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aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Background subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_slavery_and_social_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_slavery_and_social_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Abolition of slavery and social reform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_slavery_and_social_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_devastation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_devastation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Economic devastation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_devastation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Legal reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoring_the_South_to_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoring_the_South_to_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Restoring the South to the Union</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Restoring_the_South_to_the_Union-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Restoring the South to the Union subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Restoring_the_South_to_the_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1865" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1865"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>1865</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1865-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1866" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1866"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>1866</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1866-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1867" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1867"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>1867</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1867-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suffrage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suffrage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Suffrage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suffrage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Treaty_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Treaty_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Southern Treaty Commission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Treaty_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preliminary_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preliminary_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Preliminary events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preliminary_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gradual_emancipation_and_compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gradual_emancipation_and_compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Gradual emancipation and compensation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gradual_emancipation_and_compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Colonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Installation_of_military_governors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Installation_of_military_governors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Installation of military governors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Installation_of_military_governors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emancipation_Proclamation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emancipation_Proclamation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Emancipation Proclamation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emancipation_Proclamation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lincoln's_10%_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lincoln's_10%_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Lincoln's 10% plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lincoln's_10%_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legalization_of_slave_marriages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legalization_of_slave_marriages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Legalization of slave marriages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legalization_of_slave_marriages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedmen's_Bureau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedmen's_Bureau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Freedmen's Bureau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedmen's_Bureau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bans_color_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bans_color_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Bans color discrimination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bans_color_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-February_1865_peace_conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#February_1865_peace_conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>February 1865 peace conference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-February_1865_peace_conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_legacy_debated" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_legacy_debated"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Historical legacy debated</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_legacy_debated-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johnson's_presidential_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johnson's_presidential_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Johnson's presidential Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Johnson's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Johnson's presidential Reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Johnson's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Freedmen_and_the_enactment_of_Black_Codes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedmen_and_the_enactment_of_Black_Codes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Freedmen and the enactment of Black Codes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedmen_and_the_enactment_of_Black_Codes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moderate_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moderate_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Moderate responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moderate_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johnson's_vetoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johnson's_vetoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Johnson's vetoes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johnson's_vetoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congressional_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Congressional Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Congressional_Reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Congressional Reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Congressional_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitutional_amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Constitutional amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Statutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Military Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_constitutional_conventions:_1867–1869" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_constitutional_conventions:_1867–1869"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>State constitutional conventions: 1867–1869</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_constitutional_conventions:_1867–1869-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1868" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1868"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Election of 1868</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1868-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grant's_presidential_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grant's_presidential_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Grant's presidential Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grant's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grant's presidential Reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grant's_presidential_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effective_civil_rights_executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effective_civil_rights_executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Effective civil rights executive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effective_civil_rights_executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_three_Reconstruction_states_admitted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_three_Reconstruction_states_admitted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Final three Reconstruction states admitted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_three_Reconstruction_states_admitted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Department_of_Justice_created" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Department_of_Justice_created"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Department of Justice created</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Department_of_Justice_created-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enforcement_Acts_(1870–1871)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enforcement_Acts_(1870–1871)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enforcement_Acts_(1870–1871)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosecution_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosecution_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Prosecution of the Ku Klux Klan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosecution_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amnesty_Act_of_1872" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amnesty_Act_of_1872"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Amnesty Act of 1872</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amnesty_Act_of_1872-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Civil Rights Act of 1875</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Countered_election_fraud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countered_election_fraud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Countered election fraud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countered_election_fraud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_support_of_Reconstruction_declines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_support_of_Reconstruction_declines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9</span> <span>National support of Reconstruction declines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_support_of_Reconstruction_declines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_American_officeholders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_American_officeholders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>African American officeholders</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_American_officeholders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_economic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_economic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Social and economic factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_and_economic_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social and economic factors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_and_economic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Public schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railroad_subsidies_and_payoffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railroad_subsidies_and_payoffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Railroad subsidies and payoffs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railroad_subsidies_and_payoffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Southern_country_store" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Southern_country_store"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>The Southern country store</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Southern_country_store-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxation_during_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxation_during_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Taxation during Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxation_during_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_financial_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_financial_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6</span> <span>National financial issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_financial_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ending_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ending_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Ending Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ending_Reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ending Reconstruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ending_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congressional_investigation_into_Reconstruction_states_1872" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_investigation_into_Reconstruction_states_1872"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Congressional investigation into Reconstruction states 1872</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congressional_investigation_into_Reconstruction_states_1872-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Democrats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Democrats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Southern Democrats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Democrats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Redemption_1873–1877" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redemption_1873–1877"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Redemption 1873–1877</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redemption_1873–1877-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republicans_split_nationally:_election_of_1872" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republicans_split_nationally:_election_of_1872"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3.1</span> <span>Republicans split nationally: election of 1872</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republicans_split_nationally:_election_of_1872-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Republican_coalition_splinters_in_the_South" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Republican_coalition_splinters_in_the_South"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3.2</span> <span>The Republican coalition splinters in the South</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Republican_coalition_splinters_in_the_South-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democrats_try_a_"New_Departure"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democrats_try_a_"New_Departure""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Democrats try a "New Departure"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democrats_try_a_"New_Departure"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Panic_of_1873" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Panic_of_1873"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Panic of 1873</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Panic_of_1873-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1876" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1876"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.7</span> <span>Election of 1876</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1876-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hayes_ends_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hayes_ends_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.8</span> <span>Hayes