type = 'text/javascript'; gs.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//elsevier.gscontxt.net/multizone/channels.cgi?url=' + encodeURIComponent(gpt_ContextualURL); gs.onload = function () { gpt_ContextualReady = true; }; document.head.appendChild(gs); } } else { //JBS-Cell-Lancet var useSSL = 'https:' == document.location.protocol; var gads = document.createElement('script'); gads.async = true; gads.type = 'text/javascript'; gads.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js'; document.head.appendChild(gads); if (gpt_IsProd && gptContextualEnabled) { gpt_ContextualURL = window.location.href.split('?')[0].split('#')[0]; var gs = document.createElement('script'); gs.async = true; gs.type = 'text/javascript'; gs.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//elsevier.gscontxt.net/multizone/channels.cgi?url=' + encodeURIComponent(gpt_ContextualURL); gs.onload = function () { gpt_ContextualReady = true; }; document.head.appendChild(gs); } var elsevierMoatHeader = document.createElement('link'); elsevierMoatHeader.rel = 'preload'; elsevierMoatHeader.as = 'script'; elsevierMoatHeader.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//z.moatads.com/elsevierheader150204004183/moatheader.js'; document.head.appendChild(elsevierMoatHeader); var elsevierMoatAds = document.createElement('link'); elsevierMoatAds.rel = 'preconnect'; elsevierMoatAds.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//mb.moatads.com'; document.head.appendChild(elsevierMoatAds); var moatHeader = document.createElement('script'); moatHeader.async = true; gads.type = 'text/javascript'; moatHeader.src = (useSSL ? 'https:' : 'http:') + '//z.moatads.com/elsevierheader150204004183/moatheader.js'; document.head.appendChild(moatHeader); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- async function gpt_CheckForMOATInit() { //Check every 1/10 of a second until MOAT is Loaded or 1 second timeout if (gpt_MOATInitAttempts < gpt_MaxMOATInitAttempts) { gpt_MOATInitAttempts += 1; if (typeof window.moatPrebidApi === "object") { //MOAT LOADED gptMoatInit_Debug = '0.0' + gpt_MOATInitAttempts + ' seconds'; gpt_CheckForMOATReady(); } else { setTimeout(() => { gpt_CheckForMOATInit(); }, 100); } } else { //TIMEOUT: MOAT Not LOADED gptMoatInit_Debug = 'Timeout Expired'; var googletag = googletag || {}; googletag.cmd = googletag.cmd || []; gpt_CheckForContextualReady(); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_CheckForMOATReady() { //Check every 1/10 of a second until MOAT is Ready or 1 second timeout if (gpt_MOATReadyAttempts < gpt_MaxMOATReadyAttempts) { gpt_MOATReadyAttempts += 1; if (window.moatPrebidApi.safetyDataAvailable()) { //MOAT Ready gptMoatReady_Debug = '0.0' + gpt_MOATReadyAttempts + " seconds"; gpt_CheckForContextualReady(); } else { setTimeout(() => { gpt_CheckForMOATReady(); }, 100); } } else { //TIMEOUT: MOAT Not Ready gptMoatReady_Debug = 'Timeout Expired'; gpt_CheckForContextualReady(); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_CheckForContextualReady() { //Check every 1/10 of a second until Contextual is Ready or 2 second timeout if (gpt_IsProd && gptContextualEnabled) { //Enabled if (gpt_ContextualReadyAttempts < gpt_MaxContextualReadyAttempts) { gpt_ContextualReadyAttempts += 1; if (gpt_ContextualReady) { //Contextual Ready gptContextualURL_Debug = gpt_ContextualURL; gptContextualReady_Debug = '0.0' + gpt_ContextualReadyAttempts + " seconds"; gptContextualInit_Debug = gs_channels; gpt_InitAds(); } else { setTimeout(() => { gpt_CheckForContextualReady(); }, 100); } } else { //LOG TIMEOUT error //REMOVE FOR NOW (SHOULD LOG TO A DIFF LOCATION) //TIMEOUT: Contextual Not Ready $('#gpt_GrapeShotDebugBtn').remove(); gptContextualURL_Debug = gpt_ContextualURL; gptContextualReady_Debug = 'Timeout Expired'; gptContextualInit_Debug = ""; gpt_InitAds(); } } else { //Not Enabled $('#gpt_GrapeShotDebugBtn').remove(); switch (gpt_AdFile) { case 'PU': case 'LANCET': case 'JBS': gptContextualURL_Debug = 'Not enabled outside of Production'; gptContextualReady_Debug = 'Not enabled outside of Production'; gptContextualInit_Debug = 'Not enabled outside of Production'; break; case "CELLJOURNAL": case "CELLBUCKET": gptContextualReady_Debug = 'Not enabled on Cell'; gptContextualInit_Debug = 'Not enabled on Cell'; gptContextualURL_Debug = 'Not enabled on Cell'; break; } gpt_InitAds(); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function GPT_GetPageByURL() { var host = window.location.host.toLocaleLowerCase() var localpath = window.location.pathname.toLocaleLowerCase(); ///Check for Cell.com if (host.indexOf('cell.com') >= 0) { return null; } ///Check for Cell.com (marlin-stag) if (host.indexOf('www-cell-com') >= 0) { return null; } ///Check for Lancet if (host.indexOf('thelancet') >= 0) { return null; } if (localpath.indexOf('/article/') >= 0) { return 'article.fulltext'; } if (localpath.indexOf('/action/dosearch') >= 0) { return 'search.searchResults'; } if (localpath.indexOf('/content/') >= 0) { return 'periodical.editorial'; } return 'periodical.home'; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_CheckForNULL(x, valueifnull) { if (typeof valueifnull == "undefined") { valueifnull = null; } if (typeof x == 'undefined') { return valueifnull; } if (x == null) { return valueifnull; } if (x == "null") { return valueifnull; } if ($.trim(x) == '') { return valueifnull; } return x; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GetAdditionalTargeting() { //adds page level targeting of custom variables //the id (minus gpt) and the value will be used as a key-value pair //eg: <input type="hidden" id="gptissuepii" value="x" class="gpt-Target"> //eg: target issuepii=x $(".gpt-Target").each(function (index) { var gptTargetId = $(this).attr('id'); gptTargetId = gptTargetId.replace('gpt', '').toLowerCase(); if (gptTargetId !== '') { gpt_Target(gptTargetId); } }) } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GetQuerystring(key, default_) { //function to read querystring variables if (default_ === null) default_ = ''; key = key.replace(/[\[]/, "\\\[").replace(/[\]]/, "\\\]"); var regex = new RegExp("[\\?&]" + key + "=([^&#]*)"); var qs = regex.exec(window.location.href); if (qs === null) return default_; else return qs[1]; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GetDFPTestId() { //Get any request for a test id from querystring and set custom targeting parameter var gptDFPTestId = gpt_GetQuerystring('dfptestid', ''); if (gptDFPTestId !== '') { $('#gpt-Variables').append('<input type="hidden" id="gptDFPTestId">'); $('#gptDFPTestId').val(gptDFPTestId); gpt_Target("DFPTestId"); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_Target(targetName) { //Set page level target if value is found if ($('#gpt' + targetName).length > 0) { var targetValue = $('#gpt' + targetName).val(); if (targetValue !