CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Virtue ethics - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e41e43cb-7744-4ffb-b09d-f62b958da563","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Virtue_ethics","wgTitle":"Virtue ethics","wgCurRevisionId":1259015239,"wgRevisionId":1259015239,"wgArticleId":261873,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use Oxford spelling from August 2021","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020","Pages using sidebar with the child parameter","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2023", "Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2023","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021","Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from July 2023","All articles needing copy edit","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011","Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing Catalan-language text","Articles containing Italian-language text","Virtue ethics","Analytic philosophy","Aristotelianism","Ethical theories","Justice", "Philosophy of law","Morality","Normative ethics","Platonism","Socrates","Virtue"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Virtue_ethics","wgRelevantArticleId":261873,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false, "wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1086395","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs", "site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/1200px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="843"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/800px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="562"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/640px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="450"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Virtue ethics - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Virtue_ethics rootpage-Virtue_ethics skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Virtue+ethics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Virtue+ethics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Virtue+ethics" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Virtue+ethics" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Key_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Key concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Key concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Key_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Virtue_and_vice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_and_vice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Virtue and vice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_and_vice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtue_and_emotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_and_emotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Virtue and emotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_and_emotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phronesis_and_eudaimonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phronesis_and_eudaimonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span><span><i>Phronesis</i></span> and <span><i>eudaimonia</i></span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phronesis_and_eudaimonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_virtue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_virtue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History of virtue</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_virtue-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of virtue subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_virtue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary_"aretaic_turn"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_"aretaic_turn""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Contemporary "aretaic turn"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_"aretaic_turn"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lists_of_virtues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists_of_virtues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Lists of virtues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists_of_virtues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subsumed_in_deontology_and_utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsumed_in_deontology_and_utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsumed_in_deontology_and_utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kantian_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kantian_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Kantian critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kantian_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utopianism_and_pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utopianism_and_pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Utopianism and pluralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utopianism_and_pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topics_in_virtue_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topics_in_virtue_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Topics in virtue ethics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topics_in_virtue_ethics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topics in virtue ethics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topics_in_virtue_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Virtue_ethics_as_a_category" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_ethics_as_a_category"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Virtue ethics as a category</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_ethics_as_a_category-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtue_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Virtue and politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Virtue ethics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9" title="أخلاقيات الفضيلة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخلاقيات الفضيلة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica_de_les_virtuts" title="Ètica de les virtuts – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ètica de les virtuts" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dydsetik" title="Dydsetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dydsetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugendethik" title="Tugendethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tugendethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vooruseetika" title="Vooruseetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vooruseetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_de_las_virtudes" title="Ética de las virtudes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ética de las virtudes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virta_etiko" title="Virta etiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Virta etiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D8%B6%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AA" title="اخلاقیات فضیلت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخلاقیات فضیلت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89thique_de_la_vertu" title="Éthique de la vertu – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éthique de la vertu" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8D%95_%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="덕 윤리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="덕 윤리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="गुण नीतिशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुण नीतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_vrlina" title="Etika vrlina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Etika vrlina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_kebajikan" title="Etika kebajikan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Etika kebajikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyg%C3%B0asi%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Dygðasiðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Dygðasiðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A6%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ღირსების ეთიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ღირსების ეთიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorybi%C5%B3_etika" title="Dorybių etika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dorybių etika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deugdethiek" title="Deugdethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Deugdethiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%B3%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="徳倫理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="徳倫理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dygdsetikk" title="Dygdsetikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dygdsetikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyka_cn%C3%B3t" title="Etyka cnót – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etyka cnót" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_das_virtudes" title="Ética das virtudes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ética das virtudes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Этика добродетели – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этика добродетели" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Virtue ethics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_cnosti" title="Etika cnosti – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Etika cnosti" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_vrlin" title="Etika vrlin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Etika vrlin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyve-etiikka" title="Hyve-etiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hyve-etiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dygdetik" title="Dygdetik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dygdetik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikang_pambirtud" title="Etikang pambirtud – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Etikang pambirtud" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdem_eti%C4%9Fi" title="Erdem etiği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Erdem etiği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E6%80%A7%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="德性倫理學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="德性倫理學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1086395#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Virtue_ethics" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Virtue_ethics" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Virtue_ethics" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&oldid=1259015239" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Virtue_ethics&id=1259015239&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FVirtue_ethics"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FVirtue_ethics"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Virtue_ethics&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Virtue_ethics" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1086395" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Normative ethical theories</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;padding-top:0.4em;border-top:1px #fafafa solid;border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Socrates" title="Category:Socrates">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/200px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/300px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg/400px-UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1850" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/I_know_that_I_know_nothing" title="I know that I know nothing">I know that I know nothing</a>"</li></ul> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_unexamined_life_is_not_worth_living" title="The unexamined life is not worth living">The unexamined life is not worth living</a>"</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gadfly_(philosophy_and_social_science)" title="Gadfly (philosophy and social science)">Gadfly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates" title="Trial of Socrates">Trial of Socrates</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Eponymous concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogue" title="Socratic dialogue">Socratic dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic fallacy">Socratic fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_intellectualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic intellectualism">Socratic intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_irony" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic irony">Socratic irony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_know_that_I_know_nothing" title="I know that I know nothing">Socratic paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socratic problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic questioning</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">Pupils</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Sphettus" title="Aeschines of Sphettus">Aeschines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Socrates" title="Bibliography of Socrates">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cultural_depictions_of_Socrates" title="List of cultural depictions of Socrates">Cultural depictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Clouds" title="The Clouds">The Clouds</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#ddddff;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Socrates" title="Category:Socrates">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socrates" title="Template:Socrates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socrates" title="Template talk:Socrates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socrates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socrates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/25px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/38px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/50px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_Church" title="Category:Catholic Church">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border notpageimage" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="St. Peter's Basilica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg/220px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg/330px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg/440px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_in_Vaticano_September_2015-1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13066" data-file-height="6823" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a>, Vatican City</div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gold"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Outline of the Catholic Church">Overview</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Francis</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">Hierarchy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Liturgy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">Sacraments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mariology" title="Catholic Mariology">Mary</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a> <a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">History of the papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magisterium" title="Magisterium">Magisterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four Marks of the Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">Apostolic succession</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">Organisation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" title="College of Cardinals">College of Cardinals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcopal_polity" title="Episcopal polity">Episcopal polity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Canon law</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Theologies</a></li><li>Doctrine</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <p><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> </p> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Ghost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">Consubstantialitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">Filioque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinum_illud_munus" title="Divinum illud munus">Divinum illud munus</a></li></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments_in_Catholic_theology" title="Ten Commandments in Catholic theology">Decalogus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Ex Cathedra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Divinization_(Christian)" title="Divinization (Christian)">Deificatio</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Churches_Militant,_Penitent,_and_Triumphant" title="Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant">Realms beyond the States of the Church</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity" title="Heaven in Christianity">Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbo" title="Limbo">Limbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity#Roman_Catholicism" title="Hell in Christianity">Hell</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Paschal_mystery" title="Paschal mystery">Paschal mystery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passion_of_Jesus" title="Passion of Jesus">Passion of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrowing_of_Hell" title="Harrowing of Hell">Harrowing of Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension of Jesus</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Blessed Virgin Mary</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mariology" title="Catholic Mariology">Mariology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church">Veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Mater Dei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_virginity_of_Mary" title="Perpetual virginity of Mary">Perpetual virginity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Assumption</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dormition_of_the_Mother_of_God" title="Dormition of the Mother of God">Dormition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Titles of Mary">Titles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Heaven" title="Queen of Heaven">Queen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_apparition" title="Marian apparition">Apparition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediatrix" title="Mediatrix">Mediatrix</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_desire" title="Baptism of desire">Baptism of desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_blood" title="Baptism of blood">Baptism of blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity" title="Grace in Christianity">Divine grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extra_Ecclesiam_nulla_salus" title="Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus">Outside the Church there is no salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infused_righteousness" title="Infused righteousness">Infused righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_(Catholic_theology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invincible ignorance (Catholic theology)">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_grace" title="Means of grace">Means of grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Christianity)" title="Merit (Christianity)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">Mortal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satisfaction_theory_of_atonement" title="Satisfaction theory of atonement">Satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_influence_theory_of_atonement" title="Moral influence theory of atonement">Moral influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctification_in_Christianity" title="Sanctification in Christianity">Sanctification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergism" title="Synergism">Synergism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">Venial sin</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecclesiology" title="Catholic ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Bishops" title="College of Bishops">College of Bishops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposit_of_faith" title="Deposit of faith">Deposit of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibility_of_the_Church" title="Infallibility of the Church">Infallibility of the Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystici_corporis_Christi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystici corporis Christi">Mystical Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_primacy" title="Papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitas_perfecta" title="Communitas perfecta">Perfect community</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Subsistit_in" title="Subsistit in">Subsistit in</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Other teachings</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josephology" title="Josephology">Josephology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology_of_the_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic theology of the body">Body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_Body" title="Theology of the Body">Lectures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology_of_sexuality" title="Catholic theology of sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">Hypostatic union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination#Catholicism" title="Predestination">Predestination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">Beatific vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Dogma in the Catholic Church">Dogma</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Official Bible</li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixtine_Vulgate" title="Sixtine Vulgate">Sixtine Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixto-Clementine_Vulgate" title="Sixto-Clementine Vulgate">Sixto-Clementine Vulgate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nova_Vulgata" title="Nova Vulgata">Nova Vulgata</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism of the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_exhortation" title="Apostolic exhortation">Apostolic exhortation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclical" title="Encyclical">Epistula Encyclica</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Philosophy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Virtues">Cardinal Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Catholic ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism#Catholic_personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Philosophy of canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> <p><br /> Schools </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Worship</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Mass in the Catholic Church">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Liturgy" title="Divine Liturgy">Divine Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Qurbana" title="Holy Qurbana">Holy Qurbana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Qurbono" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Qurbono">Holy Qurbono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy_of_the_Hours" title="Liturgy of the Hours">Liturgy of the Hours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_year" title="Liturgical year">Liturgical year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament_of_Penance" title="Sacrament of Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Eucharist in the Catholic Church">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Confirmation in the Catholic Church">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marriage in the Catholic Church">Matrimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Prayer in the Catholic Church">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_devotions" title="Catholic devotions">Devotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_particular_churches_and_liturgical_rites" title="Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites">Rites</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_liturgical_rites" title="Latin liturgical rites">Latin liturgy</a>:</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rite" title="Roman Rite">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_of_Paul_VI" title="Mass of Paul VI">Post-Vatican II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_of_Sarum" title="Use of Sarum">Use of Sarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_Use" title="Anglican Use">Anglican Use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire_Use" title="Zaire Use">Zaire Use</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallican_Rite" title="Gallican Rite">Gallican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrosian_Rite" title="Ambrosian Rite">Ambrosian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_Braga" title="Rite of Braga">Braga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_Rite" title="Mozarabic Rite">Mozarabic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><br /><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic liturgy</a>:</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochene_Rite" title="Antiochene Rite">Antiochene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malankara_Rite" title="Malankara Rite">Malankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Syriac_Rite" title="East Syriac Rite">East Syriac</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Miscellaneous</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipope" title="Antipope">Antipopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Anti-Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Deism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and Deism">Deism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Pandeism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_order_(Catholic)" title="Religious order (Catholic)">Monasticism</a></li></ul> <p>Relations with: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic%E2%80%93Eastern_Orthodox_relations" title="Catholic–Eastern Orthodox relations">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic-Protestant_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic-Protestant relations">Protestantism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Societal issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Evolution and the Catholic Church">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_homosexuality" title="Catholic Church and homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" title="Catholic Church and politics">Politics</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">in the United States</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_roles_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sex and gender roles in the Catholic Church">Sex and gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">the Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Links and resources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Catholic_Church_articles" title="Index of Catholic Church articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Outline of the Catholic Church">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Glossary of the Catholic Church">Glossary</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_Church" title="Category:Catholic Church">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Catholic_Church" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Catholic Church">Media</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_templates" title="Category:Catholic templates">Templates</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Catholicism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Catholicism">WikiProject</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/48px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/64px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholic_Church" title="Portal:Catholic Church">Catholic Church portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_Church_sidebar" title="Template:Catholic Church sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_Church_sidebar" title="Template talk:Catholic Church sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_Church_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic Church sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Virtue ethics</b> (also <b>aretaic ethics</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀρετή">ἀρετή</a></span></span> [<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretḗ</a></i></span>]) is a philosophical approach that treats <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">character</a> as the primary subjects of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, in contrast to other ethical systems that put consequences of voluntary acts, principles or rules of conduct, or obedience to divine authority in the primary role.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtue ethics is usually contrasted with two other major approaches in ethics, <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, which make the goodness of outcomes of an action (consequentialism) and the concept of moral duty (deontology) central. While virtue ethics does not necessarily deny the importance to ethics of goodness of states of affairs or of moral duties, it emphasizes virtue, and sometimes other concepts, like <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i></span>, to an extent that other ethics theories do not.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Key concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_and_vice">Virtue and vice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Virtue and vice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></div> <p>In virtue ethics, a <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> is a characteristic disposition to think, feel, and act well in some domain of life.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, a <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a> is a characteristic disposition to think, feel, and act poorly. Virtues are not everyday habits; they are <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">character traits</a>, in the sense that they are central to someone’s <a href="/wiki/Personality" title="Personality">personality</a> and what they are like as a person. </p><p>In early versions and some modern versions of virtue ethics, a virtue is defined as a character trait that promotes or exhibits human "flourishing and well being" in the person who exhibits it.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modern versions of virtue ethics do not define virtues in terms of well being or flourishing, and some go so far as to define virtues as traits that tend to promote some other good that is defined independently of the virtues, thereby subsuming virtue ethics under (or somehow merging it with) consequentialist ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, a virtue was not a skill that made you better able to achieve <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> but was itself an expression of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span>—<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> in activity.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast with consequentialist and deontological ethical systems, in which one may be called upon to do the right thing even though it is not in one's own interests (one is to do it instead for the greater good, or out of duty), in virtue ethics, one does the right thing because it is in one's own interests. Part of training in practical virtue ethics is to come to see the coincidence of one's <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_self-interest" title="Enlightened self-interest">enlightened self-interest</a> and the practice of the virtues, so that one is virtuous willingly, gladly, and enthusiastically because one knows that being virtuous is the best thing one can do with oneself.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I">: I </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_and_emotion">Virtue and emotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Virtue and emotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek</a> and modern eudaimonic virtue ethics, virtues and vices are complex dispositions that involve both <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affective</a> and intellectual components.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, they are dispositions that involve both being able to reason well about the right thing to do (see below on <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a></i></span>), and also to engage emotions and feelings correctly. </p><p>For example, a generous person can reason well about when and how to help people, and such a person also helps people with pleasure and without conflict. In this, virtuous people are contrasted not only with vicious people (who reason poorly about what to do and are emotionally attached to the wrong things) and with the <a href="/wiki/Incontinence_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incontinence (philosophy)">incontinent</a> (who are tempted by their feelings into doing the wrong thing even though they know what is right), but also with the merely continent (whose emotions tempt them toward doing the wrong thing but whose strength of will lets them do what they know is right). </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Rosalind Hursthouse</a>, in Aristotelian virtue ethics, the emotions have moral significance because "virtues (and vices) are all dispositions not only to act, but to feel emotions, as reactions as well as impulses to action... [and] In the person with the virtues, these emotions will be felt on the <i>right</i> occasions, toward the <i>right</i> people or objects, for the <i>right</i> reasons, where 'right' means 'correct'..."