ends Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hayes_ends_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Legacy and historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy_and_historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy and historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dunning_School,_1900s–1920s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dunning_School,_1900s–1920s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Dunning School, 1900s–1920s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dunning_School,_1900s–1920s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revisionists_and_Beardians,_1930s–1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revisionists_and_Beardians,_1930s–1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revisionists_and_Beardians,_1930s–1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_historians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_historians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Black historians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_historians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-abolitionists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-abolitionists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Neo-abolitionists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-abolitionists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating_the_end_of_the_Reconstruction_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating_the_end_of_the_Reconstruction_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.5</span> <span>Dating the end of the Reconstruction era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dating_the_end_of_the_Reconstruction_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_role_of_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_role_of_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.6</span> <span>Economic role of race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_role_of_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"failure"_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"failure"_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.7</span> <span>The "failure" issue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"failure"_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiographical_Interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiographical_Interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.8</span> <span>Historiographical Interpretations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiographical_Interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.9</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.10</span> <span>In education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholarly_secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Scholarly secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yearbooks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yearbooks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Yearbooks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yearbooks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newspapers_and_magazines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newspapers_and_magazines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Newspapers and magazines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newspapers_and_magazines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Reconstruction era</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A5%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="عصر إعادة الإعمار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر إعادة الإعمار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenid%C9%99nqurma_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Yenidənqurma dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yenidənqurma dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Рэканструкцыя Поўдня – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэканструкцыя Поўдня" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstrucci%C3%B3_(Estats_Units)" title="Reconstrucció (Estats Units) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reconstrucció (Estats Units)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruktionstiden" title="Rekonstruktionstiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rekonstruktionstiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction" title="Reconstruction – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reconstruction" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstrueerimise_ajastu" title="Rekonstrueerimise ajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rekonstrueerimise ajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstrucci%C3%B3n_(Estados_Unidos)" title="Reconstrucción (Estados Unidos) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reconstrucción (Estados Unidos)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstrua_Epoko" title="Rekonstrua Epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rekonstrua Epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="دوره بازسازی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره بازسازی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_(%C3%89tats-Unis)" title="Reconstruction (États-Unis) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Reconstruction (États-Unis)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%EA%B1%B4_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="재건 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재건 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Rekonstruksi" title="Era Rekonstruksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Era Rekonstruksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurbyggingart%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Endurbyggingartímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Endurbyggingartímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_della_ricostruzione" title="Era della ricostruzione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Era della ricostruzione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9D" title="תקופת השיקום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקופת השיקום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aetas_Reconstructionis" title="Aetas Reconstructionis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aetas Reconstructionis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstrukcija_(JAV)" title="Rekonstrukcija (JAV) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rekonstrukcija (JAV)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_pembinaan_semula_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Era pembinaan semula Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Era pembinaan semula Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recustru%C3%A7on_amaricana" title="Recustruçon amaricana – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Recustruçon amaricana" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstructie_(Verenigde_Staten)" title="Reconstructie (Verenigde Staten) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Reconstructie (Verenigde Staten)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="リコンストラクション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リコンストラクション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruksjonstida" title="Rekonstruksjonstida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Rekonstruksjonstida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د بيارغونې دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د بيارغونې دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstrukcja_(Stany_Zjednoczone)" title="Rekonstrukcja (Stany Zjednoczone) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rekonstrukcja (Stany Zjednoczone)" 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interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%AE%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Реконструкция Юга – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Реконструкция Юга" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Reconstruction era" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94)" title="Реконструкција 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_Era&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military occupation of southern US states from 1865 to 1877</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the history of the United States from 1865 until 1877. For the U.S. legislation enacted between 1867 and 1868, see <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Reconstruction (disambiguation)">Reconstruction (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Reconstruction era</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1865–1877</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:ReconstructionEraColl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ReconstructionEraColl.png/220px-ReconstructionEraColl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ReconstructionEraColl.png/330px-ReconstructionEraColl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/ReconstructionEraColl.png 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="449" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">From left to right and top to the bottom: The ruins of <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a>; newly-freed <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a> voting for the first time in 1867;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> office of the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> in <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>; <a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /> (<a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern States</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Including</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">President(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Formation of the KKK</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">Civil War era</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="class-skin-invert-image"><img alt="class-skin-invert-image" 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Era"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Reconstruction_Era" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Reconstruction Era"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Reconstruction_Era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Reconstruction Era"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conflicts_of_the_Reconstruction_era1283" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Conflicts of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Reconstruction era</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barber%E2%80%93Mizell_feud" title="Barber–Mizell feud">Barber–Mizell feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowry_War" title="Lowry War">Lowry War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian race riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_massacre" title="Vicksburg massacre">Vicksburg massacre</a> (1874–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawi_system" title="Bawi system">Bawi system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this 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.mw-collapsible-text{color:#FFFFFF}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-caption{padding-bottom:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-content{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .US-history-sidebar .sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-history-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b>This article is part of a series on the</b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States"><small>History of the </small><br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Timeline and periods</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until 1607</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1607–1765</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1765–1783</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1783–1788</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1788–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1801–1817</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1817–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1825–1849</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1877–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1896–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Post-World War II Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964–1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post-Cold War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2016–present)">2016–present</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    Trump Era</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2016–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">Civil unrest</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Racial violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_flags_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime history of the United States">Maritime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">Social class</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Indian Americans">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans#History" title="German Americans">German American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of transgender people in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">Historic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">AL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">AK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">AZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">DE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">FL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">HI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">IL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">IN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">IA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">KS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">KY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">LA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">ME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">MA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">MS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">MT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">NV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">NH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">NJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">NM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">NY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">NC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">OK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">OR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">RI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">SC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">SD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">TX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">VT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">VA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">WV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">WI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">WY</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Territories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">GU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">MP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">VI</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Racism in the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;;font-size:150%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American<br />race relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/232px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/348px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg/464px-Le_Petit_Journal_7_Oct_1906_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="3605" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Violence in the <a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a> <hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <dl><dt>Common actions</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">Expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynchings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Vigilante groups</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legion_(political_movement)" title="Black Legion (political movement)">Black Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lynchings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Andrew_Richards" title="Lynching of Andrew Richards">Andrew Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joe Vermillion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">People's Grocery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Frazier_B._Baker_and_Julia_Baker" title="Lynching of Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker">Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_McIlherron" title="Lynching of Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">1920 Duluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Massacres and riots</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodaux massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_Valley_Race_Riot_of_1895" title="Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895">Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix election riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_riots" title="Robert Charles riots">Robert Charles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evansville_race_riot" title="Evansville race riot">Evansville race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">Atlanta Massacre of 1906</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Jeffries_riots" title="Johnson–Jeffries riots">Johnson–Jeffries riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Chester_race_riot" title="1917 Chester race riot">1917 Chester race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919" title="Chicago race riot of 1919">Chicago race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919" title="Washington race riot of 1919">Washington race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry race riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Reactions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_to_Africa_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Back to Africa movement">Back to Africa movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Template talk:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nadir of American race relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Reconstruction era</b> was a period in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">United States history</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">Southern United States history</a> that followed the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (April 12, 1861 - April 9, 1865) and was dominated by the legal, social, and political challenges of the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolition of slavery</a> and the reintegration of the eleven former <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States</a> into the United States. During this period, <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">three amendments</a> were added to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> to grant citizenship and equal civil rights to the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">newly freed slaves</a>. To circumvent these legal achievements, the former Confederate states imposed <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll taxes">poll taxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literacy_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy tests">literacy tests</a> and engaged in <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">terrorism</a> to intimidate and control black people and to discourage or prevent them from voting.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the war, the Union was confronted with the issue of how to administer captured areas and how to handle the steady stream of slaves who were escaping to Union lines. In many cases, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> played a vital role in establishing a <a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">free labor economy</a> in the South, protecting freedmen's legal rights, and creating educational and religious institutions. Despite its reluctance to interfere with the institution of slavery, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Acts" title="Confiscation Acts">Confiscation Acts</a> to seize Confederates' slaves, providing a precedent for president <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> to issue the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>. Congress later established a <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> to provide much-needed food and shelter to the newly freed slaves. </p><p>As it became clear that the war would end in a Union victory, Congress debated the process for the readmission of the seceded states. <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)">moderate</a> Republicans disagreed over the nature of secession, the conditions for readmission, and the desirability of social reforms as a consequence of the Confederate defeat. Lincoln favored the "<a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">ten percent plan</a>" and vetoed the radical <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Davis_Bill" title="Wade–Davis Bill">Wade–Davis Bill</a>, which proposed strict conditions for readmission. </p><p>Lincoln was <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">assassinated</a> on April 14, 1865, just as <a href="/wiki/Conclusion_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Conclusion of the American Civil War">fighting was drawing to a close</a>. He was replaced by President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>. Johnson vetoed numerous <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republican" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical Republican">Radical Republican</a> bills, he pardoned thousands of Confederate leaders, and he allowed Southern states to pass draconian <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> that restricted the rights of freedmen. His actions outraged many Northerners and stoked fears that the Southern elite would regain its political power. <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republican" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical Republican">Radical Republican</a> candidates swept to power in the 1866 midterm elections, gaining <a href="/wiki/40th_United_States_Congress" title="40th United States Congress">large majorities in both houses of Congress</a>. </p><p>In 1867 and 1868, the Radical Republicans passed the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a> over Johnson's vetoes, setting out the terms by which the former Confederate states could be readmitted to the Union. Constitutional conventions held throughout the South gave Black men the right to vote. New state governments were established by a coalition of freedmen, <a href="/wiki/Scalawags" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalawags">supportive white Southerners</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carpetbaggers" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpetbaggers">Northern transplants</a>. They were opposed by "<a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a>," who sought to restore <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> and reestablish the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>'s control of Southern governments and society. Violent groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a>, engaged in paramilitary insurgency and <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> to disrupt the efforts of the Reconstruction governments and terrorize Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congressional anger at President Johnson's repeated attempts to veto radical legislation led to <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">his impeachment</a>, but he was not removed from office. </p><p>Under Johnson's successor, President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, Radical Republicans passed additional legislation to enforce civil rights, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>. However, continuing resistance to Reconstruction by Southern whites and its high cost contributed to its losing support in the North during the Grant administration. The <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 presidential election</a> was marked by widespread Black voter suppression in the South, and the result was close and contested. An <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission</a> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a>, which awarded the election to Republican <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> on the understanding that federal troops would be withdrawn from the South, effectively bringing Reconstruction to an end. Post-Civil War efforts to enforce federal civil rights protections in the South ended in 1890 with the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a>. </p><p>Historians continue to disagree about the legacy of Reconstruction. Criticism of Reconstruction focuses on the early failure to prevent violence, corruption, starvation, disease, and other problems. Some consider the Union's policy toward freed slaves as inadequate and its policy toward former slaveholders as too lenient.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Reconstruction is credited with restoring the federal Union, limiting reprisals against the South, and establishing a legal framework for racial equality via the constitutional rights to <a href="/wiki/Birthright_citizenship_in_the_United_States" title="Birthright citizenship in the United States">national birthright citizenship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equal_protection_of_the_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal protection of the laws">equal protection of the laws</a>, and male suffrage regardless of race.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo201811–12Foner2019198_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo201811–12Foner2019198-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating">Dating</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Reconstruction era has typically been dated from the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> in 1865 until the withdrawal of the final remaining federal troops stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> in 1877, though a few other periodization schemes have also been proposed by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParfait2009440–441,_441n1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParfait2009440–441,_441n1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the twentieth century, most scholars of the Reconstruction era began their review in 1865, with the end of formal hostilities between the North and South. However, in his landmark 1988 monograph <i><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction:_America%27s_Unfinished_Revolution,_1863%E2%80%931877" title="Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877">Reconstruction</a></i>, historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> proposed 1863, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a>, and the earnest debate of Reconstruction policies during the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxv_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxv-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2017, among scholars it was "widely understood" in the words of Luke Harlow, that Reconstruction started in either "1863 with the Emancipation Proclamation or 1865 with the end of the war".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_National_Historical_Park" title="Reconstruction Era National Historical Park">Reconstruction Era National Historical Park</a> proposed 1861 as a starting date, interpreting Reconstruction as beginning "as soon as the Union captured territory in the Confederacy" at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> in Virginia and in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands of South Carolina</a>. According to historians Downs and Masur, "Reconstruction began when the first US soldiers arrived in slaveholding territory, and enslaved people escaped from plantations and farms, some of them fleeing into free states, and others trying to find safety with US forces." Soon afterwards, early discourse and experimentation began in earnest regarding Reconstruction policies. The Reconstruction policies provided opportunities to enslaved <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a> populations in the Sea Islands who became free overnight on November 7, 1861, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Royal" title="Battle of Port Royal">Battle of Port Royal</a> when all the white residents and slaveholders fled the area after the arrival of the Union. After the Battle of Port Royal, reconstruction policies were implemented under the <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a> which were <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_schools" title="Freedmen's schools">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_land_loss_in_the_United_States" title="Black land loss in the United States">landownership</a>, and labor reform. This transition to a free society was called "Rehearsal for Reconstruction."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conventional end of Reconstruction is 1877, when the federal government withdrew the last troops stationed in the South as part of the Compromise of 1877.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later dates have also been suggested. Fritzhugh Brundage proposed in 2017 that Reconstruction ended in 1890, when Republicans failed to pass the <a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a> to secure voting rights for Black Americans in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heather_Cox_Richardson" title="Heather Cox Richardson">Heather Cox Richardson</a> argued that same year for a periodization from 1865 until 1920, when the election of <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> to the presidency marked the end of a national sentiment in favor of using government power to promote equality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson201712,_18–19_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson201712,_18–19-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2024, <a href="/wiki/Manisha_Sinha" title="Manisha Sinha">Manisha Sinha</a> periodized Reconstruction from 1860—when <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> won office as a president opposed to slavery—until 1920, when America ratified the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> affirming the right of women to vote, which Sinha called "the last Reconstruction amendment" because it drew upon a Reconstruction belief that the government could protect <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil and political rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinha2024xvii,_5,_425_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinha2024xvii,_5,_425-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, eleven Southern states, all of which permitted <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, seceded from the United States following the election of Lincoln to the presidency and formed the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinha20245–6_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinha20245–6-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Lincoln initially declared secession "legally void"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and declined to negotiate with Confederate delegates to Washington, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Confederate assault</a> on the Union garrison at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a>, Lincoln declared that "an extraordinary occasion" existed in the South and raised an army to quell "combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next four years, 237 named battles were fought between the Union and Confederate armies, resulting in the dissolution of the Confederate States in 1865. During the war, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared that "all persons held as slaves" within the Confederate territory "are, and henceforward shall be free."