== '') { targetValue = targetValue.replace(/[^-a-z0-9]/ig, ''); //Only Allow a-z, 0-9 googletag.pubads().setTargeting(targetName.toLowerCase(), targetValue.toLowerCase()); gptCustomTargeting_Debug = gptCustomTargeting_Debug + targetName.toLowerCase() + ' = ' + targetValue.toLowerCase() + '<br>'; } } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_TargetAccessType() { var currentAccessType = $('#gptAccessType').val(); if (typeof currentAccessType == "undefined") { currentAccessType = ""; } if (currentAccessType.indexOf('ANON_IP') >= 0) { googletag.pubads().setTargeting("loggedin", "yes"); } else { gpt_Target("LoggedIn"); } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- async function gpt_PreTearsheet(adTypeId) { if (typeof adTypeId === "undefined") { adTypeId = 0; } //Remove Elsevier Cookie Policy Notice if ($("#onetrust-consent-sdk").length > 0) { $("#onetrust-consent-sdk").remove(); } //Mobile Nav $('#skip').remove(); $('#skipNavigationLink').remove(); //JBS Modals if ($('.leadinModal').length > 0) { $('.leadinModal').remove(); } if ($('.leadinModal').length > 0) { $('.leadinModal').remove(); } if ($('.usabilla__overlay').length > 0) { $('.usabilla__overlay').remove(); } //Pendo if ($('._pendo-step-container').length > 0) { $('._pendo-step-container').remove(); } if ($('._pendo-guide-tt_').length > 0) { $('._pendo-guide-tt_').remove(); } if ($('._pendo-image').length > 0) { $('._pendo-image').remove(); } if ($('._pendo-badge-image').length > 0) { $('._pendo-badge-image').remove(); } switch (gpt_AdFile) { case "CELLJOURNAL": case "CELLBUCKET": //Mobile Bug Fix on Cell if (parseInt(adTypeId) == 5) { $('.widget-horizontalAd').css('position', 'static'); $('.body-horizontalAd').css('display', 'block'); } break; case "JBS": case "LANCET": objLeaderboard = ".container-leaderboard"; offset = 53; switch (parseInt(adTypeId)) { case 3: //MPU case 4: //SkyScraper //BUGFIX: Show Sidebar ad for JBS //skyscraper & mpu if ($('.widget-verticalAd').length > 0) { $('.widget-verticalAd').css('display', 'block'); } $('#backgroundLayer').css('display', 'none'); //Hide any Prestitial break; case 6: //Prestitial $('#backgroundLayer').css('display', 'block'); break; default: $('#backgroundLayer').css('display', 'none'); //Hide any Prestitial break; } break; } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_Sleep(ms) { return new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, ms)); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- async function gpt_ScrollToAd(adTypeId) { if (typeof adTypeId === "undefined") { adTypeId = 0; } var adId = ""; var offset = 0; var objLeaderboard = ""; var gpt_ScrollToAd = true; switch (gpt_AdFile) { case "PU": //PracticeUpdate var hideOtherAds = true; $('#modalPrestitial').modal('hide'); $('.jumbotron-welcome').hide(); objLeaderboard = ".container-leaderboard"; offset = 53; switch (parseInt(adTypeId)) { case 2: //LeaderBoard, no Scroll Needed gpt_ScrollToAd = false; adId = "adSlot1"; break; case 3: //MPU adId = "adSlot2"; break; case 4: //SkyScraper adId = "adSlot3"; $('.most-read').hide(); break; case 5: //Mobile, no Scroll Needed gpt_ScrollToAd = false; adId = "adSlot1"; break; case 6: //Interstitial gpt_ScrollToAd = false; adId = "adSlot15"; await gpt_Sleep(1000); $(objLeaderboard).hide(); $('#modalPrestitial').unbind(); $('#modalPrestitial').modal(); break; case 7: //Native Ad break; case 10: //Master Companion hideOtherAds = false; gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; default: //Unknown Ad Type gpt_ScrollToAd = false; adId = "adSlot1"; break; } if (hideOtherAds) { //Hide all other ads $('.ad-container').each(function (i, obj) { if (this.id !== adId) { var tempParent = this.id; tempParent = tempParent.replace("adSlot", "adParent"); $("#" + tempParent).addClass('hide'); } }); } break; case "JBS": objLeaderboard = ".js__adToHide"; offset = 80; switch (parseInt(adTypeId)) { case 2: //Leaderboard gpt_ScrollToAd = false; $(".widget-verticalAd").hide(); break; case 5: //Mobile //Scroll to Top gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; case 3: //MPU case 4: //SkyScraper $(objLeaderboard).hide(); adId = $('.gpt-ad-defined[data-adsize="sidebar"').attr('id'); break; case 10: //MasterCompanion gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; case 13: //Phone - Portrait case 14: //Phone - Landscape $(objLeaderboard).hide(); offset = 60; adId = 'gpt-Interscroller'; gpt_ScrollToAd = true; break; default: //Unknown Ad Type gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; } break; case "CELLJOURNAL": case "CELLBUCKET": objLeaderboard = ".js__adToHide"; offset = 260; switch (parseInt(adTypeId)) { case 2: //Leaderboard gpt_ScrollToAd = false; $('.body-verticalAd').hide(); break; case 5: //Mobile //Scroll to Top gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; case 3: //MPU case 4: //SkyScraper $(objLeaderboard).hide(); adId = $('.gpt-ad-defined[data-adsize="boombox"').attr('id'); break; case 10: //MasterCompanion gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; default: //Unknown Ad Type gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; } //Hide the second ad if found var tCount = 0; $(".widget.literatumAd.none.GPT-ad-placeholder.widget-horizontalAd.widget-compact-all").each(function (index) { tCount += 1; if (tCount !== 1) { $(this).hide(); } }); break; case "LANCET": objLeaderboard = ".js__adToHide"; offset = 80; switch (parseInt(adTypeId)) { case 2: //Leaderboard gpt_ScrollToAd = false; $('.body-verticalAd').hide(); break; case 5: //Mobile //Scroll to Top gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; case 3: //MPU case 4: //SkyScraper $(objLeaderboard).hide(); adId = $('.gpt-ad-defined[data-adsize="skyscraper"').attr('id'); break; case 10: //MasterCompanion gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; default: //Unknown Ad Type gpt_ScrollToAd = false; break; } break; } //Scroll to Top var gpt_container = $("html,body"); gpt_container.animate({ scrollTop: 0, scrollLeft: 0 }); if (gpt_ScrollToAd) { //If Adexists, scroll to it var gpt_scrollTo = $('#' + adId); if (gpt_scrollTo.length > 0) { //Scroll to the Ad var gpt_topPosition = gpt_scrollTo.offset().top - gpt_container.offset().top + gpt_container.scrollTop(); if (gpt_topPosition > 0) { gpt_container.animate({ scrollTop: gpt_topPosition, scrollLeft: 0 }); if (gpt_topPosition - offset > 0 && offset > 0) { gpt_container.animate({ scrollTop: gpt_topPosition - offset, scrollLeft: 0 }); } } } } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- async function gpt_CheckForCookiePolicy() { var returnVal = false; if ($('#onetrust-accept-btn-handler').length > 0) { $('#onetrust-accept-btn-handler').click(); returnVal = true; } return returnVal; } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_InitAds() { var gpt_ResponsiveHomepage = false; switch (gpt_AdFile) { case "JBS": case "CELLJOURNAL": case "CELLBUCKET": //Responsive Check if ($('#hdrHomeBrand').length > 0) { gpt_ResponsiveHomepage = true; } break; } //InterScroller Check if (gpt_AdFile === "JBS") { var gpt_InterScrollerEnabled = false; var gpt_InterScrollerInsertObj; if ($("#articleHeader").length > 0) { //It's an article Page if ($('.article__sections > section').length > 0) { gpt_InterScrollerEnabled = true; gpt_InterScrollerInsertObj = $(".article__sections > section"); } } else { if ($('.toc__section').length > 0) { //It's a TOC Page gpt_InterScrollerEnabled = true; gpt_InterScrollerInsertObj = $(".toc__section").first(); } } //Add the Interscroller if (gpt_InterScrollerEnabled) { gpt_InterScrollerInsertObj.first().append($("#gpt-Interscroller").clone()); $("#gpt-Interscroller").remove(); $(".gpt-adinterscroller").addClass("gpt-ad"); } } googletag.cmd.push(function () { var gptBoomBoxSizeMapping; var gptFluidMapping; var gptHomePageSidebarMapping; var gptCellHomePageSidebarMapping; var gptInterscrollerMapping; var gptLeaderboardSizeMapping; var gptMobileSizeMapping; var gptPrestitialMapping; var gptRectangleShortSizeMapping; var gptRectangleSizeMapping; var gptSideBarSizeMapping; var gptTallSizeMapping; var gptWideSizeMapping; var gptWideRectangleSizeMapping; //*********************************************** //Start Define Size mapping based on client Viewport //*********************************************** if (gpt_AdFile === 'PU') { gptTallSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], [[300, 600], [160, 600], [120, 600]]). addSize([0, 0], []). build(); gptRectangleSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], [[300, 250]]). addSize([0, 0], []). build(); gptRectangleShortSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], [[300, 250], [320, 50], [300, 50]]). addSize([0, 0], [[300, 250], [320, 50], [300, 50]]). build(); gptWideSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], [[728, 90]]). addSize([760, 