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phronesis_and_eudaimonia"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Phronesis</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phronesis and eudaimonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φρόνησις</span></span>; prudence, practical virtue, or practical wisdom) is an acquired trait that enables its possessor to identify the best thing to do in any given situation.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike theoretical wisdom, practical reason results in action or decision.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As John McDowell puts it, practical wisdom involves a "perceptual sensitivity" to what a situation requires.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">εὐδαιμονία</span></span>) is a state variously translated from Greek as 'well-being', 'happiness', 'blessedness', and in the context of virtue ethics, 'human flourishing'.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Eudaimonia</i></span> in this sense is not a subjective, but an objective, state.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It characterizes the well-lived life. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the most prominent exponent of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> in the Western philosophical tradition, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> defines the goal of human life. It consists of exercising the characteristic human quality—<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>—as the soul's most proper and nourishing activity. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, Aristotle, like Plato before him, argued that the pursuit of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> is an "activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue",<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I">: I </span></sup> which further could only properly be exercised in the characteristic human community—the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i></span> or <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> was first popularized by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, it now belongs to the tradition of virtue theories generally.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the virtue theorist, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> describes that state achieved by the person who lives the proper human life, an outcome that can be reached by practicing the virtues. A virtue is a habit or quality that allows the bearer to succeed at his, her, or its purpose. The virtue of a knife, for example, is sharpness; among the virtues of a racehorse is speed. Thus, to identify the virtues for human beings, one must have an account of what is the human purpose. </p><p>Not all modern virtue ethics theories are eudaimonic; some place another end in place of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span>, while others are non-teleological: that is, they do not account for virtues in terms of the results that the practice of the virtues produce or tend to produce.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_virtue">History of virtue</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History of virtue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/25px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/38px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg/50px-Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="1105" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_philosophers" title="Category:Catholic philosophers">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/73px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg" decoding="async" width="73" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/110px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg/147px-St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></span></span><span class="nowrap"> </span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/68px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg" decoding="async" width="68" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/102px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg/136px-Scoto_%28Duns_Scoto%29_-_Studiolo_di_Federico_da_Montefeltro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="762" /></span></span><span class="nowrap"> </span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/82px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="82" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/124px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/165px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /></span></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of Double Effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation Theology">Liberation Theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Humanism">Christian Humanism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque Viae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">Predestination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theological_determinism" title="Theological determinism">Theological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Divine Attributes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Saint_Victor" title="School of Saint Victor">Victorines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llullism" class="mw-redirect" title="Llullism">Llullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Christian Neoplatonism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_God" title="Friends of God">Friends of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_th%C3%A9ologie" title="Nouvelle théologie">Ressourcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_scholasticism" title="Second scholasticism">Second scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory (of Nazianzus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory (of Nyssa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">Cassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Climacus" title="John Climacus">Climacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Autrecourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berengar_of_Tours" title="Berengar of Tours">Berengar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Braga" title="Martin of Braga">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paschasius_Radbertus" title="Paschasius Radbertus">Paschasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Symeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Azpilcueta" title="Martín de Azpilcueta">Azpilcueta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Botero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cajetan" title="Thomas Cajetan">Cajetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_F%C3%A9nelon" title="François Fénelon">Fénelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltasar_Graci%C3%A1n" title="Baltasar Gracián">Gracián</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">La Mennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonsus_Liguori" title="Alphonsus Liguori">Liguori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Mariana" title="Juan de Mariana">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Mercado" title="Tomás de Mercado">Mercado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Molina" title="Luis de Molina">Molina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_de_Sales" title="Francis de Sales">Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_de_Soto" title="Domingo de Soto">Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Caramuel_y_Lobkowitz" title="Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz">Caramuel</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:gold;color: var(--color-base)">Contemporary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Barron" title="Robert Barron">Barron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blondel" title="Maurice Blondel">Blondel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Congar" title="Yves Congar">Congar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9ginald_Garrigou-Lagrange" title="Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange">Garrigou-Lagrange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Gustavo Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_G%C3%B3mez_D%C3%A1vila" title="Nicolás Gómez Dávila">Dávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Guardini" title="Romano Guardini">Guardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Haldane_(philosopher)" title="John Haldane (philosopher)">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_von_Hildebrand" title="Dietrich von Hildebrand">Hildebrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lonergan" title="Bernard Lonergan">Lonergan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Lubac" title="Henri de Lubac">Lubac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Like much of the Western tradition, virtue theory originated in ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>. </p><p>Virtue ethics began with <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, and was subsequently developed further by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virtue ethics concentrates on the character of the individual, rather than the acts (or consequences thereof) of the individual. There is debate among adherents of virtue ethics concerning what specific virtues are praiseworthy. However, most theorists agree that ethics is demonstrated by the practice of virtues. </p><p>Plato and Aristotle's treatments of virtues are not the same. Plato believes virtue is effectively an end to be sought, for which a friend might be a useful means. Aristotle states that the virtues function more as means to safeguard human relations, particularly authentic friendship, without which one's quest for happiness is frustrated. </p><p>Discussion of what were known as the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a>—<a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">fortitude</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a>—can be found in Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>. The virtues also figure prominently in Aristotle's ethical theory found in <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtue theory was inserted into the study of <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> by moralistic historians such as <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>. The Greek idea of the virtues was passed on in Roman philosophy through <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and later incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> moral theology by <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a> of Milan. During the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> period, the most comprehensive consideration of the virtues from a theological perspective was provided by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologiae</a></i> and his <i>Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Reformation, Aristotle's <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> continued to be the main authority for the discipline of ethics at Protestant universities until the late seventeenth century, with over fifty Protestant commentaries published on the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> before 1682.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the tradition receded into the background of European philosophical thought in the past few centuries, the term "virtue" remained current during this period, and in fact appears prominently in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">classical republicanism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a>. This tradition was prominent in the intellectual life of 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, as well as 17th- and 18th-century Britain and America; indeed the term "virtue" appears frequently in the work of <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Medrano" title="Tomás Fernández de Medrano">Tomás Fernández de Medrano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, the republicans of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> period, the 18th-century English <a href="/wiki/British_Whig_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Whig Party">Whigs</a>, and the prominent figures among the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding Fathers">American Founding Fathers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_"aretaic_turn""><span id="Contemporary_.22aretaic_turn.22"></span>Contemporary "aretaic turn"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Contemporary "aretaic turn""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers (e.g. <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>) continued to emphasise the virtues, with the ascendancy of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontological ethics</a>, virtue theory moved to the margins of Western <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>'s 1958 essay "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this: </p> <ul><li>In the 1976 paper "<a href="/wiki/The_Schizophrenia_of_Modern_Ethical_Theories" title="The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories">The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories</a>", Michael Stocker summarises the main aretaic criticisms of deontological and consequentialist ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Philosopher, psychologist, and encyclopedist <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Adler" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer Adler">Mortimer Adler</a> appealed to <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Aristotelian ethics</a>, and the virtue theory of happiness or <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i></span> throughout his published work.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, published a collection of essays in 1978 entitled <i>Virtues and Vices</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> made an effort to reconstruct a virtue-based theory in dialogue with the problems of modern and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodern</a> thought; his works include <i><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a></i> and <i>Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ricoeur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Ricoeur">Paul Ricoeur</a> accorded an important place to Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Teleological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological ethics">teleological ethics</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutical">hermeneutical</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> of the subject, most notably in his book <i>Oneself as Another</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Theologian <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Hauerwas" title="Stanley Hauerwas">Stanley Hauerwas</a> found the language of virtue helpful in his own project.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Richard Taylor (philosopher)">Richard Taylor</a> argues for the restoration of classical virtues as the basis for morality in <i>Virtue Ethics An Introduction</i> (1991) <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Crisp" title="Roger Crisp">Roger Crisp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Slote" title="Michael Slote">Michael Slote</a> edited a collection of important essays titled <i>Virtue Ethics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> employed virtue theory in theorising the <a href="/wiki/Capability_approach" title="Capability approach">capability approach</a> to <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Annas" title="Julia Annas">Julia Annas</a> wrote <i>The Morality of Happiness</i> (1993).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_C._Becker" title="Lawrence C. Becker">Lawrence C. Becker</a> identified current virtue theory with <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Greek Stoicism</a> in <i>A New Stoicism.</i> (1998).