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<span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Census_demographic_data" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Census_demographic_data"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Census demographic data</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Census_demographic_data-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Public health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_Services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_Services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Web Services</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Web_Services-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Web Services subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Web_Services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Web_feature_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_feature_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Web feature services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_feature_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_processing_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_processing_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Web processing services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_processing_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_mapping_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_mapping_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Web mapping services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_mapping_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_coverage_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_coverage_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Web coverage services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_coverage_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_Map_Tile_Service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_Map_Tile_Service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Web Map Tile Service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_Map_Tile_Service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Standards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Standards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Web GIS</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="WebGIS" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebGIS" title="WebGIS – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="WebGIS" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q116275715#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Technologies employing the World Wide Web to manage spatial data</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoservices_server_with_apps.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png/347px-Geoservices_server_with_apps.png" decoding="async" width="347" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png/521px-Geoservices_server_with_apps.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Geoservices_server_with_apps.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Web GIS</b> (also known as Web-Based GIS), or Web <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Systems">Geographic Information Systems</a>, are GIS that employ the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> to facilitate the storage, visualization, analysis, and distribution of spatial information over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fu2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ezekiel1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezekiel1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowland1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowland1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The World Wide Web, or the Web, is an information system that uses the internet to host, share, and distribute documents, images, and other data.<sup id="cite_ref-Web1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Web1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ezekiel1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezekiel1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowland1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowland1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Web GIS involves using the World Wide Web to facilitate GIS tasks traditionally done on a desktop computer, as well as enabling the sharing of maps and spatial data. While Web GIS and <a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a> are sometimes used interchangeably, they are different concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezekiel1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezekiel1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rowland1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rowland1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Web GIS is a subset of Internet GIS, which is itself a subset of <a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">distributed GIS</a>, which itself is a subset of broader <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mathiyalagan1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mathiyalagan1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhong1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhong1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moretz1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moretz1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hojaty1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hojaty1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common application of Web GIS is <a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a>, so much so that the two terms are often used interchangeably in much the same way as <a href="/wiki/Digital_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital mapping">Digital mapping</a> and GIS. However, Web GIS and web mapping are distinct concepts, with web mapping not necessarily requiring a Web GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezekiel1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezekiel1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of the Web has dramatically increased the effectiveness of both accessing and distributing spatial data, two of the most significant challenges of desktop GIS.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeMers1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMers1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many functions, such as interactivity, and dynamic scaling, are made widely available to end users by web services.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scale of the Web can sometimes make finding quality and reliable data a challenge for GIS professionals and end users, with a significant amount of low-quality, poorly organized, or poorly sourced material available for public consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMers1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMers1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can make finding spatial data a time consuming activity for GIS users.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMers1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMers1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of Web GIS is very closely tied to the history of geographic information systems, <a href="/wiki/Digital_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital mapping">Digital mapping</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> or the Web. The Web was first created in 1990, and the first major web mapping program capable of distributed map creation appeared shortly after in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhong1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhong1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Putz1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putz1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This software, named PARC Map Viewer, was unique in that it facilitated dynamic user map generation, rather than static images.<sup id="cite_ref-Putz1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putz1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Web1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Web1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This software also allowed users to employ GIS without having it locally installed on their machine.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Putz1_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putz1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US federal government made the TIGER Mapping Service available to the public in 1995, which facilitated desktop and Web GIS by hosting US boundary data.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Plew2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plew2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1996, <a href="/wiki/MapQuest" title="MapQuest">MapQuest</a> became available to the public, facilitating navigation and trip planning, which quickly became a major utility on the early Web.