0], [[728, 90], [320, 50], [300, 50]]). addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50], [300, 50]]). build(); gptWideRectangleSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], []). addSize([760, 0], [[320, 50], [300, 50], [300, 250]]). addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50], [300, 50], [300, 250]]). build(); gptMobileSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50], [300, 50]]). build(); gptFluidMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([0, 0], ['fluid']). build(); gptPrestitialMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([760, 0], [[1, 1]]). build(); } else { //JBS-CELL-LANCET gptLeaderboardSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([992, 0], [[728, 90]]). // Desktop addSize([768, 0], [[728, 90]]). // Tablet Landscape addSize([0, 0], [[320, 50], [300, 50]]). // Phone & Tablet Portrait build(); gptHomePageSidebarMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([2090, 795], [[300, 600], [300, 250], [160, 600], [120, 600]]). addSize([1910, 795], [[160, 600], [120, 600]]). addSize([0, 0], []). build(); gptCellHomePageSidebarMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([2090, 795], [[300, 600], [300, 250], [336, 280], [160, 600], [120, 600]]). addSize([1910, 795], [[160, 600], [120, 600]]). addSize([0, 0], []). build(); gptSideBarSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([1140, 795], [[300, 600], [160, 600], [120, 600], [300, 250]]). // SkyScraper - Desktop (Require min 630 vertical) addSize([1140, 445], [[300, 250]]). // BoomBox Fall Back - Desktop (Require min 280 vertical) addSize([0, 0], []). // Phone build(); gptBoomBoxSizeMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([768, 0], [[300, 250], [336, 280]]). // Desktop & Tablet Landscape addSize([0, 0], []). // Phone build(); gptFluidMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([0, 0], ['fluid']). build(); gptPrestitialMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([600, 700], [[1, 1]]). // Desktop & Tablet Landscape addSize([0, 0], []). // Phone build(); gptInterscrollerMapping = googletag.sizeMapping(). addSize([1140, 445], []). addSize([1024, 768], [[1024, 768]]). addSize([768, 1024], [[768, 1024]]). addSize([480, 320], [[480, 320]]). addSize([320, 480], [[320, 480]]). build(); } //*********************************************** //End Define Size mapping based on client Viewport //*********************************************** //*********************************************** //Start detection for ad slots on page //*********************************************** var gptMasterPage = gpt_CheckForNULL($('#gptPage').val()); var gptMasterSite; if (gpt_AdFile === 'PU') { gptMasterSite = $('#gptSite').val(); } else { //JBS-CELL-LANCET gptMasterSite = "dev"; if (gpt_IsProd) { gptMasterSite = gpt_CheckForNULL($('#gptSite').val()); //If there is no master site, check for a defaultsite if (gptMasterSite == null) { gptMasterSite = gpt_CheckForNULL($('#gptDefaultSite').val()); } } else { //Dev ENV //If the page has no gptSite Value, assume no value which will disable ads if (gpt_CheckForNULL($('#gptSite').val()) === null) { gptMasterSite = null; } } //If there is no master Page, check for a Page using the URL if (gptMasterPage === null) { gptMasterPage = GPT_GetPageByURL(); } } $(".gpt-ad").each(function (index) { var gptPage = ''; var adSizeMapping = ''; var gptPOS; var gptTC; var gptNative; var adId; var gptSite; var tempSlot = null; if (gpt_IsProd) { //Check if the ad slot has it's own site defined if (typeof $(this).data('site') === 'undefined') { gptSite = gptMasterSite; } else { gptSite = gpt_CheckForNULL($(this).data('site')); } } else { gptSite = gptMasterSite; } if (gpt_AdFile === 'PU') { adId = $(this).attr('id'); } else { //JBS-CELL-LANCET adId = 'gpt-ad-' + index + 1; } if (gpt_CheckForNULL(gptSite) !== null) { gptSite_Debug = gptSite; gptPOS = parseInt($(this).data('pos')) || -1; if (gptPOS === -1) { gptPOS = index + 1; } //Check if the ad slot has it's own page defined gptPage = $(this).data('page'); if (gpt_CheckForNULL(gptPage) == null) { //Use the Master Page gptPage = gptMasterPage; } //If the page is not null, preceed it with a slash if (gptPage !== null) { gptPage = '/' + gptPage; } else { gptPage = ''; } gptPage_Debug = gptPage; gptTC = $(this).data('tc'); if (typeof gptTC === "undefined") { gptTC = ''; } gptNative = $(this).data('native'); if (typeof gptNative === "undefined") { gptNative = ''; } //Determine sizemapping based on data-adsize if (gpt_AdFile === 'PU') { switch ($(this).data('adsize')) { case 'tall': adSizeMapping = gptTallSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[120, 600], [160, 600], [300, 600]], adId); break; case 'rectangle': adSizeMapping = gptRectangleSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[300, 250]], adId); break; case 'rectangleshort': adSizeMapping = gptRectangleShortSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[300, 250], [320, 50], [300, 50]], adId); break; case 'wide': adSizeMapping = gptWideSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[728, 90], [320, 50], [300, 50]], adId); break; case 'widerectangle': adSizeMapping = gptWideRectangleSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[320, 50], [300, 50], [300, 250]], adId); break; case 'mobile': adSizeMapping = gptMobileSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[320, 50], [300, 50]], adId); break; case 'fluid': adSizeMapping = gptFluidMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, 'fluid', adId); break; case 'prestitial': adSizeMapping = gptPrestitialMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[1, 1]], adId); break; } } else { //JBS-CELL-LANCET switch ($(this).data('adsize')) { case 'cell-leaderboard': case 'leaderboard': adSizeMapping = gptLeaderboardSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[728, 90], [320, 50], [300, 50]], adId); break; case 'bottom': if (gpt_ResponsiveHomepage) { adSizeMapping = gptHomePageSidebarMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[120, 600], [160, 600], [300, 600], [300, 250]], adId); } else { adSizeMapping = gptBoomBoxSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[300, 250]], adId); } break; case 'boombox': if (gpt_AdFile === "CELLJOURNAL" || gpt_AdFile == "CELLBUCKET") { if (gpt_ResponsiveHomepage) { adSizeMapping = gptCellHomePageSidebarMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[120, 600], [160, 600], [300, 600], [300, 250], [336, 280]], adId); } else { adSizeMapping = gptBoomBoxSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[300, 250], [336, 280]], adId); } } else { adSizeMapping = gptBoomBoxSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[300, 250]], adId); } break; case 'interscroller': adSizeMapping = gptInterscrollerMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[320, 480], [480, 320], [768, 1024], [1024, 768]], adId); break; case 'sidebar': case 'skyscraper': adSizeMapping = gptSideBarSizeMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, [[120, 600], [160, 600], [300, 600], [300, 250]], adId); break; case 'native': case 'fluid': adSizeMapping = gptFluidMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, 'fluid', adId); break; case 'prestitial': adSizeMapping = gptPrestitialMapping; tempSlot = googletag.defineSlot('/6053/els.' + gptSite + gptPage, 'fluid', adId); break; } } } //Ignore any invalid adsizes that could be on the page if (adSizeMapping !== '') { $(this).addClass('gpt-ad-defined'); if (gpt_AdFile !== 'PU') { $(this).attr('id', adId); } tempSlot.defineSizeMapping(adSizeMapping).addService(googletag.pubads()).setTargeting("pos", gptPOS); if (gptTC !== '') { tempSlot.setTargeting("tc", gptTC); } if (gptNative !