<sup id="cite_ref-Becker1998_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker1998-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Rosalind Hursthouse</a> published <i>On Virtue Ethics</i> (1999).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> drew on classical virtue ethics in conceptualizing <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a>.</li> <li>Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Daniel Goleman</a> opens his book on <a href="/wiki/Emotional_Intelligence" title="Emotional Intelligence">Emotional Intelligence</a> with a challenge from Aristotle's <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a> discusses Aristotelian ethics to support his ethical theory of justice in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Justice:_What%27s_the_Right_Thing_to_Do%3F" title="Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?">Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?</a></i></li></ul> <p>The <b>aretaic turn</b> in moral philosophy is paralleled by analogous developments in other philosophical disciplines. One of these is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, where a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">virtue epistemology</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Linda_Trinkaus_Zagzebski" class="mw-redirect" title="Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski">Linda Zagzebski</a> and others. In political theory, there has been discussion of "virtue politics", and in legal theory, there is a small but growing body of literature on <a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">virtue jurisprudence</a>. The aretaic turn also exists in <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_theory" title="Constitutional theory">constitutional theory</a>, where proponents argue for an emphasis <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">on virtue and vice of constitutional <a href="/wiki/Adjudicator" title="Adjudicator">adjudicators</a></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title=" (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aretaic approaches to morality, epistemology, and jurisprudence have been the subject of intense debates. One criticism focuses on the problem of guidance; opponents, such as Robert Louden in his article "Some Vices of Virtue Ethics", question whether the idea of a virtuous moral actor, believer, or judge can provide the guidance necessary for action, belief formation, or the resolution of legal disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lists_of_virtues">Lists of virtues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lists of virtues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several lists of virtues. Socrates argued that virtue is knowledge, which suggests that there is really only one virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoics identified four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a>: wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. Wisdom is subdivided into good sense, good calculation, quick-wittedness, discretion, and resourcefulness. Justice is subdivided into piety, honesty, equity, and fair dealing. Courage is subdivided into endurance, confidence, high-mindedness, cheerfulness, and industriousness. Temperance or moderation is subdivided into good discipline, seemliness, modesty, and self-control.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John McDowell argues that virtue is a "perceptual capacity" to identify how one ought to act, and that all particular virtues are merely "specialized sensitivities" to a range of reasons for acting.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Aristotle's list</dt></dl> <p>Aristotle identifies approximately 18 virtues that demonstrate a person is performing their human function well.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He distinguished virtues pertaining to emotion and desire from those relating to the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II">: II </span></sup> The first he calls moral virtues, and the second intellectual virtues (though both are "moral" in the modern sense of the word). </p> <dl><dt>Moral virtues</dt></dl> <p>Aristotle suggested that each moral virtue was a mean (see <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a>) between two corresponding vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. Each intellectual virtue is a mental skill or habit by which the mind arrives at truth, affirming what is or denying what is not.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI">: VI </span></sup> In the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> he discusses about 11 moral virtues: </p> <table class="wikitable" width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="3"> <tbody><tr> <th width="24%" bgcolor="#E8EAFF"><b>SPHERE OF ACTION OR FEELING</b> </th> <th width="24%" bgcolor="#E8EAFF"><b>EXCESS</b> </th> <th width="24%" bgcolor="#E8EAFF"><b>MEAN: MORAL VIRTUE</b> </th> <th width="24%" bgcolor="#E8EAFF"><b>DEFICIENCY</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Fear and confidence </td> <td align="center">Rashness </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a></b> in the face of fear<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.6–9">: III.6–9 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Cowardice </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Pleasure and pain </td> <td align="center">Licentiousness / self-indulgence </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Aristotle" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></b> in the face of pleasure and pain<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.10–12">: III.10–12 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Insensibility </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Getting and spending (minor) </td> <td align="center">Prodigality </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Liberality" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberality">Liberality</a></b> with wealth and possessions<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.1">: IV.1 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Illiberality / meanness </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Getting and spending (major) </td> <td align="center">Vulgarity / tastelessness </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)#Aristotle" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></b> with great wealth and possessions<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.2">: IV.2 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Pettiness / stinginess </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Honour and dishonour (major) </td> <td align="center">Vanity </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></b> with great honors<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.3">: IV.3 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Pusillanimity </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Honour and dishonour (minor) </td> <td align="center">Ambition/empty vanity </td> <td align="center"><b>Proper ambition</b> with normal honors<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.4">: IV.4 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Unambitiousness / undue humility </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Anger </td> <td align="center">Irascibility </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a>/good temper</b><sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.5">: IV.5 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Lack of spirit/unirascibility </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Self-expression </td> <td align="center">Boastfulness </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Truthfulness</a></b> with self-expression<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.7">: IV.7 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Understatement / mock modesty </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Conversation </td> <td align="center">Buffoonery </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wittiness</a></b> in conversation<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.8">: IV.8 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Boorishness </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Social conduct </td> <td align="center">Obsequiousness </td> <td align="center"><b>Friendliness</b> in social conduct<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.6">: IV.6 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Cantankerousness </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Shame </td> <td align="center">Shyness </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></b> in the face of shame or shamelessness<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.9">: IV.9 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Shamelessness </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">Indignation </td> <td align="center">Envy </td> <td align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></b> in the face of injury<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.5">: IV.5 </span></sup> </td> <td align="center">Malicious enjoyment / spitefulness </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dt>Intellectual virtues</dt></dl> <ol><li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Nous</a></i></span> (intelligence), which apprehends fundamental truths (such as definitions, self-evident principles)<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.11">: VI.11 </span></sup></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme">Episteme</a></i></span> (science), which is skill with inferential reasoning (such as proofs, <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a>, demonstrations)<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.6">: VI.6 </span></sup></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Sophia</i></span> (theoretical wisdom), which combines fundamental truths with valid, necessary inferences to reason well about unchanging truths.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.5">: VI.5 </span></sup></li></ol> <p>Aristotle also mentions several other traits: </p> <ul><li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Gnome</i></span> (good sense) – passing judgment, "sympathetic understanding"<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.11">: VI.11 </span></sup></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Synesis</i></span> (understanding) – comprehending what others say, does not issue commands</li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span> (practical wisdom) – knowledge of what to do, knowledge of changing truths, issues commands<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.8">: VI.8 </span></sup></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Techne</i></span> (art, craftsmanship)<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.4">: VI.4 </span></sup></li></ul> <p>Aristotle's list is not the only list, however. As <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a> observed in <i><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a></i>, thinkers as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, the authors of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> have all proposed lists.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regarding which are the most important virtues, Aristotle proposed the following nine: wisdom; prudence; justice; fortitude; courage; liberality; magnificence; magnanimity; temperance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In contrast, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a> proposed as the four cardinal virtues ambition/humility, love, courage, and honesty.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="why is this a criticism? (July 2023)"><i>non sequitur</i></span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Proponents of virtue theory<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> sometimes argue that a central feature of a virtue is its <i>universal applicability</i>. In other words, any character trait defined as a virtue must reasonably be universally regarded as a virtue for all people. According to this view, it is inconsistent to claim, for example, servility as a female virtue, while at the same time not proposing it as a male one.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other proponents of virtue theory, notably Alasdair MacIntyre, respond to this objection by arguing that any account of the virtues must indeed be generated out of the community in which those virtues are to be practiced: the very word <i>ethics</i> implies <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a></i></span>. That is to say that the virtues are, and necessarily must be, grounded in a particular time and place. What counts as a virtue in 4th-century <span title="Before Common Era">BCE</span> Athens would be a ludicrous guide to proper behaviour in 21st-century <span title="Common Era">CE</span> Toronto and vice versa. To take this view does not necessarily commit one to the argument that accounts of the virtues must therefore be static: moral activity—that is, attempts to contemplate and practice the virtues—can provide the cultural resources that allow people to change, albeit slowly, the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a></i></span> of their own societies. </p><p>MacIntyre appears to take this position in his seminal work on virtue ethics, <i>After Virtue</i>. </p><p>Another objection<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">whose?</span></a></i>]</sup> to virtue theory is that virtue ethics does not focus on what <i>sorts of actions</i> are morally permitted and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of qualities someone ought to foster in order to become a good person. In other words, while some virtue theorists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> may not condemn, for example, murder as an inherently immoral or impermissible sort of action, they may argue that someone who commits a murder is severely lacking in several important virtues, such as <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fairness" class="extiw" title="wikt:fairness">fairness</a>. Still, antagonists of the theory<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> often object that this particular feature of the theory makes virtue ethics useless as a universal norm of acceptable conduct suitable as a base for <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Some virtue theorists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> concede this point, but respond by opposing the very notion of legitimate legislative <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> instead, effectively advocating some form of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a> as the political ideal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other virtue theorists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that laws should be made by virtuous legislators, and still another group argue that it is possible to base a judicial system on the moral notion of virtues rather than rules. Aristotle himself saw his <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> as a prequel for his <i>Politics</i> and felt that the point of politics was to create the fertile soil for a virtuous citizenry to develop in, and that one purpose of virtue was that it helps you to contribute to a healthy <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-NE_8-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: X.9">: X.9 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Politics_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some virtue theorists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2024)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> might respond to this overall objection with the notion of a "bad act" also being an act characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> That is to say that those acts that do not aim at virtue, or that stray from virtue, would constitute our conception of "bad behavior". Although not all virtue ethicists agree to this notion, this is one way the virtue ethicist can re-introduce the concept of the "morally impermissible". One could raise an objection that he is committing an <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">argument from ignorance</a> by postulating that what is not virtuous is unvirtuous. In other words, just because an action or person 'lacks of evidence' for virtue does not, <a href="/wiki/Ceteris_paribus" title="Ceteris paribus">all else constant</a>, imply that said action or person is unvirtuous. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsumed_in_deontology_and_utilitarianism">Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subsumed in deontology and utilitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> suggested that while virtue ethics is often considered to be anti-<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, "suspicious of theory and respectful of the wisdom embodied in local practices",<sup id="cite_ref-Nussbaum_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is actually neither fundamentally distinct from, nor does it qualify as a rival approach to deontology and utilitarianism. She argues that philosophers from these two Enlightenment traditions often include theories of virtue. She pointed out that <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant's</a> "Doctrine of Virtue" (in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Metaphysics of Morals">The Metaphysics of Morals</a></i>) "covers most of the same topics as do classical Greek theories", "that he offers a general account of virtue, in terms of the strength of the will in overcoming wayward and selfish inclinations; that he offers detailed analyses of standard virtues such as courage and self-control, and of vices, such as avarice, mendacity, servility, and pride; that, although in general, he portrays inclination as inimical to virtue, he also recognizes that sympathetic inclinations offer crucial support to virtue, and urges their deliberate cultivation."<sup id="cite_ref-Nussbaum_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nussbaum also points to considerations of virtue by utilitarians such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> (<i>The Principles of Morals and Legislation</i>), and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, who writes of moral development as part of an argument for the moral equality of women (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Subjection_of_Women" title="The Subjection of Women">The Subjection of Women</a></i>). She argues that contemporary virtue ethicists such as Alasdair MacIntyre, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a> have few points of agreement and that the common core of their work does not represent a break from Kant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kantian_critique">Kantian critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kantian critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immanuel Kant's position on virtue ethics is contested. Those who argue that Kantian deontology conflicts with virtue ethics include Alasdair MacIntyre, Philippa Foot, and Bernard Williams.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i>, Immanuel Kant offers many different criticisms of ethical frameworks and against moral theories before him.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Kant rarely mentioned Aristotle by name but did not exclude his moral philosophy of virtue ethics from his critique. Many Kantian arguments against virtue ethics claim that virtue ethics is inconsistent, or sometimes that it is not a real moral theory at all.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In "What Is Virtue Ethics All About?",<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gregory Velazco y Trianosky identified the key points of divergence between virtue ethicists and what he called "neo-Kantianism", in the form these nine neo-Kantian moral assertions: </p> <ol><li>The crucial moral question is "what is it right/obligatory to do?"</li> <li>Moral judgments are those that concern the rightness of actions.</li> <li>Such judgments take the form of rules or principles.</li> <li>Such rules or principles are universal, not respecting persons.</li> <li>They are not based on some concept of human good that is independent of moral goodness.</li> <li>They take the form of <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperatives</a> that can be justified independently of the desires of the person they apply to.</li> <li>They are motivating; they can compel action in an agent, also independently of that agent's desires.</li> <li>An action, in order to be morally virtuous, must be motivated by this sort of moral judgment (not, for example, merely coincidentally aligned with it).</li> <li>The virtuousness of a character trait, or virtue, derives from the relationship that trait has to moral judgments, rules, and principles.</li></ol> <p>Trianosky says that modern sympathizers with virtue ethics almost all reject neo-Kantian claim #1, and many of them also reject certain of the other claims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utopianism_and_pluralism">Utopianism and pluralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Utopianism and pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Robert B. Louden criticizes virtue ethics on the basis that it promotes a form of unsustainable <a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">utopianism</a>. Trying to arrive at a single set of virtues is immensely difficult in contemporary societies as, according to Louden, they contain "more ethnic, religious, and class groups than did the moral community which Aristotle theorized about" with each of these groups having "not only its own interests but its own set of virtues as well". Louden notes in passing that MacIntyre, a supporter of virtue-based ethics, has grappled with this in <i>After Virtue</i> but that ethics cannot dispense with building rules around acts and rely only on discussing the <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a> of persons.<sup id="cite_ref-Louden_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Louden-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics_in_virtue_ethics">Topics in virtue ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Topics in virtue ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_ethics_as_a_category">Virtue ethics as a category</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics as a category"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virtue contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Deontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological">deontological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> ethics (the three being together the most predominant contemporary normative ethical theories). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a>, sometimes referred to as duty ethics, places the emphasis on adhering to ethical principles or duties. How these duties are defined, however, is often a point of contention and debate in deontological ethics. One predominant rule scheme used by deontologists is <a href="/wiki/Divine_Command_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Command Theory">divine command theory</a>. Deontology also depends upon meta-ethical <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>, in that it postulates the existence of <a href="/wiki/Moral_absolute" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral absolute">moral absolutes</a> that make an action moral, regardless of circumstances. Immanuel Kant is considered one of the foremost theorists of deontological ethics. </p><p>The next predominant school of thought in normative ethics is <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>. While deontology places the emphasis on doing one's duty, consequentialism bases the morality of an action upon its outcome. Instead of saying that one has a moral duty to abstain from murder, a consequentialist would say that we should abstain from murder because it causes undesirable effects. The main contention here is what outcomes should/can be identified as objectively desirable. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Greatest_Happiness_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Greatest Happiness Principle">greatest happiness principle</a> of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> is a commonly adopted criteria for what is objectively desirable. Mill asserts that the desirability of an action is the net amount of happiness it brings, the number of people it brings it to, and the duration of the happiness. He tries to delineate classes of happiness, some preferable to others, but there is a great deal of difficulty in classifying such concepts. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism (book)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Copy_edit-section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-copy-edit-section" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/24px-Acap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/36px-Acap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/48px-Acap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="50" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a></b>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A virtue ethicist identifies virtues, desirable characteristics, that an excellent person embodies. Exhibiting these virtues is the aim of ethics, and one's actions are a reflection of one's virtues. To the virtue philosopher, action cannot be used as a demarcation of morality, because a virtue encompasses more than just a simple selection of action. Instead, a virtue is a way of being that leads the person exhibiting the virtue to make certain "virtuous" types of choices consistently in each situation. There is a great deal of disagreement within virtue ethics over what are virtues and what are not. There are also difficulties in identifying what is the "virtuous" action to take in all circumstances, and how to define a virtue. </p><p>Consequentialist and deontological theories often still employ the term <i>virtue</i>, but in a restricted sense, namely as a tendency or disposition to adhere to the system's principles or rules. In other words, in those theories, virtue is secondary, and the principles or rules are primary. These very different senses of what constitutes virtue, hidden behind the same word, are a potential source of confusion.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This disagreement over the meaning of virtue points to a larger conflict between virtue theory and its philosophical rivals. A system of virtue theory is only intelligible if it is <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a>: that is, if it includes an account of the purpose (<i>telos</i>) of human life, or in popular language, the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaning of life</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Obviously, strong claims about the purpose of human life, or of what the good life for human beings is, will be controversial. Virtue theory's necessary commitment to a teleological account of human life thus puts the tradition in tension with other dominant approaches to normative ethics, which, because they focus on actions, do not bear this burden.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_and_politics">Virtue and politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Virtue and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virtue theory emphasises Aristotle's belief in the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span> as the acme of political organisation,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Aristotle certainly did, but does virtue theory as a whole? (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and the role of the virtues in enabling human beings to flourish in that environment. Classical republicanism in contrast emphasises <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>' concern that power and luxury can corrupt individuals and destroy liberty, as Tacitus perceived in the transformation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>; virtue for classical republicans is a shield against this sort of corruption and a means to preserve the good life one has, rather than a means by which to achieve the good life one does not yet have. Another way to put the distinction between the two traditions is that virtue ethics relies on Aristotle's fundamental distinction between the human-being-as-he-is from the human-being-as-he-should-be, while classical republicanism relies on the Tacitean distinction of the risk-of-becoming.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtue ethics has a number of contemporary applications. </p> <dl><dt>Social and political philosophy</dt></dl> <p>Within the field of social ethics, <a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a> argues that virtue ethics can provide a basis for a balanced approach to understanding capitalism and capitalist societies.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Education</dt></dl> <p>Within the field of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">philosophy of education</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Page_(Australian_educationist)" title="James Page (Australian educationist)">James Page</a> argues that virtue ethics can provide a rationale and foundation for <a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">peace education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Health care and medical ethics</dt></dl> <p>Thomas Alured Faunce argued that whistleblowing in the healthcare setting would be more respected within clinical governance pathways if it had a firmer academic foundation in virtue ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He called for whistleblowing to be expressly supported in the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barry Schwartz argues that "practical wisdom" is an antidote to much of the inefficient and inhumane bureaucracy of modern health care systems.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Technology and the virtues</dt></dl> <p>In her book <i>Technology and the Virtues</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shannon_Vallor" title="Shannon Vallor">Shannon Vallor</a> proposed a series of 'technomoral' virtues that people need to cultivate in order to flourish in our socio-technological world: Honesty (Respecting Truth), Self-control (Becoming the Author of Our Desires), Humility (Knowing What We Do Not Know), Justice (Upholding Rightness), Courage (Intelligent Fear and Hope), Empathy (Compassionate Concern for Others), Care (Loving Service to Others), Civility (Making Common Cause), Flexibility (Skillful Adaptation to Change), Perspective (Holding on to the Moral Whole), and Magnanimity (Moral Leadership and Nobility of Spirit). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a> – Practical application of moral considerations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a> – Greek philosophical concept</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics_(discipline)" title="Buddhist ethics (discipline)">Buddhist ethics (discipline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> – Chinese ethical and philosophical system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism (philosophy)</a> – Ancient school of philosophy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_virtue_ethics" title="Environmental virtue ethics">Environmental virtue ethics</a> – Way of approaching environmental ethics through the lens of virtue ethics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Stoicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Stoicism">Modern Stoicism</a> – Virtue-focused philosophical system<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a> – Ancient Greek word for a type of wisdom or intelligence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a> – Belief that universal principles of morality override unjust laws</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> – Seven virtues in Christian tradition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> – Virtue-focused philosophical system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a> – Ancient Tamil composition on personal ethics and morality<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a> – Philosophical approach</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a> – Virtue ethics applied to jurisprudence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_signalling" title="Virtue signalling">Virtue signalling</a> – Pejorative term</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ær/: 'arr' in 'marry'">ær</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCarrSteutel1999" class="citation book cs1">Carr, David; Steutel, Jan, eds. (1999). <i>Virtue Ethics and Moral Education</i>. Routledge. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415170734" title="Special:BookSources/9780415170734"><bdi>9780415170734</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics+and+Moral+Education&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780415170734&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman1997" class="citation book cs1">Statman, Daniel (1997). "Introduction to Virtue Ethics". <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>[Virtue Ethics] refers to a rather new (or renewed) approach to ethics, according to which the basic judgments in ethics are judgments about character.