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Esri" title="Esri">Esri</a> began to focus on their desktop GIS software, which in 2000 became <a href="/wiki/ArcGIS" title="ArcGIS">ArcGIS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to Esri dominating the GIS industry for the next several years.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000 Esri launched the Geography Network, which offered some web GIS functions. In 2014, ArcGIS Online replaced this, and offers significant Web GIS functions including hosting, manipulating, and visualizing data in dynamic applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fu2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Web GIS has numerous applications and functions and manages most distributed spatial information.<sup id="cite_ref-Kerski1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerski1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diverse industries and disciplines, including mathematics, history, business and education can all leverage Web GIS to integrate geographic approaches to data.<sup id="cite_ref-Kerski1_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerski1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Census_demographic_data">Census demographic data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Census demographic data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States Census Department extensively uses Web GIS to distribute its boundary data, such as TIGER files, and demographics to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Plew2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plew2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "2020 Census Demographic Data Map Viewer" runs on an ESRI Web Map Application, and provides demographic information, such as population, race, and housing information at the state, county, and census tract levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Census_Bureau1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Census_Bureau1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Census_Bureau2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Census_Bureau2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Literature has identified educational benefits and applications of Web GIS at the elementary, primary, and university levels of education.<sup id="cite_ref-Kerski1_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerski1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fargher1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fargher1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using story maps and dashboards allows for new ways of displaying spatial data, and facilitates student interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Kerski1_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerski1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Web GIS tools are often user friendly, teachers can create their own visualizations for the classroom, or even have students make their own to teach geographic concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Fargher1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fargher1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health">Public health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Public health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/GIS_and_public_health" title="GIS and public health">GIS and public health</a></div> <p>Web GIS has been used extensively in public health to communicate health data to the public and policymakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Mooney_Juhász_202007_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mooney_Juhász_202007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the COVID-19 Pandemic, dashboard Web GIS Apps were popularized as a template for displaying health data by <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>, which was updated until March 10th, 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-Mooney_Juhász_202007_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mooney_Juhász_202007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CSSE_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSSE-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, all 50 state governments, the CDC, and others ultimately made use of these tools.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These dashboards displayed various information but generally included a choropleth map showing COVID-19 case data.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Web_Services">Web Services</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Web Services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Web GIS has numerous functions, which can be divided into categories of Geospatial web services, including <a href="/wiki/Web_Feature_Service" title="Web Feature Service"> web feature services</a>, web processing services, and <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Service" title="Web Map Service">web mapping services</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geospatial web services are distinct software packages available on the World Wide Web that can be employed to perform a function with spatial data.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_feature_services">Web feature services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Web feature services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Web_Feature_Service" title="Web Feature Service">Web Feature Service</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg/500px-Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg/750px-Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg/1000px-Scheme_dynamic_page_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1015" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Dynamic web page: example of server-side scripting (<a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a> and <a href="/wiki/MySQL" title="MySQL">MySQL</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Web feature services allow users to access, edit, and make use of hosted geospatial feature datasets.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_processing_services">Web processing services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Web processing services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Web_Processing_Service" title="Web Processing Service">Web Processing Service</a></div> <p>Web processing services allow users to perform GIS calculations on spatial data.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Web processing services standardize inputs, and outputs, for spatial data within an internet GIS and may have standardized algorithms for <a href="/wiki/Spatial_statistics" title="Spatial statistics">spatial statistics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_mapping_services">Web mapping services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Web mapping services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Service" title="Web Map Service">Web Map Service</a></div> <p>Web mapping involves using distributed tools to create and host both static and dynamic maps.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhong1_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhong1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fu1_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fu2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fu2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is different than desktop <a href="/wiki/Digital_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital mapping">digital mapping</a> in that the data, software, or both might not be stored locally and are often distributed across many computers. Web mapping allows for the rapid distribution of spatial visualizations without the need for printing.<sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also facilitates rapid updating to reflect new datasets and allow for interactive datasets that would be impossible in print media. Web mapping was employed extensively during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> pandemic to visualize the datasets in close to real-time.<sup id="cite_ref-Dong1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dong1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Everts1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everts1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_coverage_services">Web coverage services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Web coverage services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Web_Coverage_Service" title="Web Coverage Service">Web Coverage Service</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_Coverage_Processing_Service" title="Web Coverage Processing Service">Web Coverage Processing Service</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Web_Coverage_Service" title="Web Coverage Service">Web Coverage Service</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Web_Coverage_Service&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a> <a href="/wiki/Web_Coverage_Service" title="Web Coverage Service">Web Coverage Service</a> Interface Standard (WCS) defines <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">Web</a>-based retrieval of <a href="/wiki/Coverage_data" title="Coverage data">coverages</a> – that is, digital <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geospatial</a> information representing space/time-varying phenomena.