== '') { tempSlot.setTargeting("native", gptNative); } gptEvent_Debug = gptEvent_Debug + $(this).data('adsize') + ' Requested<br>'; } else { gptInvalidAdSize_Debug = gptInvalidAdSize_Debug + "Invalid Size Found, Id: " + $(this).prop('id') + ', adSize: ' + $(this).data('adsize') + '<br>'; $(this).remove(); } }); if (gpt_CheckForNULL(gptInvalidAdSize_Debug) === null) { gptInvalidAdSize_Debug = "None Detected"; } //*********************************************** //End detection for ad slots on page //*********************************************** //*********************************************** //Start page level targeting //*********************************************** if (gpt_AdFile !== 'PU') { //Logged in or IP Access gpt_TargetAccessType(); //Check for Screenshot Client gpt_CheckSSC(); } //Check for DFP Test gpt_GetDFPTestId(); //Check for Additional Targeting gpt_GetAdditionalTargeting(); if (gpt_IsProd && gptContextualEnabled) { var gpt_ContextualRetry = false; //Check for Contextual Targeting if (gs_channels !== "DEFAULT") { var gpt_ContextualCategories = Array.from(gs_channels); for (var i = 0; i < gpt_ContextualCategories.length; i++) { if (gpt_ContextualCategories[i] == 'gx_retry') { gpt_ContextualRetry = true; } if (!gpt_ContextualCategories[i].startsWith("custom_")) { //Remove any tag that is not custom gpt_ContextualCategories.splice(i, 1); i--; } else { //Strip the 'custom_' from the tag gpt_ContextualCategories[i] = gpt_ContextualCategories[i].replace("custom_", "") } } if (gpt_ContextualCategories.length > 0) { googletag.pubads().setTargeting("gs_cat", gpt_ContextualCategories); } else { gpt_ContextualCategories = 'none'; } if (gpt_ContextualRetry) { gpt_ContextualCategories = "*Indexing*"; } gptContextualResult_Debug = gpt_ContextualCategories; } else { gptContextualResult_Debug = 'No segments found'; } } else { //Not Prod gptContextualResult_Debug = 'Not enabled'; var gpt_DevSite = gpt_CheckForNULL($('#gptSite').val(), "dev"); $('#gpt-Variables').append('<input type="hidden" id="gptEnvironment" value="' + gpt_DevSite + '">'); gpt_Target("Environment"); } //*********************************************** //End page level targeting //*********************************************** //Enable google dfp services if (parseInt($('#gptLazyLoading').val()) === 1) { googletag.pubads().enableLazyLoad({ fetchMarginPercent: 200, renderMarginPercent: 0, mobileScaling: 2.0 }); } else { googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); } //Add Listener for RenderEnded googletag.pubads().addEventListener('slotRenderEnded', function (event) { if (!event.isEmpty) { if (typeof LocalAdLoaded === "function") { LocalAdLoaded(event); } if (gpt_ResponsiveHomepage) { if (typeof positionAd === "function") { positionAd(); } } if (event.size[0] == "480" || event.size[1] == "480") { $('.gpt-InScrollBox').css('display', 'block'); gptEvent_Debug = gptEvent_Debug + 'Interscroller ' + event.size + ' rendered: ' + gpt_GetElapsedTime() + '<br>'; } else { gptEvent_Debug = gptEvent_Debug + event.size + ' rendered: ' + gpt_GetElapsedTime() + '<br>'; } } }); if (gpt_AdFile !== 'PU') { googletag.pubads().collapseEmptyDivs(); } googletag.enableServices(); //Populate Defined Ad Slots $(".gpt-ad-defined").each(function (index) { var adId = $(this).attr('id'); googletag.cmd.push(function () { googletag.display(adId); }); }); gptStatus_Debug = 'GPT Complete'; }); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_DisplayDebug() { //Clone the template and append to Body $(document.body).append($('#gpt-DebugDiv').clone()); $('#gpt-DebugDiv').remove(); //Populate the Values gpt_LoadDebugValues(); //Display and scroll to debug section $('.gpt-DebugDiv').css('display', 'block'); window.scrollTo(0, document.body.scrollHeight); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_LoadDebugValues() { $('.gpt-DebugBtn').blur(); $('.gptVersion_Debug').text(gpt_Version); $('.gptAdFile_Debug').html(gpt_AdFile); $('.gptEvent_Debug').html(gptEvent_Debug); $('.gptCustomTargeting_Debug').html(gptCustomTargeting_Debug); $('.gptSite_Debug').text(gptSite_Debug); $('.gptContextualResult_Debug').text(gptContextualResult_Debug); $('.gptContextualInit_Debug').text(gptContextualInit_Debug); $('.gptContextualURL_Debug').text(gptContextualURL_Debug); $('.gptContextualReady_Debug').text(gptContextualReady_Debug); $('.gptMoatReady_Debug').text(gptMoatReady_Debug); $('.gptMoatInit_Debug').text(gptMoatInit_Debug); $('.gptTestENV_Debug').text(gptTestENV_Debug); $('.gptDisableAds_Debug').text(gptDisableAds_Debug); $('.gptStatus_Debug').text(gptStatus_Debug); $('.gptPage_Debug').text(gptPage_Debug); $('.gptInvalidAdSize_Debug').html(gptInvalidAdSize_Debug); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_GrapeShotDebug() { $('.gpt-DebugBtn').blur(); window.open("http://admin-elsevier.grapeshot.co.uk/custom/bookmarklet.cgi?blocking=1&vn=2&url=" + encodeURIComponent(document.location), "GRAPESHOT_POPUP", "width=650,height=600,scrollbars=yes,screenX=40,screenY=50,menubar=no,toolbar=no,resizable=yes", "Custom").focus(); } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------- function gpt_ShowConsole() { $('.gpt-DebugBtn').blur(); googletag.openConsole(); } 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vocab="http://schema.org/" typeof="ScholarlyArticle" data-pii="S2472-6303(23)00041-9" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div data-core-wrapper="header"><header data-extent="frontmatter"><div class="core-container"><div data-article-access="full" data-article-access-type="open" class="meta-panel"><span class="meta-panel__left"><span class="meta-panel__type"><span>Technical Brief</span></span></span><span class="meta-panel__middle"><span class="meta-panel__volumeIssue"><a href="/issue/S2472-6303(23)X0006-5"><span>Volume 28</span>, <span>Issue 5</span></a></span><span class="meta-panel__pages"><span>p375-379</span></span><span class="meta-panel__onlineDate">October 2023</span></span><span class="meta-panel__right"><span class="meta-panel__access meta-panel__access--open"><span>Open access</span></span></span></div><h1 property="name">Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development</h1><div class="contributors"><span class="authors"><span role="list"><span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0001"><span property="givenName">Brittney</span> <span property="familyName">Pedrazzi</span></a><sup class="xref"><a href="#fn1" role="doc-noteref">1</a></sup></span> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0002"><span property="givenName">Aleksandr</span> <span property="familyName">Treyer</span></a><sup class="xref"><a href="#fn1" role="doc-noteref">1</a></sup></span> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0003"><span property="givenName">Rachael</span> <span property="familyName">Cohen</span></a></span><span data-displayed-on="all"> ∙ … </span><span data-hidden-on="all"> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0004"><span property="givenName">Amy</span> <span property="familyName">Bowman</span></a></span></span><span data-hidden-on="all"> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0005"><span property="givenName">Jillian</span> <span property="familyName">Acevedo-Skrip</span></a></span></span> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem"><a href="#au0006"><span property="givenName">Kristine</span> <span property="familyName">Kearns</span></a></span> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem" class="corresponding-author"><a href="#au0007"><span property="givenName">David</span> <span property="familyName">Westover</span></a> <a id="ead0001" href="mailto:David.Westover@Merck.com" property="email" title="Send email to David Westover">David.Westover@Merck.com</a></span> ∙ <span property="author" typeof="Person" role="listitem" class="corresponding-author"><a href="#au0008"><span property="givenName">John W.