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse, Rosalind</a>; Pettigrove, Glen (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/ethics-virtue/">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2018&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rft.au=Pettigrove%2C+Glen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2018%2Fentries%2Fethics-virtue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas2015" class="citation journal cs1">Annas, Julia (2015-09-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10790-015-9520-y">"Virtue and Duty: Negotiating Between Different Ethical Traditions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Value_Inquiry" title="Journal of Value Inquiry">Journal of Value Inquiry</a></i>. <b>49</b> (4): 609. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10790-015-9520-y">10.1007/s10790-015-9520-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143268990">143268990</a> – via SpringerLink.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Value+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Virtue+and+Duty%3A+Negotiating+Between+Different+Ethical+Traditions&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=609&rft.date=2015-09-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10790-015-9520-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143268990%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10790-015-9520-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman1997" class="citation book cs1">Statman, Daniel (1997). "Introduction to Virtue Ethics". <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>Virtues are viewed as necessary conditions for, or as constitutive elements of, human flourishing and wellbeing.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrianosky1997" class="citation book cs1">Trianosky, Gregory Velazco y (1997). "What is Virtue Ethics All About?". In Statman, Daniel (ed.). <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>What is surprising today is how many of the most influential writers on the virtues today in fact defend some sort of teleological if not specifically utilitarian answer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Virtue+Ethics+All+About%3F&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Trianosky&rft.aufirst=Gregory+Velazco+y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrianosky1997" class="citation book cs1">Trianosky, Gregory Velazco y (1997). "What is Virtue Ethics All About?". In Statman, Daniel (ed.). <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>[Aristotle regards virtue as] a constitutive element of the human good rather than merely a means to its attainment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Virtue+Ethics+All+About%3F&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Trianosky&rft.aufirst=Gregory+Velazco+y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NE-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NE_8-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicomachean+Ethics&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas1993" class="citation book cs1">Annas, Julia (1993). <i>The Morality of Happiness</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507999-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507999-X"><bdi>0-19-507999-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Happiness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-507999-X&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthouse1997" class="citation book cs1">Hursthouse, Rosalind (1997). "Virtue Ethics and the Emotions". In Statman, Daniel (ed.). <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics+and+the+Emotions&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPincoffs1971" class="citation journal cs1">Pincoffs, Edmund (1971). "Quandary ethics". <i>Mind</i>. <b>80</b> (320): 552–571. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLXXX.320.552">10.1093/mind/LXXX.320.552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Quandary+ethics&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=320&rft.pages=552-571&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLXXX.320.552&rft.aulast=Pincoffs&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraut2016" class="citation book cs1">Kraut, Richard (2016-01-01). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/aristotle-ethics/"><i>Aristotle's Ethics</i></a> (Spring 2016 ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190318050904/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/aristotle-ethics/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Ethics&rft.edition=Spring+2016&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft.aulast=Kraut&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2016%2Fentries%2Faristotle-ethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell1979" class="citation journal cs1">McDowell, John (1979). "Virtue and Reason". <i>The Monist</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 331–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist197962319">10.5840/monist197962319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Virtue+and+Reason&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-350&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist197962319&rft.aulast=McDowell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPojmanFieser2009" class="citation book cs1">Pojman, L.P.; Fieser, J. (2009). "Virtue Theory". <i>Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong</i> (6th ed.). Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth. pp. 146–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Theory&rft.btitle=Ethics%3A+Discovering+Right+and+Wrong&rft.place=Belmont%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=146-169&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Pojman&rft.aufirst=L.P.&rft.au=Fieser%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Politics-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <i>Politics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthouse2016" class="citation web cs1">Hursthouse, Rosalind (8 Dec 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/#Prel">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180923114551/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/#Prel">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2020</span>. <q>Although modern virtue ethics does not have to take a 'neo-Aristotelian' or eudaimonist form..., almost any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">arête</i></span> (excellence or virtue), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">phronesis</i></span> (practical or moral wisdom) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">eudaimonia</i></span> (usually translated as happiness or flourishing).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.date=2016-12-08&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-virtue%2F%23Prel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman1997" class="citation book cs1">Statman, Daniel (1997). "Introduction to Virtue Ethics". <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>[I]t is important to notice (1.) that virtue ethics is not necessarily tied to the notion of wellbeing; and (2.) that according to some philosophers, virtue ethics is necessarily, or at least typically, of a <i>non</i>-teleological nature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gardiner, P. (2003-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jme.bmj.com/content/29/5/297">"A virtue ethics approach to moral dilemmas in medicine"</a>. <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>29</b> (5): 297–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.29.5.297">10.1136/jme.29.5.297</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-6800">0306-6800</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1733793">1733793</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14519840">14519840</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191106092549/https://jme.bmj.com/content/29/5/297">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-11-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+virtue+ethics+approach+to+moral+dilemmas+in+medicine&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=297-302&rft.date=2003-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1733793%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0306-6800&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14519840&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.29.5.297&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjme.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F29%2F5%2F297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowin2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowin, John (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.ucsc.edu/~jbowin/virtue.pdf">"Aristotle's Virtue Ethics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Seigneurie, Ken (ed.). <i>A Companion to World Literature</i>. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+World+Literature&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Bowin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.ucsc.edu%2F~jbowin%2Fvirtue.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Plato: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide</i>. Oxford University Press, USA. 2010. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXfj1PCr9YC&dq=Virtue+ethics+began+with+Socrates&pg=PA10">10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-980902-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-980902-8"><bdi>978-0-19-980902-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plato%3A+Oxford+Bibliographies+Online+Research+Guide&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-980902-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas1485" class="citation book cs1">Aquinas, Thomas (1485). <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Summa+Theologica&rft.date=1485&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas1272" class="citation book cs1">Aquinas, Thomas (1272). <i>Commentary on the Ten Books of Ethics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentary+on+the+Ten+Books+of+Ethics&rft.date=1272&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSytsma2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sytsma, David (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philarchive.org/rec/SYTANE">"Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and Protestantism"</a>. <i>Academia Letters</i>. <b>1650</b>: 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20935%2FAL1650">10.20935/AL1650</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237798959">237798959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academia+Letters&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Nicomachean+Ethics+and+Protestantism&rft.volume=1650&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20935%2FAL1650&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237798959%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sytsma&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilarchive.org%2Frec%2FSYTANE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnscombe1958" class="citation journal cs1">Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819100037943">"Modern Moral Philosophy"</a>. <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>33</b> (124): 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819100037943">10.1017/s0031819100037943</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3749051">3749051</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197875941">197875941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Modern+Moral+Philosophy&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=124&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A197875941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3749051%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031819100037943&rft.aulast=Anscombe&rft.aufirst=G.+E.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fs0031819100037943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocker1976" class="citation journal cs1">Stocker, Michael (1976). "The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories". <i>The Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>73</b> (14): 453–466. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025782">10.2307/2025782</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2025782">2025782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Schizophrenia+of+Modern+Ethical+Theories&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=453-466&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2025782&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2025782%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stocker&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoot1978" class="citation book cs1">Foot, Philippa (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/virtuesvices0000unse_l8l3"><i>Virtues and Vices</i></a></span>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631127496" title="Special:BookSources/0631127496"><bdi>0631127496</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtues+and+Vices&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0631127496&rft.aulast=Foot&rft.aufirst=Philippa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvirtuesvices0000unse_l8l3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyre1981" class="citation book cs1">MacIntyre, Alasdair (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aftervirtue0000unse"><i>After Virtue</i></a></span>. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X"><bdi>0-268-00594-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Virtue&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Ind.&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-268-00594-X&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faftervirtue0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyre1990" class="citation book cs1">MacIntyre, Alasdair (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/threerivalversio0000maci_w3q5"><i>Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry</i></a></span>. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-01877-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-01877-4"><bdi>0-268-01877-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Rival+Versions+of+Moral+Enquiry&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Ind.&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-268-01877-4&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthreerivalversio0000maci_w3q5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicoeur1992" class="citation book cs1">Ricoeur, Paul (1992) [1990]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oneselfasanother0000ricu"><i>Oneself as Another</i></a></span>. Translated by Blamey, Kathleen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-71329-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-71329-6"><bdi>0-226-71329-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oneself+as+Another&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-226-71329-6&rft.aulast=Ricoeur&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foneselfasanother0000ricu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Richard (2002) [1991]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Virtue_Ethics/FnTJ8p2YhWAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=inauthor:%22Richard+Taylor%22&printsec=frontcover"><i>Virtue Ethics An Introduction</i></a></span>. New York: Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573929431" title="Special:BookSources/9781573929431"><bdi>9781573929431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics+An+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781573929431&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FVirtue_Ethics%2FFnTJ8p2YhWAC%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26dq%3Dinauthor%3A%2522Richard%2BTaylor%2522%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrispSlote1997" class="citation book cs1">Crisp, Roger; Slote, Michael (1997). <i>Virtue Ethics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Crisp&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Slote%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas1993" class="citation book cs1">Annas, Julia (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moralityofhappin0000anna"><i>The Morality of Happiness</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509652-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509652-5"><bdi>0-19-509652-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Happiness&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-509652-5&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoralityofhappin0000anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Becker1998-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Becker1998_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1998" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Lawrence C. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newstoicism0000beck"><i>A New Stoicism</i></a></span>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691009643" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691009643"><bdi>978-0691009643</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Stoicism&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0691009643&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewstoicism0000beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthouse1999" class="citation book cs1">Hursthouse, Rosalind (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onvirtueethics00hurs"><i>On Virtue Ethics</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-924799-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-924799-4"><bdi>0-19-924799-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Virtue+Ethics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-924799-4&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonvirtueethics00hurs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoleman1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Goleman" title="Daniel Goleman">Goleman, Daniel</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/Emotional_Intelligence" title="Emotional Intelligence"><i>Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ</i></a>. Aristotle's Challenge, pp. xix–xxiv: Bantam Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38371-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38371-3"><bdi>978-0-553-38371-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emotional+Intelligence%3A+Why+It+Can+Matter+More+Than+IQ&rft.place=Aristotle%27s+Challenge%2C+pp.+xix%E2%80%93xxiv&rft.pub=Bantam+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-553-38371-3&rft.aulast=Goleman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouden1984" class="citation journal cs1">Louden, Robert B. (1984). "On some vices of virtue ethics". <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 227–236.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=On+some+vices+of+virtue+ethics&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=227-236&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Louden&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plato, <i>Meno</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens" class="citation web cs1">Stephens, William O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/stoiceth/">"Stoic Ethics"</a>. <i>www.iep.utm.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iep.utm.edu&rft.atitle=Stoic+Ethics&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=William+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fstoiceth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation web cs1">Cicero, Marcus Tullius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/cicero-on-moral-duties-de-officiis">"De Officiis"</a> [On Moral Duties]. <i>www.oll.libertyfund.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.oll.libertyfund.org&rft.atitle=De+Officiis&rft.aulast=Cicero&rft.aufirst=Marcus+Tullius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitle%2Fcicero-on-moral-duties-de-officiis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDowell1979" class="citation journal cs1">McDowell, John (1979). "Virtue and reason". <i>The Monist</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 331–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist197962319">10.5840/monist197962319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Virtue+and+reason&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-350&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist197962319&rft.aulast=McDowell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyre1981" class="citation book cs1">MacIntyre, Alasdair (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aftervirtue0000unse"><i>After Virtue</i></a></span>. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. Chapter 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X"><bdi>0-268-00594-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Virtue&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=Chapter+14&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-268-00594-X&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faftervirtue0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Kaufmann, Walter</a> (1961). <i>The Faith Of A Heretic</i>. Doubleday & Co. pp. 317–338.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Faith+Of+A+Heretic&rft.pages=317-338&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Co.&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachels2023" class="citation book cs1">Rachels, James, Stuart (2023). <i>The Elements of Moral Philosophy</i> (10th ed.). McGraw Hill LLC. pp. 169–184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-265-23718-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-265-23718-9"><bdi>978-1-265-23718-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Moral+Philosophy&rft.pages=169-184&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+LLC&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-265-23718-9&rft.aulast=Rachels&rft.aufirst=James%2C+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nussbaum-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNussbaum1999" class="citation journal cs1">Nussbaum, Martha C. (1999). "Virtue Ethics: A Misleading Category?". <i>The Journal of Ethics</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 163–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1009877217694">10.1023/A:1009877217694</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25115613">25115613</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141533832">141533832</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Ethics&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Misleading+Category%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-201&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141533832%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25115613%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1009877217694&rft.aulast=Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=Martha+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyre1981" class="citation book cs1">MacIntyre, Alasdair (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aftervirtue0000unse"><i>After Virtue</i></a></span>. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 42, 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-00594-X"><bdi>0-268-00594-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Virtue&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=42%2C+112&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-268-00594-X&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faftervirtue0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1974" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan, Roger J. (1974). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20126582">"The Kantian Critique of Aristotle's Moral Philosophy: An Appraisal"</a></span>. <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 24–53. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20126582">20126582</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&rft.atitle=The+Kantian+Critique+of+Aristotle%27s+Moral+Philosophy%3A+An+Appraisal&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-53&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20126582%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Roger+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20126582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrianosky1997" class="citation book cs1">Trianosky, Gregory Velazco y (1997). "What is Virtue Ethics All About?". In Statman, Daniel (ed.). <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 47–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Virtue+Ethics+All+About%3F&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=47-55&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Trianosky&rft.aufirst=Gregory+Velazco+y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Louden-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Louden_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLouden1984" class="citation journal cs1">Louden, Robert B. (July 1984). "On Some Vices of Virtue Ethics". <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 227–236. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20014051">20014051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=On+Some+Vices+of+Virtue+Ethics&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=227-236&rft.date=1984-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20014051%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Louden&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatman1997" class="citation book cs1">Statman, Daniel (1997). "Introduction to Virtue Ethics". <i>Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878402217" title="Special:BookSources/0878402217"><bdi>0878402217</bdi></a>. <q>[A] view shared by both deontologists and utilitarians... [is that] the value of character traits is dependent on the value of the conduct that these traits tend to produce, and it is the concept of right behavior that it theoretically prior, not that of virtue. In reversing the order of justification, virtue ethics is calling for a real revolution in ethical thought...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0878402217&rft.aulast=Statman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPocock1975" class="citation book cs1">Pocock, J.G.A. (1975). <i>The Machiavellian Moment</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11472-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11472-2"><bdi>0-691-11472-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002112936">2002112936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Machiavellian+Moment&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002112936&rft.isbn=0-691-11472-2&rft.aulast=Pocock&rft.aufirst=J.G.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey2007" class="citation book cs1">McCloskey, Deirdre N. (2007). <i>The Bourgeois Virtues</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55664-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55664-2"><bdi>978-0-226-55664-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bourgeois+Virtues&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-55664-2&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Deirdre+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagePage2008" class="citation book cs1">Page, James; Page, James Smith (2008). <i>Peace Education: Exploring Ethical and Philosophical Foundations</i>. Information Age Pub Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59311-889-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59311-889-1"><bdi>978-1-59311-889-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peace+Education%3A+Exploring+Ethical+and+Philosophical+Foundations&rft.pub=Information+Age+Pub+Incorporated&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59311-889-1&rft.aulast=Page&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Page%2C+James+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaunce2004" class="citation journal cs1">Faunce, T.A. (2004). "Developing and Teaching the Virtue-Ethics Foundations of Healthcare Whistle Blowing". <i>Monash Bioethics Review</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 41–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03351419">10.1007/BF03351419</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15688511">15688511</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195243797">195243797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monash+Bioethics+Review&rft.atitle=Developing+and+Teaching+the+Virtue-Ethics+Foundations+of+Healthcare+Whistle+Blowing&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=41-55&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195243797%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15688511&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF03351419&rft.aulast=Faunce&rft.aufirst=T.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaunceJefferys2007" class="citation journal cs1">Faunce, T.A.; Jefferys, S. (2007). "Whistleblowing and Scientific Misconduct: Renewing Legal and Virtue Ethics Foundations". <i>Journal of Medicine and Law</i>. <b>26</b> (3): 567–584. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17970253">17970253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medicine+and+Law&rft.atitle=Whistleblowing+and+Scientific+Misconduct%3A+Renewing+Legal+and+Virtue+Ethics+Foundations&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=567-584&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17970253&rft.aulast=Faunce&rft.aufirst=T.A.&rft.au=Jefferys%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaunceNasu2009" class="citation journal cs1">Faunce, T. A.; Nasu, H. (23 April 2009). "Normative Foundations of Technology Transfer and Transnational Benefit Principles in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights". <i>Journal of Medicine and Philosophy</i>. <b>34</b> (3). Oxford University Press (OUP): 296–321. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjmp%2Fjhp021">10.1093/jmp/jhp021</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-5310">0360-5310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19395367">19395367</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medicine+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Normative+Foundations+of+Technology+Transfer+and+Transnational+Benefit+Principles+in+the+UNESCO+Universal+Declaration+on+Bioethics+and+Human+Rights&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=296-321&rft.date=2009-04-23&rft.issn=0360-5310&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19395367&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjmp%2Fjhp021&rft.aulast=Faunce&rft.aufirst=T.+A.&rft.au=Nasu%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2009" class="citation web cs1">Schwartz, Barry (16 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_on_our_loss_of_wisdom?language=en">"Our loss of wisdom"</a>. <i>www.ted.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160507134559/http://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_on_our_loss_of_wisdom?language=en">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-05-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ted.com&rft.atitle=Our+loss+of+wisdom&rft.date=2009-02-16&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fbarry_schwartz_on_our_loss_of_wisdom%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Technology and the Virtues: A Philosophical Guide to a Future Worth Wanting</i>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190498511" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190498511"><bdi>978-0190498511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+the+Virtues%3A+A+Philosophical+Guide+to+a+Future+Worth+Wanting&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0190498511&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jiyuan_Yu" title="Jiyuan Yu">Yu, Jiyuan</a> (1998). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399830">"Virtue: Confucius and Aristotle"</a></span>. <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 323–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1399830">10.2307/1399830</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399830">1399830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Virtue%3A+Confucius+and+Aristotle&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=323-47&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1399830&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1399830%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Jiyuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1399830&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevettere2002" class="citation book cs1">Devettere, Raymond J. (2002). <i>Introduction to Virtue Ethics</i>. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Devettere&rft.aufirst=Raymond+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Richard (2002). <i>An Introduction to Virtue Ethics</i>. Amherst: Prometheus Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.place=Amherst&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwall2003" class="citation book cs1">Darwall, Stephen, ed. (2003). <i>Virtue Ethics</i>. Oxford: B. Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=B.+Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanton2003" class="citation book cs1">Swanton, Christine (2003). <i>Virtue Ethics: a Pluralistic View</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%3A+a+Pluralistic+View&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Swanton&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiner2005" class="citation book cs1">Gardiner, Stephen M., ed. (2005). <i>Virtue Ethics, Old and New</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Ethics%2C+Old+and+New&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2013" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Daniel C., ed. (2013). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Virtue+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Virtue_ethics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/virtue">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fvirtue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthouse" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse, Rosalind</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-virtue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomiak" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Homiak, Marcia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/">"Moral Character"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moral+Character&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Homiak&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoral-character%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/virtue_ethics/">Virtue Ethics – summary, criticisms and how to apply the theory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lsolum.blogspot.com/archives/2003_11_01_lsolum_archive.html">Legal theory lexicon: Virtue ethics</a> by Larry Solum.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.VirtueScience.com">The Virtue Ethics Research Hub</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orionphilosophy.com/stoic-blog/4-stoic-virtues/">The Four Stoic Virtues</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aristotelianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aristotelianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas and interests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Aristotle" title="Commentaries on Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabasis_paradox" title="Metabasis paradox">Metabasis paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women" title="Aristotle's views on women">Views on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_wheel_paradox" title="Aristotle's wheel paradox">Wheel paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotle" title="Category:Aristotle">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Seven_virtues_in_Christian_ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Template:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Template talk:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seven_virtues_in_Christian_ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Four<br /><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a> (<i>Prudentia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a> (<i>Iustitia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Fortitude</a> (<i>Fortitudo</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> (<i>Temperantia</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Sources: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>, Book IV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Faith,_Hope_and_Love,_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)"><img alt="Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/100px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/150px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/200px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Three<br /><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">theological virtues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">Faith</a> (<i>Fides</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a> (<i>Spes</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Love</a> (<i>Caritas</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Sources: <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1_Corinthians_13" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Corinthians 13">1 Corinthians 13</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Seven lively virtues<br />versus<br /><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a> (<i>Castitas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> (<i>Temperantia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Charity</a> (<i>Caritas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a> (<i>Diligentia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a> (<i>Humanitas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a> (<i>Patientia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a> (<i>Humilitas</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">Lust</a> (<i>Luxuria</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">Gluttony</a> (<i>Gula</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a> (<i>Avaritia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloth_(deadly_sin)" title="Sloth (deadly sin)">Sloth</a> (<i>Acedia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">Wrath</a> (<i>Ira</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a> (<i>Invidia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">Pride</a> (<i>Superbia</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Source: <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Prudentius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Psychomachia" title="Psychomachia">Psychomachia</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li>People: <a href="/wiki/Evagrius_Ponticus" title="Evagrius Ponticus">Evagrius Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">John Cassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Binsfeld" title="Peter Binsfeld">Peter Binsfeld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Old Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stoicism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stoicism" title="Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stoicism" title="Template talk:Stoicism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stoicism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Babylon" title="Diogenes of Babylon">Diogenes of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_of_Tarsus" title="Antipater of Tarsus">Antipater of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms" title="Glossary of Stoicism terms">Philosophical concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">Katalepsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diairesis" title="Diairesis">Diairesis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Physis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">Pneuma</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">Apatheia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathekon" title="Kathekon">Kathekon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prohairesis" title="Prohairesis">Prohairesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sophos</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Passions" title="On Passions"><i>On Passions</i> (Chrysippus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxa_Stoicorum" title="Paradoxa Stoicorum">Paradoxa Stoicorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_Morales_ad_Lucilium" title="Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium"><i>Letters to Lucilius</i> (Seneca)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger#Essays" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca's Essays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca%27s_Consolations" title="Seneca's Consolations">Seneca's Consolations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus#Writings" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus"><i>Lectures</i> (Musonius Rufus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations"><i>Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoicorum_Veterum_Fragmenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta">Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoa_Poikile" title="Stoa Poikile">Stoa Poikile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoic_Opposition" title="Stoic Opposition">Stoic Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">Neostoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Virtues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Virtues" title="Template:Virtues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Virtues" title="Template talk:Virtues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Virtues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_(philosophy)" title="Endowment (philosophy)">Endowment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">Trait theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virtue families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihārās</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushidō</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emi_Omo_Eso" title="Emi Omo Eso">Emi Omo Eso</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_virtues" title="Five virtues">Five virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles_and_Eight_Virtues" title="Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues">Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Intellectual_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Moral_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Moral virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramīs</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_courage" title="Civil courage">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy" title="Courtesy">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discernment_(Christianity)" title="Discernment (Christianity)">Discernment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">Equanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithfulness" title="Faithfulness">Faithfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">Generosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">Good faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_virtue" title="Heroic virtue">Heroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitality" title="Hospitality">Hospitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence" title="Innocence">Innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meekness" title="Meekness">Meekness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonattachment_(philosophy)" title="Nonattachment (philosophy)">Nonattachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspicacity" title="Perspicacity">Perspicacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness" title="Politeness">Politeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuality" title="Punctuality">Punctuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">Self-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-transcendence" title="Self-transcendence">Self-transcendence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportsmanship" title="Sportsmanship">Sportsmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquillity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">Workmanship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></i></li> <li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eutrapelia" title="Eutrapelia">Eutrapelia</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Philotimo" title="Philotimo">Philotimo</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adhi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Adhiṭṭhāna">Adhiṭṭhāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Ārjava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhṛti</a></i></li> <li><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hr%C4%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Hrī (Buddhism)">Hrī</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">Kshama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">Kshanti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Muditā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Śraddhā</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Saddhā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Caritas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">Dignitas</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">Virtus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganbaru" title="Ganbaru">Ganbaru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giri_(Japanese)" title="Giri (Japanese)">Giri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></i></li> <li><span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca"><a href="/wiki/Seny" title="Seny">Seny</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sisu" title="Sisu">Sisu</a></i></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù">Virtù</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1086395#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4526273-1">Germany</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&oldid=1259015239">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&oldid=1259015239</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtue_ethics" title="Category:Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotelianism" title="Category:Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethical_theories" title="Category:Ethical theories">Ethical theories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Justice" title="Category:Justice">Justice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_law" title="Category:Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Morality" title="Category:Morality">Morality</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Normative_ethics" title="Category:Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Platonism" title="Category:Platonism">Platonism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Socrates" title="Category:Socrates">Socrates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Virtue" title="Category:Virtue">Virtue</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Oxford_spelling_from_August_2021" title="Category:Use Oxford spelling from August 2021">Use Oxford spelling from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_sidebar_with_the_child_parameter" title="Category:Pages using sidebar with the child parameter">Pages using sidebar with the child parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_July_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2023">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2008" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_copy_edit_from_July_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from July 2023">Wikipedia articles needing copy edit from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_copy_edit" title="Category:All articles needing copy edit">All articles needing copy edit</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2011" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links">Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Catalan-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Catalan-language text">Articles containing Catalan-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Italian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Italian-language text">Articles containing Italian-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 22:42<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-jvw68","wgBackendResponseTime":142,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.629","walltime":"1.925","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22059,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":581591,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":16396,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":23,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":461182,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1530.020 1 -total"," 24.69% 377.830 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.45% 251.700 42 Template:Cite_book"," 10.45% 159.926 25 Template:R"," 9.89% 151.356 25 Template:R/ref"," 8.51% 130.170 21 Template:Navbox"," 7.15% 109.374 2 Template:Sidebar"," 7.04% 107.647 1 Template:Socrates"," 6.99% 106.905 18 Template:Fix"," 6.64% 101.568 25 Template:R/superscript"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.913","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18798196,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-rp9p7","timestamp":"20241122224247","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Virtue ethics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtue_ethics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1086395","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1086395","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-07-06T00:08:36Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T22:42:40Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/29\/UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg","headline":"normative ethical theories"}</script> </body> </html>