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_Map_Tile_Service">Web Map Tile Service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Web Map Tile Service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Tile_Service" title="Web Map Tile Service">Web Map Tile Service</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Web_Map_Tile_Service&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> A <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Tile_Service" title="Web Map Tile Service">Web Map Tile Service</a> (WMTS) is a standard protocol for serving pre-rendered or run-time computed <a href="/wiki/Georeference" class="mw-redirect" title="Georeference">georeferenced</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiled_web_map" title="Tiled web map">map tiles</a> over the Internet. The specification was developed and first published by the <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a> in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-Web_Map_Tile_Service_release_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Web_Map_Tile_Service_release-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards">Standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_Geospatial_Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Open Geospatial Consortium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a></div> <p>In terms of interoperability, the use of communication standards in Distributed GIS is particularly important. General standards for <a href="/wiki/Geospatial" class="mw-redirect" title="Geospatial">Geospatial</a> Data have been developed by the <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">Open Geospatial Consortium</a> (OGC). For the exchange of Geospatial Data over the web, the most important OGC standards are <a href="/wiki/Web_Map_Service" title="Web Map Service">Web Map Service</a> (WMS) and <a href="/wiki/Web_Feature_Service" title="Web Feature Service">Web Feature Service</a> (WFS). </p><p>Using OGC-compliant <a href="/wiki/Gateway_(computer_networking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gateway (computer networking)">gateways</a> allows for building very flexible Distributed GI Systems. Unlike monolithic GI Systems, OGC compliant systems are naturally <a href="/wiki/Web-based" class="mw-redirect" title="Web-based">web-based</a> and do not have strict definitions of <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a> and clients. For instance, if a user (<a href="/wiki/Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">client</a>) accesses a server, that server itself can act as a client of a number of further servers in order to retrieve data requested by the <a href="/wiki/User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">user</a>. This concept allows for data retrieval from any number of different sources, providing consistent data standards are used. This concept allows data transfer with systems not capable of GIS functionality. A key function of <a href="/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium" title="Open Geospatial Consortium">OGC standards</a> is the integration of different systems already existing and thus geo-enabling the web. <a href="/wiki/Web_service" title="Web service">Web services</a> providing different functionality can be used simultaneously to combine data from different sources (mash-ups). Thus, different services on distributed servers can be combined for ‘service-chaining’ in order to add additional value to existing services. Providing a wide use of OGC standards by different web services, sharing distributed data of multiple organizations becomes possible. </p><p>Some important languages used in OGC-compliant systems are described in the following. <a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a> stands for eXtensible Markup language and is widely used for displaying and interpreting data from computers. Thus the development of a web-based GI system requires several useful XML encodings that can effectively describe two-dimensional graphics such as maps <a href="/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalable Vector Graphics">SVG</a> and, at the same time, store and transfer simple features <a href="/wiki/Geography_Markup_Language" title="Geography Markup Language">GML</a>. Because GML and SVG are both XML encodings, it is very straightforward to convert between the two using an XML Style Language Transformation <a href="/wiki/XSLT" title="XSLT">XSLT</a>. This gives an application a means of rendering GML, and in fact, is the primary way that it has been accomplished among existing applications today.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> XML can introduce innovative web services, in terms of GIS. It allows geographic information to be easily translated in graphics and in these terms, scalar vector graphics (SVG) can produce high-quality dynamic outputs by using data retrieved from spatial databases. In the same aspect, Google, one of the pioneers in web-based GIS, has developed its own language, which also uses an XML structure. <a href="/wiki/Keyhole_Markup_Language" title="Keyhole Markup Language">Keyhole Markup Language</a> (KML) is a file format used to display geographic data in an earth browser, such as Google Earth, Google Maps, and Google Maps for mobile browsers <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://code.google.com/apis/kml/documentation/">"Google KML definition"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Google+KML+definition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcode.google.com%2Fapis%2Fkml%2Fdocumentation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geospatial_Semantic_Web">Geospatial Semantic Web</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geospatial Semantic Web"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></div> <p>The Geospatial Semantic Web is a vision to include geospatial information at the core of the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">information retrieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_integration" title="Information integration">information integration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This vision requires the definition of geospatial <a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontologies</a>, semantic <a href="/wiki/Gazetteer" title="Gazetteer">gazetteers</a>, and shared technical vocabularies to describe <a href="/wiki/Geographic_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic data">geographic phenomena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Semantic Geospatial Web is part of <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">geographic information science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All maps are simplifications of reality and, therefore, can never be perfectly accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These inaccuracies include distortions introduced during projection, simplifications, and human error. While traditionally trained ethical cartographers try to minimize these errors and document the known sources of error, including where the data originated, Web GIS facilitates the creation of maps by non-traditionally trained cartographers and, more significantly, facilitates the rapid dissemination of their potentially erroneous maps.<sup id="cite_ref-Plew2_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plew2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier4_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this democratization of GIS has many potential positives, including empowering traditionally disenfranchised groups of people, it also means that a wide audience can see bad maps.<sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier1_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, malicious actors can quickly spread intentionally misleading spatial information while hiding the source.<sup id="cite_ref-Monmonier3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monmonier3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has significant implications, and contributes to the <a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">infodemic</a> surrounding many topics, including the spread of potentially misleading information on the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> pandemic.<sup id="cite_ref-Mooney_Juhász_202007_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mooney_Juhász_202007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even a map made by a skilled cartographer has significant limitations over traditional distribution methods when using the Web. Among a variety of issues, computer monitors have a variety of different color settings and sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This renders ratio, representative fraction, and verbal scales useless, leaving only the scale bar. It also means a color choice selected by the cartographer might not be what the end-user experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson2_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson3_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These issues are not limited to cartography but are difficult to solve. </p><p>Due to the nature of the Web, using it for storing and computation is less secure than using local networks.