</span> <span property="familyName">Loughney</span></a> <a id="ead0002" href="mailto:John_Loughney@Merck.com" property="email" title="Send email to John W. Loughney">John_Loughney@Merck.com</a></span><span data-displayed-on="all"> … <span><span data-action="reveal">Show more</span></span> </span><span data-displayed-on="none" data-on-display="all" aria-hidden="true"> <span data-action="hide">Show less</span></span></span></span></div><div class="core-self-citation"><div id="core-affiliations-notes"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">High-Throughput Analytics, Analytical Research & Development, Merck & Co. Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA</span></div></div><div class="core-authors-notes"><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label">1</div><div id="fn1"><div id="notep0001" role="paragraph">These authors contributed equally.</div></div></div></div></div><div id="core-content-info"><div class="history"><div>Publication History:</div><div><span>Received November 7, 2022</span>; <span>Revised May 13, 2023</span>; <span>Accepted June 11, 2023</span>; <span>Published online June 13, 2023</span></div></div><div class="core-links"><span class="doi">DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003" property="sameAs" target="_blank">10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003</a></span><span class="science-direct">Also available on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2472630323000419" target="_blank">ScienceDirect</a></span></div><div role="paragraph">Copyright: © 2023 Merck Sharp & Dohme LLC., a subsidiary Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA. 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info-panel__item"><div role="none" class="content-navigation"><a href="/article/S2472-6303(23)00043-2/fulltext" role="menuitem" aria-label="Previous article" aria-disabled="false" class="content-navigation__prev"><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-arrow_l"></i><span>Previous article</span></a><a role="menuitem" aria-label="Next article" aria-disabled="true" class="content-navigation__next"><span>Next article</span><i aria-hidden="true" class="icon-arrow_r"></i></a></div></div></div></div></li></ul></div><div><div class="core-content-inner"><div class="core-linked-content"></div><div id="abstracts" data-extent="frontmatter"><div class="core-container"><section id="author-abstract" property="abstract" typeof="Text" role="doc-abstract"><h2 property="name">Abstract</h2><div id="spara007" role="paragraph">Laboratory automation uses large amounts of plastic consumables, generating substantial single-use plastic waste. Automated ELISAs are an indispensable analytical tool in vaccine formulation and process development. Current workflows, however, rely on disposable liquid handling tips. In progress toward sustainability, we developed workflows for washing 384-well format liquid handling tips, using nontoxic reagents, for re-use during ELISA testing. We estimate that this workflow reduces plastic and cardboard waste in our facility by 989 kg/year and 202 kg/year, respectively, without introducing new chemicals into our waste steam.</div></section></div></div><div class="core-linked-content"></div><section id="keywords-1" property="keywords"><h2>Keywords</h2><ol><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="ELISA"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">ELISA</a></li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="Automation"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">Automation</a></li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="sustainability"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">sustainability</a></li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="vaccine"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">vaccine</a></li></ol></section><section id="keywords-2" property="keywords"><h2>Abbreviations</h2><ol><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="ANOVAanalysis+of+variance"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">ANOVA</a> (<a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="analysis+of+variance"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">analysis of variance</a>)</li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="ELISAenzyme-linked+immunosorbent+assay"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">ELISA</a> (<a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="enzyme-linked+immunosorbent+assay"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay</a>)</li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="LiHaliquid+handling+arm"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">LiHa</a> (<a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="liquid+handling+arm"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">liquid handling arm</a>)</li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="MCAmulti-channel+arm"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">MCA</a> (<a href="/action/doSearch?AllField="multi-channel+arm"&journalCode=slast" alt="Search on this keyword">multi-channel arm</a>)</li></ol></section><div class="core-linked-content"></div><div class="core-linked-content"></div><div class="core-linked-content"></div><section id="bodymatter" data-extent="bodymatter" property="articleBody" typeof="Text"><div class="core-container"><section id="sec-1"><h2>Introduction</h2><div id="para0002" role="paragraph">Waste reduction and sustainability are emerging goals in modern biomedical research. One area of focus is single-use plastic labware: troughs, pipette tips, plates, etc. <a id="crf0005" href="#bib0001" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0001 bib0002 bib0003">[1–3]</a>. Single-use plastics in general are more likely to end up in marine ecosystems and are a leading cause of microplastic pollution in human food sources <a id="crf0007" href="#bib0004" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0004">[4]</a>. As such, there is a drive to reduce single-use plastics in many facets of human life, including research environments [<a id="crf0008" href="#bib0002" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0002">2</a>,<a id="crf0009" href="#bib0003" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0003">3</a>]. Furthermore, with ongoing polypropylene-based labware shortages because of the COVID-19 pandemic, reducing and/or re-using single-use consumables is now a necessity for many groups. However, challenges exist when re-using these consumables: (1) introduction of potentially harmful reagents as part of a wash process; (2) uncertainty as to the number of times labware can be re-used; and (3) concerns about data integrity. Here, we describe the development and validation of a process to wash disposable liquid handling tips using nontoxic reagents for re-use in automated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) workflows.</div><div id="para0003" role="paragraph">The ELISA platform allows for optimal assay development to produce a large volume of sample data in a short period of time and is an indispensable analytical tool in vaccine formulation and process development. As vaccine development trends toward increasingly multivalent formulations [<a id="crf0010" href="#bib0005" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0005">5</a>,<a id="crf0011" href="#bib0006" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0006">6</a>], automation and high-throughput techniques become critical components of product development. Unfortunately, automated high-throughput assays supporting multivalent vaccine development produce copious amounts of single-use plastic waste. We estimated that our group produces almost 3000 kg single-use plastic waste per year via automated ELISAs (<a id="crf0012" href="#tbl0001">Table 1</a>), of which approximately 90% comes from disposable liquid handling tips. Cardboard packaging for liquid handling tips is also substantial (<a id="crf0013" href="#tbl0001">Table 1</a>). We sought to reduce those waste footprints by washing and re-using these tips.