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition_of_slavery_and_social_reform">Abolition of slavery and social reform</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Abolition of slavery and social reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Civil War had immense social implications for the United States. Emancipation had altered the legal status of 3.5 million persons, threatened the end of the plantation economy of the South, and provoked questions regarding the legal and social inequality of the races in the United States. The end of the war was accompanied by a large migration of newly freed people to the cities,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201072_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201072-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where they were relegated to the lowest paying jobs, such as unskilled and service labor. Men worked as rail workers, rolling and lumber mills workers, and hotel workers. Black women were largely confined to domestic work employed as cooks, maids, and child nurses, or in hotels and laundries. The large population of slave artisans during the prewar period did not translate into a large number of free artisans during Reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dislocations had a severe negative impact on the Black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowns201241_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowns201241-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war, Lincoln experimented with <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> by giving land to African-Americans in <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina#Reconstruction_era_(1865–1877)" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a>. Having lost their enormous investment in slaves, <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">plantation owners</a> had minimal capital to pay freedmen workers to bring in crops. As a result, a system of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a> was developed, in which landowners broke up large <a href="/wiki/Plantations_in_the_American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations in the American South">plantations</a> and rented small lots to the freedmen and their families. Thus, the main structure of the Southern economy changed from an elite minority of landed gentry slaveholders into a <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenant farming">tenant farming</a> agriculture system.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a> identified three visions of the social implications of Reconstruction:<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>the <i>reconciliationist</i> vision, which focused on coping with the death and devastation the war had brought;</li> <li>the <i><a href="/wiki/White_supremacist" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacist">white supremacist</a></i> vision, which demanded strict segregation of the races and the preservation of political and cultural domination of Blacks by Whites, opposed any right to vote by Blacks, and accepted intimidation and violence; and</li> <li>the <i><a href="/wiki/Emancipationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipationist">emancipationist</a></i> vision, which emphasized full freedom, citizenship, male <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a>, and constitutional equality for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_devastation">Economic devastation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economic devastation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Civil War had a devastating economic and material impact on the South, where most combat occurred. </p><p>The enormous cost of the Confederate war effort took a high toll on the region's economic infrastructure. The direct costs in <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>, government expenditures, and physical destruction totaled $3.3 billion. By early 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate dollar">Confederate dollar</a> had nearly zero value, and the Southern banking system was in collapse by the war's end. Where scarce Union dollars could not be obtained, residents resorted to a <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">barter</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Confederate States in 1861 had 297 towns and cities, with a total population of 835,000 people; of these, 162, with 681,000 people, were at some point occupied by Union forces. Eleven cities were destroyed or severely damaged by military action, including Atlanta, Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond, though the rate of damage in smaller towns was much lower.<sup id="cite_ref-Paskoff_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paskoff-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farms were in disrepair, and the <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">prewar</a> stock of horses, mules, and cattle was much depleted. Forty percent of Southern livestock had been killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The South's farms were not highly mechanized, but the value of farm implements and machinery according to the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_census" title="1860 United States census">1860 Census</a> was $81 million and was reduced by 40% by 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> lay in ruins, with little railroad or <a href="/wiki/Riverboat" title="Riverboat">riverboat</a> service available to move crops and animals to market.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Railroad mileage was located mostly in rural areas; over two-thirds of the South's rails, bridges, rail yards, repair shops, and rolling stock were in areas reached by Union armies, which systematically destroyed what they could. Even in untouched areas, the lack of maintenance and repair, the absence of new equipment, the heavy over-use, and the deliberate relocation of equipment by the Confederates from remote areas to the war zone ensured the system would be ruined at war's end.<sup id="cite_ref-Paskoff_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paskoff-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Restoring the infrastructure—especially the railroad system—became a high priority for Reconstruction state governments.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over a quarter of Southern White men of military age—the backbone of the White workforce—died during the war, leaving their families destitute,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and per capita income for White Southerners declined from $125 in 1857 to a low of $80 in 1879. By the end of the 19th century and well into the 20th century, the South was locked into a system of poverty. How much of this failure was caused by the war and by previous reliance on slavery remains the subject of debate among economists and historians.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both the North and South, modernization and industrialization were the focus of the post-war recovery, built on the growth of cities, railroads, factories, and banks and led by Radical Republicans and former Whigs.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wealth,_per_capita,_in_the_United_States,_from_9th_US_Census_(1872).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg/220px-Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg/330px-Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg/440px-Wealth%2C_per_capita%2C_in_the_United_States%2C_from_9th_US_Census_%281872%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1635" data-file-height="2032" /></a><figcaption>The distribution of wealth per capita in 1872, illustrating the disparity between North and South in that period</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_reconstruction">Legal reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Legal reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From its origins, questions existed as to the legal significance of the Civil War, whether secession had actually occurred, and what measures, if any, were necessary to restore the governments of the Confederate States. For example, throughout the conflict, the United States government recognized the legitimacy of a <a href="/wiki/Restored_Government_of_Virginia" title="Restored Government of Virginia">unionist government in Virginia</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Harrison_Pierpont" title="Francis Harrison Pierpont">Francis Harrison Pierpont</a> out of <a href="/wiki/Wheeling,_West_Virginia" title="Wheeling, West Virginia">Wheeling</a>. (This recognition was rendered moot when the Pierpont government separated the northwestern counties of the state and sought admission as <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>.) As additional territory came under Union control, reconstructed governments were established in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Debates over <i>legal reconstruction</i> focused on whether secession was legally valid, the implications of secession for the nature of the seceded states, and the legitimate method of their readmission to the Union.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The first plan for legal reconstruction was introduced by Lincoln in his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">ten percent plan</a>" under which a loyal unionist state government would be established when ten percent of its 1860 voters pledged an oath of allegiance to the Union, with a complete pardon for those who pledged such an oath. By 1864, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas had established fully functioning Unionist governments under this plan. However, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Davis_Bill" title="Wade–Davis Bill">Wade–Davis Bill</a> in opposition, which instead proposed that a <i>majority</i> of voters must pledge that they had <i>never</i> supported the Confederate government and disfranchised all those who had. Lincoln vetoed the Wade–Davis Bill, but it established a lasting conflict between the presidential and congressional visions of reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the legal status of the seceded states, Congress debated the legal consequences for Confederate veterans and others who had engaged in "insurrection and rebellion" against the government and the legal rights of those freed from slavery. These debates resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> to the United States Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>August 6, 1861: The <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a> becomes law.</li> <li>March 3, 1862: Lincoln appoints <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> of Tennessee as the first military governor of a Southern state.</li> <li>July 17, 1862: The <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a> becomes law, providing the legal basis for the Emancipation Proclamation.</li> <li>January 1, 1863: Lincoln issues the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>, freeing all persons held in slavery in Confederate territory.</li> <li>December 8, 1863: Lincoln announces his "<a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">ten percent plan</a>" for the recognizing unionist governments in Union-controlled Confederate territory.</li> <li>January 16, 1865: General William Tecumseh Sherman issues <a href="/wiki/Special_Field_Orders_No._15" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Field Orders No. 15">Special Field Orders No. 15</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>February 3, 1865: Lincoln meets to discuss reconciliation with Southern representatives at the <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a>.</li> <li>March 3, 1865: The <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau_bills" title="Freedmen's Bureau bills">Freedmen's Bureau Act</a> becomes law.</li> <li>April 9, 1865: General <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a> surrenders the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia" title="Army of Northern Virginia">Army of Northern Virginia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, effectively ending hostilities on land.</li> <li>April 14, 1865: Lincoln <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">is assassinated</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</a>. <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> becomes President.</li> <li>December 6, 1865: The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> is ratified.</li> <li>March 27, 1866: Johnson vetoes the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a>.</li> <li>May 1 to 3, 1866: <a href="/wiki/Memphis_massacre_of_1866" title="Memphis massacre of 1866">Riots</a> in Memphis, Tennessee kill 48, primarily freed African Americans, and injure 75.</li> <li>July 24, 1866: Tennessee is the first state reestablished or readmitted to the Union.</li> <li>July 30, 1866: At least <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Massacre_of_1866" title="New Orleans Massacre of 1866">38 people are killed and 146 wounded</a> in New Orleans at a racially integrated constitutional convention.</li> <li>August 27 through September 15, 1866: President Johnson launches a <a href="/wiki/Swing_Around_the_Circle" title="Swing Around the Circle">national speaking tour</a> to rally support for his policies.</li> <li>October 9 through November 6, 1866: <a href="/wiki/1866_United_States_elections" title="1866 United States elections">Congressional elections</a> return large majorities for the radicals, ending presidential reconstruction under Johnson.</li> <li>March 4, 1867: Congress passes the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">first Reconstruction Act</a>, establishing requirements for the readmission of additional states, over Johnson's veto.</li> <li>July 19, 1867: Congress passes the third Reconstruction Act, creating a system of military government throughout the South.</li> <li>August 12, 1867: Johnson suspends Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Edwin Stanton</a> from office over his military reconstruction policies.</li> <li>March 2 and 3, 1868: Congress impeaches President Johnson on eleven articles of impeachment for violating the <a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a>.</li> <li>May 26, 1868: The Senate narrowly votes against convicting Johnson.</li> <li>July 9, 1868: The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> is ratified.</li> <li>February 3, 1870: The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> is ratified.</li> <li>May 31, 1870: The <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a> becomes law.</li> <li>February 24, 1871: Representatives from Georgia, the final Confederate state to be readmitted, are seated in Congress.</li> <li>February 28, 1871: The <a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Second Enforcement Act</a> becomes law.</li> <li>April 20, 1871: The <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a> becomes law.