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skahill1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skahill1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GISUser1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GISUser1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When working with sensitive data, Web GIS may expose an organization to the additional risk of having its data breached then if they use dedicated hardware and a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">virtual private network</a> (VPN) to access that hardware remotely over the internet.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skahill1_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skahill1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GISUser1_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GISUser1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convenience and relatively low cost of Web GIS often prevents this from being implemented. </p><p>As Web GIS is built on the web, it is subject to <a href="/wiki/Link_rot" title="Link rot">link rot</a> phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon can lead to previously available data being lost due to users changing the URL, physical hardware failures, or the content being deleted by the publisher. If the hardware and information accessed within a Web GIS is lost, "a single disk failure could be like the burning of the library at Alexandria."<sup id="cite_ref-McGranaghan1999_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGranaghan1999-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study found that 23% of COVID-19 Dashboards available on government sites on February of 2021 were no longer available at the previous URLs by April of 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-Adams2_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adams2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM/FM/GIS" title="AM/FM/GIS">AM/FM/GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_navigation_system" title="Automotive navigation system">Automotive navigation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of GIS software">Comparison of GIS software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodatabase_(Esri)" title="Geodatabase (Esri)">Geodatabase (Esri)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_Day" title="GIS Day">GIS Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Geo_Systems" title="Integrated Geo Systems">Integrated Geo Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_data_sources" title="List of GIS data sources">List of GIS data sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_GIS_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of GIS software">List of GIS software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_search_(Internet)" title="Local search (Internet)">Local search (Internet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_database_management" title="Map database management">Map database management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_GIS" title="Participatory GIS">Participatory GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_neural_network" title="Spatial neural network">Spatial neural network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">Tobler's second law of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge_GIS" title="Traditional knowledge GIS">Traditional knowledge GIS</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Web_GIS&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Fu1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu1_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuSun2011" class="citation book cs1">Fu, Pinde; Sun, Jiulin (2011). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/webgisprinciples0000fupi"><i>Web GIS: Principles and Applications</i></a></span>. Redlands, Calif.: ESRI Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-245-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-245-6"><bdi>978-1-58948-245-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/587219650">587219650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Web+GIS%3A+Principles+and+Applications&rft.place=Redlands%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=ESRI+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F587219650&rft.isbn=978-1-58948-245-6&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Pinde&rft.au=Sun%2C+Jiulin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwebgisprinciples0000fupi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fu2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fu2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fu2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFu2016" class="citation book cs1">Fu, Pinde (2016). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gettingtoknowweb0000fupi"><i>Getting to Know Web GIS</i></a></span> (2 ed.). Redlands, Calif.: ESRI Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781589484634" title="Special:BookSources/9781589484634"><bdi>9781589484634</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/928643136">928643136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Getting+to+Know+Web+GIS&rft.place=Redlands%2C+Calif.&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=ESRI+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F928643136&rft.isbn=9781589484634&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Pinde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgettingtoknowweb0000fupi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang1_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangZhaoLi2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Chuanrong; Zhao, Tian; Li, Weidong (2015). <i>Geospatial Semantic Web</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=W3C+Help+and+FAQ&rft.atitle=What+is+the+difference+between+the+Web+and+the+Internet%3F&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FHelp%2F%23webinternet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mathiyalagan1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mathiyalagan1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathiyalaganGrunwaldReddyBloom2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mathiyalagan, V.; Grunwald, S.; Reddy, K.R.; Bloom, S.A. (April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168169904001188">"A WebGIS and geodatabase for Florida's wetlands"</a>. <i>Computers and Electronics in Agriculture</i>. <b>47</b> (1): 69–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.compag.2004.08.003">10.1016/j.compag.2004.08.003</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+and+Electronics+in+Agriculture&rft.atitle=A+WebGIS+and+geodatabase+for+Florida%27s+wetlands&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=69-75&rft.date=2005-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.compag.2004.08.003&rft.aulast=Mathiyalagan&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Grunwald%2C+S.&rft.au=Reddy%2C+K.R.&rft.au=Bloom%2C+S.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0168169904001188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhong1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhong1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhong1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhong1_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPengTsou2003" class="citation book cs1">Peng, Zhong-Ren; Tsou, Ming-Hsiang (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internetgisdistr0000peng"><i>Internet GIS: Distributed Information Services for the Internet and Wireless Networks</i></a></span>. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-35923-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-35923-8"><bdi>0-471-35923-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50447645">50447645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+GIS%3A+Distributed+Information+Services+for+the+Internet+and+Wireless+Networks&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50447645&rft.isbn=0-471-35923-8&rft.aulast=Peng&rft.aufirst=Zhong-Ren&rft.au=Tsou%2C+Ming-Hsiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finternetgisdistr0000peng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+GIS" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moretz1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moretz1_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoretz2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Moretz, David (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofgi0000unse_i4o0/page/591">"Internet GIS"</a></span>. 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href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img 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