</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="tbl0001" class="table" data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><div class="table-wrap"><table data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><thead><tr class="rowsep" data-xml-align="left" data-xml-valign="top"><th id="en0001">Progam</th><th id="en0002">Labware</th><th id="en0003">Single-use Plastic (kg/Year)</th><th id="en0004">Cardboard Packaging (kg/Year)</th><th id="en0005">CO<sub>2</sub>E (metric tons/Year)</th><th id="en0006">Plastic Reduction (kg/Year)</th><th id="en0007">Cardboard Reduction (kg/Year)</th><th id="en0009">CO<sub>2</sub>E Reduction (metric tons/Year)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td id="en0011"> </td><td id="en0012">Tips</td><td id="en0013">848</td><td id="en0014">202</td><td id="en0015">2.01</td><td id="en0016">424</td><td id="en0017">87</td><td id="en0019">0.94</td></tr><tr><td id="en0021">1</td><td id="en0022">Plates</td><td id="en0023">93</td><td id="en0024"> </td><td id="en0025">0.14</td><td id="en0026"> </td><td id="en0027"> </td><td id="en0029"> </td></tr><tr><td id="en0031"> </td><td id="en0032">Troughs</td><td id="en0033">37</td><td id="en0034"> </td><td id="en0035">0.06</td><td id="en0036"> </td><td id="en0037"> </td><td id="en0039"> </td></tr><tr><td id="en0041"> </td><td id="en0042">Tips</td><td id="en0043">1695</td><td id="en0044">404</td><td id="en0045">4.02</td><td id="en0046">565</td><td id="en0047">115</td><td id="en0049">1.24</td></tr><tr><td id="en0051">2</td><td id="en0052">Plates</td><td id="en0053">186</td><td id="en0054"> </td><td id="en0055">0.28</td><td id="en0056"> </td><td id="en0057"> </td><td id="en0059"> </td></tr><tr><td id="en0061"> </td><td id="en0062">Troughs</td><td id="en0063">73</td><td id="en0064"> </td><td id="en0065">0.11</td><td id="en0066"> </td><td id="en0067"> </td><td id="en0069"> </td></tr><tr><td id="en0071"><b>Total</b></td><td id="en0072"> </td><td id="en0073"><b>2931</b></td><td id="en0074"><b>606</b></td><td id="en0075"><b>6.62</b></td><td id="en0076"><b>989</b></td><td id="en0077"><b>202</b></td><td id="en0079"><b>2.18</b></td></tr></tbody></table></div><figcaption><span class="heading">Table 1</span><div id="spara004" role="paragraph">Annual Single-use Plastic and Cardboard Waste Reduction.</div><div class="core-table-tools"><ul><li><a class="core-table-show-action" href="/action/showFullTableHTML?isHtml=true&tableId=tbl0001&pii=S2472-6303%2823%2900041-9" target="_blank">Open table in a new tab</a></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure></div><div id="para0004" role="paragraph">Many common laboratory detergents and cleaners exhibit notable toxicity. Chromic acid and related chromates, for example, have an OSHA-defined Action Level of 2.5 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and are associated with numerous adverse events [<a id="crf0014" href="#bib0007" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0007">7</a>,<a id="crf0015" href="#bib0008" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0008">8</a>]. We sought less-toxic wash reagents. Prior work by Khadra et al. <a id="crf0016" href="#bib0009" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0009">[9]</a> demonstrated the feasibility of washing polypropylene pipette tips with DECON 90, a potassium hydroxide-based detergent. However, we wanted to study the exposure of washed tips to moderately concentrated (1–5 µg/mL) monoclonal antibody solutions used for coating or detection. Therefore, we tested 1 N NaOH (<a id="crf0017" href="#tbl0002">Table 2</a>) as a cleaning medium, as NaOH has been used to dissolve and desorb other proteins in chromatographic applications <a id="crf0018" href="#bib0010" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0010">[10]</a>. We also added an additional rinse in 70% ethanol (<a id="crf0019" href="#tbl0002">Table 2</a>) to shorten drying time. This wash method was tested and implemented for ELISAs supporting two separate multivalent vaccine candidates, henceforth referred to as Program 1 and Program 2.</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="tbl0002" class="table" data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><div class="table-wrap"><table data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><thead><tr class="rowsep" data-xml-align="left" data-xml-valign="top"><th id="en0081">Reagent</th><th id="en0082">Source</th><th id="en0083">Identifier</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td id="en0084">20% Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate</td><td id="en0085">National Diagnostics</td><td id="en0086">EC-874</td></tr><tr><td id="en0087">3.05% Microcide SQ</td><td id="en0088">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td id="en0089">NC0534469</td></tr><tr><td id="en0090">1 N NaOH</td><td id="en0091">Fisher Chemical</td><td id="en0092">SS266–1</td></tr><tr><td id="en0093">Alkaline Phosphotase Conjugated Goat Anti-Rabbit IgG</td><td id="en0094">Jackson Immunoresearch</td><td id="en0095">111–055–046</td></tr><tr><td id="en0096">SuperPhos 4-Methylumbelliferyl Phosphate</td><td id="en0097">Virolabs</td><td id="en0098">XPHOS-100</td></tr><tr><td id="en0099">70% Ethanol</td><td id="en0100">Ricca</td><td id="en0101">2546.70–1</td></tr><tr><td id="en0102">Type I Ultrapure Water</td><td id="en0103">Millipore Milli-Q</td><td id="en0104">N/A</td></tr></tbody></table></div><figcaption><span class="heading">Table 2</span><div id="spara005" role="paragraph">Key ELISA and Tip Wash Reagents.</div><div class="core-table-tools"><ul><li><a class="core-table-show-action" href="/action/showFullTableHTML?isHtml=true&tableId=tbl0002&pii=S2472-6303%2823%2900041-9" target="_blank">Open table in a new tab</a></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure></div></section><section id="sec-2"><h2>Materials and methods</h2><section id="sec-2-1"><h3>Automated ELISA</h3><div id="para0005" role="paragraph">We use a sandwich ELISA workflow with serotype-specific coating and detection reagents that is comparable to methods described in detail by others [<a id="crf0020" href="#bib0011" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0011">11</a>,<a id="crf0021" href="#bib0012" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0012">12</a>]. For our automation setup specifically, all serotype-specific reagents, as well as blocking buffer, serial diluent, and substrate (<a id="crf0022" href="#tbl0002">Table 2</a>) were loaded onto the deck of a Tecan EVO MCA384 system (Tecan Group Ltd., Männedorf, Switzerland), equipped with a robotic manipulating arm, 384-well multi-channel arm (MCA), and an 8-channel liquid handling arm (LiHa). 384-well Nunc MaxiSorp plates (Nunc 460,518, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), and 384×125 µL externally threaded pipette tips (Apricot Designs 125–384-EZ-NS, SPT Labtech, Melbourn, UK) were stored in an integrated KiNEDx robotic arm with hoteling stations (Peak Robotics, Inc., Colorado Springs, CO, USA). The KiNEDx arm transferred plates to the Tecan EVO for each step. For coating and detection, the MCA picked up the tips, aspirated and dispensed serotype-specific reagents to plates, washed the tips, and returned them to the box. The wash consists of three aspirate/dispense sets in 1 N NaOH (for antibody denaturation and desorption) followed by three aspirate/dispense sets in type 1 ultrapure water (MilliQ Ultrapure Water System, Sigma-Aldrich, Burlington, MA, USA) to remove residual NaOH, ending with a single aspirate and dispense of 70% ethanol to facilitate drying (<a id="crf0023" href="#fig0003">Schematic 1</a>).