</li> <li>May 22, 1872: The <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_Act" title="Amnesty Act">Amnesty Act</a> becomes law.</li> <li>March 1, 1875: The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> becomes law.</li> <li>November 6, 1876: The <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">presidential election</a> between Hayes and Tilden results in an electoral dispute over Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg/220px-Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg/330px-Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg/440px-Broad_Street_Charleston_South_Carolina_1865.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The Southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restoring_the_South_to_the_Union">Restoring the South to the Union</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Restoring the South to the Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg/250px-Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg/375px-Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg/500px-Lincoln_and_Johnsond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3571" data-file-height="2780" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Political_cartoon" title="Political cartoon">political cartoon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union". The caption reads (Johnson): "Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever." (Lincoln): "A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended."</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Civil War, the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republican</a> leaders argued that slavery and the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a> had to be permanently destroyed. Moderates said this could be easily accomplished as soon as the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</a> surrendered and the Southern states repealed secession and accepted the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>—most of which happened by December 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lincoln broke with the Radicals in 1864. The <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Davis_Bill" title="Wade–Davis Bill">Wade–Davis Bill</a> of 1864 passed in Congress by the Radicals was designed to permanently disfranchise the Confederate element in the South. The bill asked the government to grant African American men the right to vote and that anyone who willingly gave weapons to the fight against the United States should be denied the right to vote. The bill required voters, fifty-one percent of White males, to take the <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_oath" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad oath">Ironclad Oath</a> swearing that they had never supported the Confederacy or been one of its soldiers. This oath also entailed having them to swear a loyalty to the Constitution and the Union before they could have state constitutional meetings. Lincoln blocked it. Pursuing a policy of "malice toward none" announced in his second inaugural address,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln asked voters only to support the Union in the future, regardless of the past.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln <a href="/wiki/Pocket_veto" title="Pocket veto">pocket vetoed</a> the Wade–Davis Bill, which was much more strict than the ten percent plan. </p><p>Following Lincoln's veto, the Radicals lost support but regained strength after <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln's assassination</a> in April 1865.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1865">1865</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1865"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Lincoln assassination">Lincoln's assassination</a> in April 1865, Vice President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> became president. Radicals considered Johnson to be an ally, but upon becoming president, he rejected the Radical program of Reconstruction. He was on good terms with ex-Confederates in the South and ex-<a href="/wiki/Copperheads_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copperheads (politics)">Copperheads</a> in the North. He appointed his own governors and tried to close the Reconstruction process by the end of 1865. <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> vehemently opposed Johnson's plans for an abrupt end to Reconstruction, insisting that Reconstruction must "revolutionize Southern institutions, habits, and manners .... The foundations of their institutions ... must be broken up and relaid, or all our blood and treasure have been spent in vain."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson19926_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson19926-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johnson broke decisively with the Republicans in Congress when he vetoed the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act</a> on March 27, 1866. While Democrats celebrated, the Republicans rallied, passed the bill again, and overrode Johnson's repeat veto.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_Rucker_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_Rucker-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Full-scale political warfare now existed between Johnson (now allied with the Democrats) and the Radical Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the war had ended, Congress rejected Johnson's argument that he had the war power to decide what to do. Congress decided it had the primary authority to decide how Reconstruction should proceed, because the Constitution stated the United States had to guarantee each state a <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republican form of government</a>. The Radicals insisted that meant Congress decided how Reconstruction should be achieved. The issues were multiple: Who should decide, Congress or the president? How should republicanism operate in the South? What was the status of the former Confederate states? What was the citizenship status of the leaders of the Confederacy? What was the citizenship and suffrage status of freedmen?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26–27_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26–27-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war ended, President Andrew Johnson gave back most of the land to the former White slave owners.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1866">1866</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1866"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1866, the faction of <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> led by Representative <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> was convinced that Johnson's Southern appointees were disloyal to the Union, hostile to loyal Unionists, and enemies of the Freedmen. Radicals used as evidence outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Mob_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Mob violence">mob violence</a> against Black people, such as the <a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans massacre of 1866</a>. Radical Republicans demanded a prompt and strong federal response to protect freedmen and curb Southern racism.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stevens and his followers viewed secession as having left the states in a status like new territories. Sumner argued that <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a> had destroyed statehood but the Constitution still extended its authority and its protection over individuals, as in <a href="/wiki/Organized_incorporated_territories_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Organized incorporated territories of the United States">existing U.S. territories</a>. The Republicans sought to prevent Johnson's Southern politicians from "restoring the historical subordination of Negroes". Since slavery was abolished, the <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a> no longer applied to counting the population of Blacks. After the 1870 Census, the South would gain numerous additional representatives in Congress, based on the full population of freedmen.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Illinois Republican expressed a common fear that if the South were allowed to simply restore its previous established powers, that the "reward of treason will be an increased representation".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The election of 1866 decisively changed the balance of power, giving the Republicans two-thirds majorities in both houses of Congress, and enough votes to overcome Johnson's vetoes. They moved to <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">impeach Johnson</a> because of his constant attempts to thwart Radical Reconstruction measures, by using the <a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)"><i>Tenure of Office Act</i></a>. Johnson was acquitted by one vote, but he lost the influence to shape Reconstruction policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._28–29_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._28–29-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1867">1867</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1867"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1867, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a> of 1867 which outlined the terms in which the rebel states would be readmitted to the Union. Under these acts Republican Congress established <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">military districts</a> in the South and used <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a> personnel to administer the region until new governments loyal to the Union—that accepted the Fourteenth Amendment and the right of freedmen to vote—could be established. Congress temporarily suspended the ability to vote of approximately 10,000 to 15,000 former Confederate officials and senior officers, while constitutional amendments gave full citizenship to all African Americans, and suffrage to the adult men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._29_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._29-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the power to vote, freedmen began participating in politics. While many enslaved people were illiterate, educated Blacks (including <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">fugitive slaves</a>) moved down from the North to aid them, and natural leaders also stepped forward. They elected White and Black men to represent them in constitutional conventions. A Republican coalition of freedmen, Southerners supportive of the Union (derisively called "<a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">scalawags</a>" by White Democrats), and Northerners who had migrated to the South (derisively called "<a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">carpetbaggers</a>")—some of whom were returning natives, but were mostly Union veterans—organized to create constitutional conventions. They created new state constitutions to set new directions for Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._30_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._30-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suffrage">Suffrage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Suffrage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/250px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/375px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg/500px-Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war</figcaption></figure> <p>Congress had to consider how to restore to full status and representation within the Union those Southern states that had declared their independence from the United States and had withdrawn their representation. <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a> for former Confederates was one of two main concerns. A decision needed to be made whether to allow just some or all former Confederates to vote (and to hold office). The moderates in Congress wanted virtually all of them to vote, but the Radicals resisted. They repeatedly imposed the Ironclad Oath, which would effectively have allowed no former Confederates to vote. Historian <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hyman" title="Harold Hyman">Harold Hyman</a> says that in 1866 congressmen "described the oath as the last bulwark against the return of ex-rebels to power, the barrier behind which <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Unionists">Southern Unionists</a> and Negroes protected themselves".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radical Republican leader <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> proposed, unsuccessfully, that all former Confederates lose the right to vote for five years. The compromise that was reached disenfranchised many Confederate civil and military leaders. No one knows how many temporarily lost the vote, but one estimate placed the number as high as 10,000 to 15,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988273–276_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988273–276-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Radical politicians took up the task at the state level. In Tennessee alone, over 80,000 former Confederates were disenfranchised.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, and closely related, was the issue of whether the 4 million freedmen were to be received as citizens: Would they be able to vote? If they were to be fully counted as citizens, some sort of representation for apportionment of seats in Congress had to be determined. Before the war, the population of slaves had been counted as <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">three-fifths</a> of a corresponding number of free Whites. By having 4 million freedmen counted as full citizens, the South would gain additional seats in Congress. If Blacks were denied the vote and the right to hold office, then only Whites would represent them. Many, including most White Southerners, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Democratic_Party" title="Northern Democratic Party">Northern Democrats</a>, and some Northern Republicans, opposed voting rights for African-Americans. The small fraction of Republican voters opposed to Black suffrage contributed to the defeats of several suffrage measures voted on in most Northern states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988223_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988223-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Northern states that had <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendums</a> on the subject limited the ability of their own small populations of Blacks to vote. </p><p>Lincoln had supported a middle position: to allow some Black men to vote, especially <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> veterans. Johnson also believed that such service should be rewarded with citizenship. Lincoln proposed giving the vote to "the very intelligent, and especially those who have fought gallantly in our ranks".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1864, Governor Johnson said: "The better class of them will go to work and sustain themselves, and that class ought to be allowed to vote, on the ground that a loyal Negro is more worthy than a disloyal White man."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatton1934126_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatton1934126-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As president in 1865, Johnson wrote to the man he appointed as governor of Mississippi, recommending: "If you could extend the elective franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution in English and write their names, and to all persons of color who own real estate valued at least two hundred and fifty dollars, and pay taxes thereon, you would completely disarm the adversary [Radicals in Congress], and set an example the other states will follow."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/250px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/375px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg/500px-FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867</figcaption></figure> <p>Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, leaders of the Radical Republicans, were initially hesitant to enfranchise the largely illiterate freedmen. Sumner preferred at first impartial requirements that would have imposed literacy restrictions on Blacks and Whites. He believed that he would not succeed in passing legislation to disenfranchise illiterate Whites who already had the vote.<sup id="cite_ref-Donald_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donald-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the South, many poor Whites were illiterate as there was almost no <a href="/wiki/Public_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Public education">public education</a> before the war. In 1880, for example, the White illiteracy rate was about 25% in Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, South Carolina, and Georgia, and as high as 33% in North Carolina. This compares with the 9% national rate, and a Black rate of <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">illiteracy</a> that was over 70% in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Ayers_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayers-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1900, however, with emphasis within the Black community on education, the majority of Blacks had achieved literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988244–245_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988244–245-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sumner soon concluded that "there was no substantial protection for the freedman except in the franchise". This was necessary, he stated, "(1) For his own protection; (2) For the protection of the white Unionist; and (3) For the peace of the country. We put the musket in his hands because it was necessary; for the same reason we must give him the franchise." The support for voting rights was a compromise between moderate and Radical Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandallDonald2016581_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandallDonald2016581-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Republicans believed that the best way for men to get political experience was to be able to vote and to participate in the political system. They passed laws allowing all male freedmen to vote. In 1867, Black men voted for the first time. Over the course of Reconstruction, more than 1,500 African Americans held public office in the South; some of them were men who had escaped to the North and gained educations, and returned to the South. They did not hold office in numbers representative of their proportion in the population, but often elected Whites to represent them.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The question of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">women's suffrage</a> was also debated but was rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Women eventually gained the right to vote with the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> in 1920.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From 1890 to 1908, Southern states passed new state constitutions and laws that disenfranchised most Blacks and tens of thousands of poor Whites with new voter registration and electoral rules. When establishing new requirements such as subjectively administered <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a>, in some states, they used "<a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clauses</a>" to enable illiterate Whites to vote.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Treaty_Commission">Southern Treaty Commission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Southern Treaty Commission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a> that had been relocated to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>) held Black slaves and signed treaties supporting the Confederacy. During the war, a war among pro-Union and anti-Union Native Americans had raged. Congress passed a statute that gave the president the authority to suspend the appropriations of any tribe if the tribe is "in a state of actual hostility to the government of the United States ... and, by proclamation, to declare all treaties with such tribe to be abrogated by such tribe".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a component of Reconstruction, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">Interior Department</a> ordered a meeting of representatives from all <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Indian tribes</a> who had affiliated with the Confederacy.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The council, the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Southern Treaty Commission</a>, was first held in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith,_Arkansas" title="Fort Smith, Arkansas">Fort Smith, Arkansas</a> in September 1865, and was attended by hundreds of Native Americans representing dozens of tribes. Over the next several years the commission negotiated treaties with tribes that resulted in additional re-locations to <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> creation (initially by treaty) of an unorganized <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction"><span id="Lincoln.27s_presidential_Reconstruction"></span>Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preliminary_events">Preliminary events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Preliminary events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg/170px-Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg/255px-Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg/340px-Abraham_Lincoln_O-77_matte_collodion_print.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="2835" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, 16th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1861–1865)</figcaption></figure> <p>President Lincoln signed two <a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Acts" title="Confiscation Acts">Confiscation Acts</a> into law, the first on August 6, 1861, and the second on July 17, 1862, safeguarding fugitive slaves who crossed from the Confederacy across Union lines and giving them indirect emancipation if their masters continued insurrection against the United States. The laws allowed the confiscation of lands for colonization from those who aided and supported the rebellion. However, these laws had limited effect as they were poorly funded by Congress and poorly enforced by Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bates" title="Edward Bates">Edward Bates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002735–736_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002735–736-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_2006_pp._54–59-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1861, Major General <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a>, Union commander of the Western Department, declared martial law in <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, confiscated Confederate property, and emancipated their slaves. Lincoln immediately ordered Frémont to rescind his emancipation declaration, stating: "I think there is great danger that<span class="nowrap"> </span>... the liberating slaves of traitorous owners, will alarm our Southern Union friends, and turn them against us—perhaps ruin our fair prospect for Kentucky." After Frémont refused to rescind the emancipation order, Lincoln terminated him from active duty on November 2, 1861. Lincoln was concerned that the border states would secede from the Union if slaves were given their freedom. On May 26, 1862, Union Major General <a href="/wiki/David_Hunter" title="David Hunter">David Hunter</a> emancipated slaves in South Carolina, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, and Florida, declaring all "persons ... heretofore held as slaves<span class="nowrap"> </span>... forever free". Lincoln, embarrassed by the order, rescinded Hunter's declaration and canceled the emancipation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage290_290–291]_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage290_290–291]-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 16, 1862, Lincoln signed a bill into law outlawing slavery in Washington, D.C., and freeing the estimated 3,500 slaves in the city. On June 19, 1862, he signed legislation outlawing slavery in all U.S. territories. On July 17, 1862, under the authority of the Confiscation Acts and an amended Force Bill of 1795, he authorized the recruitment of freed slaves into the U.S. Army and seizure of any Confederate property for military purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_2006_pp._54–59-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gradual_emancipation_and_compensation">Gradual emancipation and compensation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Gradual emancipation and compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an effort to keep border states in the Union, Lincoln, as early as 1861, designed gradual <a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">compensated emancipation</a> programs paid for by government bonds. Lincoln desired <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> to "adopt a system of gradual emancipation which should work the extinction of slavery in twenty years". On March 26, 1862, Lincoln met with Senator Charles Sumner and recommended that a special joint session of Congress be convened to discuss giving financial aid to any border states who initiated a <a href="/wiki/Gradual_emancipation_(United_States)" title="Gradual emancipation (United States)">gradual emancipation</a> plan. In April 1862, the joint session of Congress met; however, the border states were not interested and did not make any response to Lincoln or any congressional emancipation proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln advocated compensated emancipation during the <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization">Colonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1862, Lincoln met with African American leaders and urged them to colonize some place in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>. Lincoln planned to free the Southern slaves in the Emancipation Proclamation and he was concerned that freedmen would not be well treated in the United States by Whites in both the North and South. Although Lincoln gave assurances that the United States government would support and protect any colonies that were established for former slaves, the leaders declined the offer of colonization. Many free Blacks had been opposed to colonization plans in the past because they wanted to remain in the United States. Lincoln persisted in his colonization plan in the belief that emancipation and colonization were both part of the same program. By April 1863, Lincoln was successful in sending Black colonists to <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> as well as 453 to <a href="/wiki/Chiriqu%C3%AD_Province" title="Chiriquí Province">Chiriqui</a> in Central America; however, none of the colonies were able to remain self-sufficient. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, a prominent 19th-century American <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> activist, criticized Lincoln by stating that he was "showing all his inconsistencies, his pride of race and blood, his contempt for Negroes and his canting hypocrisy". African Americans, according to Douglass, wanted citizenship and civil rights rather than colonies. Historians are unsure if Lincoln gave up on the idea of African American colonization at the end of 1863 or if he actually planned to continue this policy up until 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_2006_pp._54–59-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Catton_1963_pp._365–367_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catton_1963_pp._365–367-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Installation_of_military_governors">Installation of military governors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Installation of military governors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starting in March 1862, in an effort to forestall Reconstruction by the Radicals in Congress, Lincoln installed military governors in certain rebellious states under Union military control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage390_390]_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage390_390]-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the states would not be recognized by the Radicals until an undetermined time, installation of military governors kept the administration of Reconstruction under presidential control, rather than that of the increasingly unsympathetic Radical Congress. On March 3, 1862, Lincoln installed a loyalist Democrat, Senator Andrew Johnson, as military governor with the rank of brigadier general in his home state of Tennessee.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1862, Lincoln appointed <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stanly" title="Edward Stanly">Edward Stanly</a> military governor of the coastal region of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> with the rank of brigadier general. Stanly resigned almost a year later when he angered Lincoln by closing two schools for Black children in <a href="/wiki/New_Bern,_North_Carolina" title="New Bern, North Carolina">New Bern</a>. After Lincoln installed Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/George_Foster_Shepley_(judge)" title="George Foster Shepley (judge)">George Foster Shepley</a> as military governor of Louisiana in May 1862, Shepley sent two anti-slavery representatives, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Flanders" title="Benjamin Flanders">Benjamin Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hahn" title="Michael Hahn">Michael Hahn</a>, elected in December 1862, to the House, which capitulated and voted to seat them. In July 1862, Lincoln installed Colonel <a href="/wiki/John_S._Phelps" title="John S. Phelps">John S. Phelps</a> as military governor of Arkansas, though he resigned soon after due to poor health.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emancipation_Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Emancipation Proclamation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmancipationPhoto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EmancipationPhoto.jpg/220px-EmancipationPhoto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EmancipationPhoto.jpg/330px-EmancipationPhoto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/EmancipationPhoto.jpg/440px-EmancipationPhoto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Celebration of the Emancipation Proclamation in Massachusetts, 1862</figcaption></figure> <p>In July 1862, Lincoln became convinced that "a military necessity" was needed to strike at slavery in order to win the Civil War for the Union. The Confiscation Acts were only having a minimal effect to end slavery. On July 22, he wrote a first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation that freed the slaves in states in rebellion. After he showed his Cabinet the document, slight alterations were made in the wording. Lincoln decided that the defeat of the Confederate invasion of the North at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Sharpsburg</a> was enough of a battlefield victory to enable him to release the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation that gave the rebels 100 days to return to the Union or the actual proclamation would be issued.