</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="fig0003" class="graphic"><a class="icon-full-screen" href="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/74248fa5-266f-49d8-aaf5-6facc45964c4/main.assets/sc1.jpg" target="_blank" title="View full size image in a new tab"><img alt="Schematic 1:" src="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/74248fa5-266f-49d8-aaf5-6facc45964c4/main.assets/sc1.jpg" height="379" width="813" loading="lazy" /></a><figcaption class="figure__caption__body"><div id="fig0003-title" class="figure__title"><span class="label figure__label">Schematic 1</span> <span class="figure__title__text">Tecan EVOware Deck Layout for Overall ELISA Process with Additional Washes.</span></div></figcaption></figure></div></section><section id="sec-2-2"><h3>Photometric volume verification</h3><div id="para0006" role="paragraph">Pipetted volume verification was performed with the Artel MVS (Artel, Westbrook, ME, USA), which uses NIST traceable dyes, highly defined microplates and a calibrated plate reader <a id="crf0024" href="#bib0013" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0013">[13]</a>. The 30 µL volume verification was carried out by the addition of 30 µL Ponceau S (Acid Red 112)-containing Artel Range A solution (Artel, MVS-203) and 25 µL Artel Diluent Solution (Artel, MVS-202) to 384-well Artel plates (Artel, MVS-245). Likewise, 55 µL volume verification was carried out by the addition of 55 µL of Artel Range A solution to the 384-well Artel plates. Fresh and re-used tips were used to transfer Range A solution to examine the effect of re-use on pipetting accuracy and precision. Absolute transferred volumes were measured by reading absorbance of the Ponceau S dye within 20 min of transfer after a brief vortex and spin cycle of the Artel plate. In addition to measuring absolute volume, relative inaccuracy and coefficient of variation were calculated to ensure that passing operating criteria for accuracy (5% above or below target volume) and precision (3% CV for all channels) were met.</div></section><section id="sec-2-3"><h3>CO<sub>2</sub>e reduction calculations and statistical analyses</h3><div id="para0007" role="paragraph">Reduction in CO<sub>2</sub>e was calculated using the Waste Reduction Model (WARM) v15.1 (United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA) for cardboard and polypropylene, and by the method of Thannimalay et al. <a id="crf0025" href="#bib0014" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0014">[14]</a> for NaOH. For ethanol, we used the highest estimate for corn ethanol carbon intensity as calculated in Lark et al. <a id="crf0026" href="#bib0015" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0015">[15]</a>, and calculated CO<sub>2</sub>e assuming 14.7 MJ/liter for 70% ethanol. Graphs were generated and analyses conducted with GraphPad Prism 9 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Results were considered statistically significant if <i>P</i> < 0.05.</div></section></section><section id="sec-3"><h2>Results</h2><section id="sec-3-1"><h3>Assessment of relative vaccine potency comparing fresh and washed tips</h3><div id="para0008" role="paragraph">Baseline potency measurements for Programs 1 and 2 ELISAs were obtained using fresh tips, which were then washed, air-dried, and re-used to obtain repeat measurements. Immunogenicity of samples was expressed as fold change over a known standard also tested with each batch (relative potency). Program 1 sample batches were representative of a normally distributed set of high and low potency values, and the results were used in a linear correlation analysis showing strong matching with baseline measurements after one cycle of tip re-use (<a id="crf0027" href="#fig0001">Fig. 1a</a>). To determine inter-assay variability, discrepant results showing >15% change in relative potency compared to baseline measurement (our internal precision criteria for the assay) were counted and the incidence of result discrepancies was evaluated after each round of tip re-use for both Programs 1 and 2 (<a id="crf0028" href="#fig0001">Fig. 1b</a>). Following one cycle of tip re-use, the incidence of discrepant results in Program 1 and Program 2 was less than 15%. In summation, we found no evidence suggesting re-used tips contribute to inter-assay variability after a single wash.</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="fig0001" class="graphic"><a class="icon-full-screen" href="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/147cedbb-ebf5-4a2b-a167-2a8711db053d/main.assets/gr1.jpg" target="_blank" title="View full size image in a new tab"><img alt="Fig 1" src="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/147cedbb-ebf5-4a2b-a167-2a8711db053d/main.assets/gr1.jpg" height="408" width="753" loading="lazy" /></a><figcaption class="figure__caption__body"><div id="fig0001-title" class="figure__title"><span class="label figure__label">Fig. 1</span> <span class="figure__title__text">Analytical performance of robotic tips following re-use. (a) and (c) Linear correlation of Program 1 ELISA results with tips on fresh use vs. 1 and 2 rounds of re-use, respectively; (b) and (d) Percentage of discrepant results for Programs 1 and 2 following 1 and 2 rounds of tip re-use, respectively. Different sample batches used to test one and two rounds of re-use for Program 1; same sample batches used to test one and two rounds of re-use for Program 2.</span></div></figcaption></figure></div></section><section id="sec-3-2"><h3>Assessment of relative potency after second wash and re-use of tips</h3><div id="para0009" role="paragraph">We tested whether tips could be washed and re-used more than once. To this end, we maintained the same process as with the first wash (<a id="crf0029" href="#fig0003">Schematic 1</a>). While there was a continued strong correlation with baseline results for Program 1 (<a id="crf0030" href="#fig0001">Fig. 1c</a>), we observed an increased rate of discrepancy when tips were re-used a second time (<a id="crf0031" href="#fig0001">Fig. 1d</a>). Specifically, tips re-used for Program 1 had a 5.6% rate of discrepancy at first re-use vs. 18.5% at second re-use. Tips used for Program 2 had a 3.6% rate of discrepancy at first re-use vs. 15.5% at second re-use.</div></section><section id="sec-3-3"><h3>Investigating volumetric trends across two wash and re-use cycles</h3><div id="para0010" role="paragraph">Khadra et al. note that the physical integrity of polypropylene tips degrades with repeated washing, leading to increased variability <a id="crf0032" href="#bib0009" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0009">[9]</a>. We sought to quantify this purported loss of volumetric integrity using the photometric Artel MVS Multichannel Verification System <a id="crf0033" href="#bib0013" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0013">[13]</a>. Labware (Artel MVS 384-well Verification Plates) and photometric reagents (Artel MVS QualAssure Baseline, Reagent A, and Diluent Solution) were loaded onto the deck of a Tecan EVO MCA384, and the MCA transferred photometric reagents into microplates at either 30 µL (<a id="crf0034" href="#fig0002">Fig. 2a</a>) or 55 µL (<a id="crf0035" href="#fig0002">Fig. 2b</a>). Tips were washed as described in <a id="crf0036" href="#fig0003">Schematic 1</a>. Volumetric measurements were collected for fresh tips, as well as for two subsequent wash / re-use cycles. The Artel photometric system was chosen because of its ability to reliably detect extremely small (< 0.1 µL) variations in volume. Slight, but statistically significant, changes were observed in measured volumes for washed and re-used tips. Specifically, we observed increased aspiration volumes for washed tips at both tested volumes.</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="fig0002" class="graphic"><a class="icon-full-screen" href="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/98eb111c-e7e7-465e-8fc0-1b0dfc6d65be/main.assets/gr2.jpg" target="_blank" title="View full size image in a new tab"><img alt="Fig 2" src="/cms/10.1016/j.slast.2023.06.003/asset/98eb111c-e7e7-465e-8fc0-1b0dfc6d65be/main.assets/gr2.jpg" height="440" width="263" loading="lazy" /></a><figcaption class="figure__caption__body"><div id="fig0002-title" class="figure__title"><span class="label figure__label">Fig. 2</span> <span class="figure__title__text">Violin plot comparison of volumetric measurements for 30 µL (a) and 55 µL (b) dispenses for new tips vs. 1 and 2 cycles of re-use. Differences between mean measurements was assessed by a two-way ANOVA; ** indicates <i>P</i> < 0.01; <i>n</i> = 384 tips per box. Mean measurements for tips dispensing 30 µL volume are (sets 1–3, respectively): 29.86 µL, 29.95 µL, and 30.16 µL for fresh tips; 29.91 µL, 30.18 µL, and 30.32 µL for tips washed and re-used once; and 30.06 µL, 30.37 µL, and 30.30 µL for tips washed and re-used twice. Mean measurements for tips dispensing 55 µL volume are (sets 1–3, respectively): 54.75 µL, 54.83 µL, and 55.16 µL for fresh tips; 54.98 µL, 55.32 µL, and 55.57 µL for tips washed and re-used once; and 55.01 µL, 55.61 µL, and 55.49 µL for tips washed and re-used twice. Dotted lines indicate +/- 5% from target volume (the recommended acceptance criteria for the Artel MVS system).</span></div></figcaption></figure></div></section></section><section id="sec-4"><h2>Discussion</h2><div id="para0011" role="paragraph">We have developed a workflow to wash and re-use disposable liquid handling tips using 1 N NaOH and 70% ethanol. To our knowledge, this is the first report to validate washing and re-use of tips for automation or in a 384-well format. We estimate a yearly waste stream reduction of 989 kg plastic and 202 kg cardboard, resulting in a 2.18 t CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent yearly reduction in greenhouse gasses, for these two programs alone (<a id="crf0037" href="#tbl0001">Table 1</a>). Reduced consumables burden results in a savings of over $200,000 annually (<a id="crf0038" href="#tbl0003">Table 3</a>).</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="tbl0003" class="table" data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><div class="table-wrap"><table data-figureviewer-ignore="true"><thead><tr data-xml-align="left" data-xml-valign="top"><th id="en0105" rowspan="2">Program</th><th id="en0106" rowspan="2">No. of <i>Re</i>-Usable Tips</th><th id="en0107" colspan="3"><span>Cost (USD)</span></th><th id="en0108" rowspan="2">Annual Savings<br />(1 <i>Re</i>-Use)</th></tr><tr class="rowsep" data-xml-align="left" data-xml-valign="top"><th id="en0111">1 Run</th><th id="en0112">Weekly<a id="crf0040" href="#tb3fn1">*</a></th><th id="en0113">Annual<a id="crf0041" href="#tb3fn1">*</a></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td id="en0115">1</td><td id="en0116">18</td><td id="en0117">$919</td><td id="en0118">$3676</td><td id="en0119">$183,800</td><td id="en0120">$91,900</td></tr><tr><td id="en0121">2</td><td id="en0122">48</td><td id="en0123">$2449</td><td id="en0124">$7347</td><td id="en0125">$367,350</td><td id="en0126">$122,450</td></tr></tbody></table></div><figcaption><div class="caption"><span class="heading">Table 3</span><div id="spara006" role="paragraph">Cost Savings - Tips.</div></div><div class="notes"><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label">⁎</div><div id="tb3fn1"><div id="notep0002" role="paragraph">Based on estimated test rates of 4 runs (Program 1) and 3 runs (Program 2) per week, and 50 test weeks per year.</div></div></div></div><div class="core-table-tools"><ul><li><a class="core-table-show-action" href="/action/showFullTableHTML?isHtml=true&tableId=tbl0003&pii=S2472-6303%2823%2900041-9" target="_blank">Open table in a new tab</a></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure></div><div id="para0012" role="paragraph">The costs for us to implement this wash step were minimal, requiring only an additional 15 L each of 1 N NaOH and 70% ethanol annually ($1300 for 1 N NaOH and $225 for 70% ethanol), and adding only 15 min to our ELISA process. We also estimate that the environmental costs to implement are far outweighed by the benefits. For example, we calculate the greenhouse gas burden of 15 L 1 N NaOH to be 0.38 kg CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent yearly, and 15 L 70% ethanol to be 25.5 kg CO2-equivalent yearly.</div><div id="para0013" role="paragraph">Additionally, we investigated how many wash cycles would be feasible for our assay given our rigorous quality control criteria. We detected increased discrepancies after a second wash and re-use cycle, thereby limiting deployment to only a single re-use. When we investigated further, we were surprised to observe only a small (yet statistically significant) change in measured volume. Though seemingly enough to influence our ELISA results (likely due to the sensitive nature of the ELISA assay), the remarkably small change after two wash and re-use cycles suggests that multiple washes may have utility for less sensitive applications. Indeed, Khadra et al. successfully re-used tips that had been washed nine times <a id="crf0039" href="#bib0009" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="bib0009">[9]</a>, supporting broad applicability of tip re-use in a research setting. While the extent of warping and deformation of tips following repeated mount and eject cycles and the degree to which such deformation affects pipetting accuracy is largely dependent on manufacturer design, a quantitative analysis of volume drift with each cycle of tip re-use may help make informed decisions regarding the number of possible re-use cycles.</div></section><section id="sec-5"><h2>Contributors</h2><div id="para0014" role="paragraph">BP, RC, AB, JAS, KK, and DW conceived of the study and created automation scripts. BP, AT, and DW performed experiments, analyzed data, and implemented workflows. RC, AB, JAS, KK, and JWL supervised work. BP, AT, and DW created the original draft of the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.</div></section><section id="conflict" class="core-conflict"><h2>Declaration of Competing Interest</h2><div id="para0018" role="paragraph">The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.</div></section><section id="acknowledgments" role="doc-acknowledgments"><h2>Acknowledgements</h2><div id="para0020" role="paragraph">The authors wish to thank David Holland, Pete DePhillips, Erik Regalado, and Shencheng Ge for their critical evaluation of this manuscript prior to submission.</div><div id="para0021" role="paragraph">This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.</div></section></div></section><div class="core-linked-content"></div><section id="backmatter" data-extent="backmatter"><div class="core-container"><section id="references"><h2>References</h2><div id="bibliography" role="doc-bibliography"><div role="list"><div role="listitem" data-has="label"><div id="bib0001" class="citations"><div id="sbref0001" class="citation"><div class="citation-content"><div class="label">1.</div><div>Freeland, B. ...</div><div><strong>A Review of Polylactic Acid as a Replacement Material for Single-Use Laboratory Components</strong></div><em>Materials (Basel).</em> 2022; 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Greening automation: Wash and Re-use of disposable 384-well liquid handling tips to enable sustainable high-throughput vaccine development - SLAS Technology