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On January 1, 1863, the actual Emancipation Proclamation was issued, specifically naming 10 states in which slaves would be "forever free". The proclamation did not name the states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware, and specifically excluded numerous counties in some other states. Eventually, as the U.S. Army advanced into the Confederacy, millions of slaves were set free. Many of these freedmen joined the U.S. Army and fought in battles against the Confederate forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_2006_pp._54–59-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Catton_1963_pp._365–367_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Catton_1963_pp._365–367-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo20041_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo20041-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet hundreds of thousands of freed slaves died during emancipation from illnesses that devastated army regiments. Freed slaves suffered from smallpox, yellow fever, and malnutrition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowns201247_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowns201247-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lincoln's_10%_plan"><span id="Lincoln.27s_10.25_plan"></span>Lincoln's 10% plan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lincoln's 10% plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">Ten percent plan</a></div> <p>Lincoln was determined to effect a speedy restoration of the Confederate states to the Union after the Civil War. In 1863, he proposed a moderate plan for the Reconstruction of the captured Confederate state of Louisiana. The plan granted amnesty to rebels who took an oath of loyalty to the Union. Black freedmen workers were tied to labor on plantations for one year at a pay rate of $10 a month.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008279_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008279-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 10% of the state's electorate had to take the loyalty oath in order for the state to be readmitted into the U.S. Congress. The state was required to abolish slavery in its new state constitution. Identical Reconstruction plans would be adopted in Arkansas and Tennessee. By December 1864, the Lincoln plan of Reconstruction had been enacted in Louisiana and the legislature sent two senators and five representatives to take their seats in Washington. However, Congress refused to count any of the votes from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee, in essence rejecting Lincoln's moderate Reconstruction plan. Congress, at this time controlled by the Radicals, proposed the Wade–Davis Bill that required a majority of the state electorates to take the oath of loyalty to be admitted to Congress. Lincoln <a href="/wiki/Pocket_veto" title="Pocket veto">pocket vetoed</a> the bill and the rift widened between the moderates, primarily concerned with preserving the Union and winning the war, and the Radicals, who wanted to effect a more complete change within Southern society.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy_1901_p._76_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy_1901_p._76-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frederick Douglass denounced Lincoln's 10% electorate plan as undemocratic since state admission and loyalty only depended on a minority vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008280_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008280-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legalization_of_slave_marriages">Legalization of slave marriages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Legalization of slave marriages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before 1864, slave marriages had not been recognized legally; emancipation did not affect them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201072_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201072-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When freed, many sought official marriages. Before emancipation, slaves could not enter into contracts, including the marriage contract. Not all free people formalized their unions. Some continued to have common-law marriages or community-recognized relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Making_of_the_American_South_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Making_of_the_American_South-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The acknowledgement of marriage by the state increased the state's recognition of freed people as legal actors and eventually helped make the case for parental rights for freed people against the practice of apprenticeship of Black children.<sup id="cite_ref-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p53_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p53-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These children were legally taken away from their families under the guise of "providing them with guardianship and 'good' homes until they reached the age of consent at twenty-one" under acts such as the Georgia 1866 Apprentice Act.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199734_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199734-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such children were generally used as sources of unpaid labor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedmen's_Bureau"><span id="Freedmen.27s_Bureau"></span>Freedmen's Bureau</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Freedmen's Bureau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/220px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/330px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg/440px-Freedmen_richmond_sewing_women.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1467" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.</figcaption></figure> <p>On March 3, 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen's Bureau Bill">Freedmen's Bureau Bill</a> became law, sponsored by the Republicans to aid freedmen and White refugees. A federal bureau was created to provide food, clothing, fuel, and advice on negotiating labor contracts. It attempted to oversee new relations between freedmen and their former masters in a free labor market. The act, without deference to a person's color, authorized the bureau to lease confiscated land for a period of three years and to sell it in portions of up to 40 acres (16 ha) per buyer. The bureau was to expire one year after the termination of the war. Lincoln was assassinated before he could appoint a commissioner of the bureau.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With the help of the bureau, the recently freed slaves began voting, forming political parties, and assuming the control of labor in many areas. The bureau helped to start a change of power in the South that drew national attention from the Republicans in the North to the Democrats in the South. This is especially evident in the <a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">election</a> between Grant and Seymour (Johnson did not get the Democratic nomination), where almost 700,000 Black voters voted and swayed the election 300,000 votes in Grant's favor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Even with the benefits that it gave to the freedmen, the Freedmen's Bureau was unable to operate effectively in certain areas. Terrorizing freedmen for trying to vote, hold a political office, or own land, the Ku Klux Klan was the nemesis of the Freedmen's Bureau.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bans_color_discrimination">Bans color discrimination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bans color discrimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other legislation was signed that broadened equality and rights for African Americans. Lincoln outlawed discrimination on account of color, in carrying U.S. mail, in riding on public street cars in Washington, D.C., and in pay for soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="February_1865_peace_conference">February 1865 peace conference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: February 1865 peace conference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></div> <p>Lincoln and Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> met with three Southern representatives to discuss the peaceful Reconstruction of the Union and the Confederacy on February 3, 1865, in <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads,_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hampton Roads, Virginia">Hampton Roads</a>, Virginia. The Southern delegation included Confederate Vice President <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander H. Stephens</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">John Archibald Campbell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Robert M. T. Hunter</a>. The Southerners proposed the Union recognition of the Confederacy, a joint Union–Confederate attack on Mexico to oust Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I_of_Mexico" title="Maximilian I of Mexico">Maximilian I</a>, and an alternative subordinate status of servitude for Blacks rather than slavery. Lincoln flatly rejected recognition of the Confederacy, and said that the slaves covered by his Emancipation Proclamation would not be re-enslaved. He said that the Union states were about to pass the Thirteenth Amendment, outlawing slavery. Lincoln urged the governor of Georgia to remove Confederate troops and "ratify this constitutional amendment <em>prospectively</em>, so as to take effect—say in five years... Slavery is doomed." Lincoln also urged compensated emancipation for the slaves as he thought the North should be willing to share the costs of freedom. Although the meeting was cordial, the parties did not settle on agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002198–207_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002198–207-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_legacy_debated">Historical legacy debated</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Historical legacy debated"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lincoln continued to advocate his Louisiana Plan as a model for all states up until his assassination on April 15, 1865. The plan successfully started the Reconstruction process of ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment in all states. Lincoln is typically portrayed as taking the moderate position and fighting the Radical positions. There is considerable debate on how well Lincoln, had he lived, would have handled Congress during the Reconstruction process that took place after the Civil War ended. One historical camp argues that Lincoln's flexibility, pragmatism, and superior political skills with Congress would have solved Reconstruction with far less difficulty. The other camp believes that the Radicals would have attempted to impeach Lincoln, just as they did to his successor, Andrew Johnson, in 1868.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Johnson's_presidential_Reconstruction"><span id="Johnson.27s_presidential_Reconstruction"></span>Johnson's presidential Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Johnson's presidential Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Presidency of Andrew Johnson</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg/220px-Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg/330px-Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg/440px-Collage_of_Andy_Johnson_cartoon_depictions_by_Thomas_Nast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><i>Harper's Weekly</i> cartoonist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a> regularly skewered Andrew Johnson's reconstruction policies as dangerous and destructive; clockwise from top left: Johnson as a <a href="/wiki/Medusa" title="Medusa">Medusa</a>-headed <a href="/wiki/Lady_Justice" title="Lady Justice">Lady Justice</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Justice_(political_cartoon)" title="Southern Justice (political cartoon)">Southern Justice</a></i>, Johnson as <a href="/wiki/Iago" title="Iago">Iago</a> to a wounded soldier of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">U.S. Colored Troops</a> as <a href="/wiki/Othello_(character)" title="Othello (character)">Othello</a>, King Andy with "prime minister" <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a>, and Johnson as <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Emperor Nero</a> with Seward in <i><a href="/wiki/Amphitheatrum_Johnsonianum" title="Amphitheatrum Johnsonianum">Amphitheatrum Johnsonianum</a></i> </figcaption></figure> <p>Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense human cost of the war led to demands for punitive policies. Vice President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> had taken a hard line and spoke of hanging Confederates, but when he succeeded Lincoln as president, Johnson took a much softer position, pardoning many Confederate leaders and other former Confederates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former Confederate President <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> was held in prison for two years, but other Confederate leaders were not. There were no trials on charges of treason. Only three people—Captain <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wirz" title="Henry Wirz">Henry Wirz</a>, the commandant of the <a href="/wiki/Andersonville_prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Andersonville prison">prison camp</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andersonville,_Georgia" title="Andersonville, Georgia">Andersonville, Georgia</a>, and guerilla leaders <a href="/wiki/Champ_Ferguson" title="Champ Ferguson">Champ Ferguson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_C._Magruder" title="Henry C. Magruder">Henry C. Magruder</a>—were ever executed for war crimes. Andrew Johnson's racist view of Reconstruction did not include the involvement of blacks in government, and he refused to heed Northern concerns when Southern state legislatures implemented <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> that set the status of the freedmen much lower than that of white people.<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smith argues that "Johnson attempted to carry forward what he considered to be Lincoln's plans for Reconstruction."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McKitrick says that in 1865 Johnson had strong support in the Republican Party, saying: "It was naturally from the great moderate sector of Unionist opinion in the North that Johnson could draw his greatest comfort."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ray Allen Billington says: "One faction, the <a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)">moderate Republicans</a> under the leadership of Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, favored a mild policy toward the South."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David A. Lincove, citing Lincoln biographers <a href="/wiki/James_G._Randall" title="James G. Randall">James G. Randall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Current" title="Richard N. Current">Richard N. Current</a>, argued that:<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.</p></blockquote> <p>Historians generally agree that President Johnson was an inept politician who lost all his advantages by unskilled maneuvering. He broke with Congress in early 1866 and then became defiant and tried to block enforcement of Reconstruction laws passed by the U.S. Congress. He was in constant conflict constitutionally with the Radicals in Congress over the status of freedmen and whites in the defeated South.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely1974125_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely1974125-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although resigned to the abolition of slavery, many former Confederates were unwilling to accept both social changes and political domination by former slaves. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Perry" title="Benjamin Franklin Perry">Benjamin Franklin Perry</a>, President Johnson's choice as the provisional governor of South Carolina: "First, the Negro is to be invested with all political power, and then the antagonism of interest between capital and labor is to work out the result."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarney1987245_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarney1987245-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the fears of the planter elite and other leading white citizens were partly assuaged by the actions of President Johnson, who ensured that a wholesale land redistribution from the planters to the freedmen did not occur. President Johnson ordered that confiscated or abandoned lands administered by the Freedmen's Bureau would not be redistributed to the freedmen but would be returned to pardoned owners. Land was returned that would have been forfeited under the Confiscation Acts passed by Congress in 1861 and 1862.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Johnson repudiated Sherman's Special Field Order Number 15, the source of the "<a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres and a mule</a>" promise of reparations for former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedmen_and_the_enactment_of_Black_Codes">Freedmen and the enactment of Black Codes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Freedmen and the enactment of Black Codes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes (United States)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg/220px-The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg/330px-The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg/440px-The_Union_as_It_Was.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>An October 24th, 1874 <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a> editorial cartoon by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a> denouncing KKK and White League murders of innocent Blacks</figcaption></figure> <p>Southern state governments quickly enacted the restrictive "<a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a>". However, they were abolished in 1866 and seldom had effect, because the Freedmen's Bureau (not the local courts) handled the legal affairs of freedmen. </p><p>The Black Codes indicated the plans of the Southern whites for the former slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._31_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._31-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The freedmen would have more rights than did free Blacks before the war, but they would still have only second-class civil rights, no voting rights, and no citizenship. They could not own firearms, serve on a jury in a lawsuit involving whites, or move about without employment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917128–129_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917128–129-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Codes outraged Northern opinion. They were overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a> that gave the freedmen more legal equality (although still without the right to vote).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001527_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001527-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The freedmen, with the strong backing of the Freedmen's Bureau, rejected <a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">gang labor</a> work patterns that had been used in slavery. Instead of gang labor, freed people preferred family-based labor groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199767_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199767-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They forced planters to bargain for their labor. Such bargaining soon led to the establishment of the system of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a>, which gave the freedmen greater economic independence and social autonomy than gang labor. However, because they lacked capital and the planters continued to own the means of production (tools, draft animals, and land), the freedmen were forced into producing cash crops (mainly cotton) for the land-owners and merchants, and they entered into a <a href="/wiki/Crop-lien_system" title="Crop-lien system">crop-lien system</a>. Widespread poverty, disruption to an agricultural economy too dependent on cotton, and the falling price of cotton, led within decades to the routine indebtedness of the majority of the freedmen, and the poverty of many planters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarney1987251,_284–286_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarney1987251,_284–286-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Northern officials gave varying reports on conditions for the freedmen in the South. One harsh assessment came from <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schurz" title="Carl Schurz">Carl Schurz</a>, who reported on the situation in the states along the Gulf Coast. His report documented dozens of <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">extrajudicial killings</a> and claimed that hundreds or thousands more African Americans were killed:<sup id="cite_ref-Schurz_1865_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schurz_1865-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The number of murders and assaults perpetrated upon Negroes is very great; we can form only an approximative estimate of what is going on in those parts of the South which are not closely garrisoned, and from which no regular reports are received, by what occurs under the very eyes of our military authorities. As to my personal experience, I will only mention that during my two days sojourn at Atlanta, one Negro was stabbed with fatal effect on the street, and three were poisoned, one of whom died. While I was at Montgomery, one Negro was cut across the throat evidently with intent to kill, and another was shot, but both escaped with their lives. Several papers attached to this report give an account of the number of capital cases that occurred at certain places during a certain period of time. It is a sad fact that the perpetration of those acts is not confined to that class of people which might be called the rabble.</p></blockquote> <p>The report included sworn testimony from soldiers and officials of the Freedmen's Bureau. In <a href="/wiki/Selma,_Alabama" title="Selma, Alabama">Selma, Alabama</a>, Major J. P. Houston noted that whites who killed 12 African Americans in his district never came to trial. Many more killings never became official cases. Captain Poillon described white patrols in southwestern Alabama:<sup id="cite_ref-Schurz_1865_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schurz_1865-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>who board some of the boats; after the boats leave they hang, shoot, or drown the victims they may find on them, and all those found on the roads or coming down the rivers are almost invariably murdered. The bewildered and terrified freedmen know not what to do—to leave is death; to remain is to suffer the increased burden imposed upon them by the cruel taskmaster, whose only interest is their labor, wrung from them by every device an inhuman ingenuity can devise; hence the lash and murder is resorted to intimidate those whom fear of an awful death alone cause to remain, while patrols, Negro dogs and spies, disguised as Yankees, keep constant guard over these unfortunate people.</p></blockquote> <p>Much of the violence that was perpetrated against African Americans was shaped by gender prejudices regarding African Americans. Black women were in a particularly vulnerable situation. To convict a white man of sexually assaulting Black women in this period was exceedingly difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1997_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1997-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The South's judicial system had been wholly refigured to make one of its primary purposes the coercion of African Americans to comply with the social customs and labor demands of whites.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (January 2021)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Trials were discouraged and attorneys for Black misdemeanor defendants were difficult to find. The goal of county courts was a fast, uncomplicated trial with a resulting conviction. Most Blacks were unable to pay their fines or bail, and "the most common penalty was nine months to a year in a slave mine or lumber camp".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The South's judicial system was rigged to generate fees and claim bounties, not to ensure public protection. Black women were socially perceived as sexually avaricious and since they were portrayed as having little virtue, society held that they could not be raped.<sup id="cite_ref-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p202_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p202-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One report indicates two freed women, Frances Thompson and Lucy Smith, described their violent sexual assault during the <a href="/wiki/Memphis_Riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis Riots of 1866">Memphis Riots of 1866</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freedwomen_and_the_Freedmen's_Bureau_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freedwomen_and_the_Freedmen's_Bureau-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Black women were vulnerable even in times of relative normalcy. Sexual assaults on African-American women were so pervasive, particularly on the part of their white employers, that Black men sought to reduce the contact between white males and Black females by having the women in their family avoid doing work that was closely overseen by whites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201070_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201070-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black men were construed as being extremely sexually aggressive and their supposed or rumored threats to white women were often used as a pretext for <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> and castrations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moderate_responses">Moderate responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Moderate responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During fall 1865, out of response to the Black Codes and worrisome signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Radical Republicans blocked the readmission of the former rebellious states to the Congress. Johnson, however, was content with allowing former Confederate states into the Union as long as their state governments adopted the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery. By December 6, 1865, the amendment was ratified and Johnson considered Reconstruction over. According to <a href="/wiki/James_Schouler" title="James Schouler">James Schouler</a> writing in 1913, Johnson was following the moderate Lincoln presidential Reconstruction policy to get the states readmitted as soon as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schouler_1913_43–57-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress, however, controlled by the Radicals, had other plans. The Radicals were led by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> in the Senate and <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a> in the House of Representatives. Congress, on December 4, 1865, rejected Johnson's moderate presidential Reconstruction, and organized the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Committee_on_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Committee on Reconstruction">Joint Committee on Reconstruction</a>, a 15-member panel to devise Reconstruction requirements for the Southern states to be restored to the Union.<sup id="cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schouler_1913_43–57-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1866, Congress renewed the Freedmen's Bureau; however, Johnson vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill in February 1866. Although Johnson had sympathy for the plight of the freedmen,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> he was against federal assistance. An attempt to override the veto failed on February 20, 1866. This veto shocked the congressional Radicals. In response, both the Senate and House passed a joint resolution not to allow any senator or representative seat admittance until Congress decided when Reconstruction was finished.<sup id="cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schouler_1913_43–57-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</a> of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront to the Black Codes. He proposed the first <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act</a>, because the abolition of slavery was empty if:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_pp._65–66_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_pp._65–66-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>laws are to be enacted and enforced depriving persons of African descent of privileges which are essential to freemen.... A law that does not allow a colored person to go from one county to another, and one that does not allow him to hold property, to teach, to preach, are certainly laws in violation of the rights of a freeman... The purpose of this bill is to destroy all these discriminations.</p></blockquote> <p>The key to the bill was the opening section:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation"><span title="The text near this tag needs a citation. (October 2020)">This quote needs a citation</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All persons born in the United States ... are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery ... shall have the same right in every State ... to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, and give evidence, to inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property, and to full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, and penalties and to none other, any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, or custom to the Contrary notwithstanding.</p></blockquote> <p>The bill did not give freedmen the right to vote. Congress quickly passed the Civil Rights Bill; the Senate on February 2 voted 33–12; the House on March 13 voted 111–38. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johnson's_vetoes"><span id="Johnson.27s_vetoes"></span>Johnson's vetoes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Johnson's vetoes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg/250px-Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg/375px-Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg/500px-Freedman%27s_bureau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>The debate over Reconstruction and the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> was nationwide. This 1866 Pennsylvania election poster alleged that the bureau kept the Negro in idleness at the expense of the hardworking white taxpayer. A racist <a href="/wiki/Caricature" title="Caricature">caricature</a> of an African American is depicted.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg/220px-Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg/330px-Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg/440px-Harper%27s_Weekly_cover_1865_July_29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2264" data-file-height="3341" /></a><figcaption><i>Harper's Weekly</i> cover of July 29, 1865; the text in the planter's <a href="/wiki/Speech_balloon" title="Speech balloon">speech balloon</a> reads "My boy, we've toiled and taken care of you long enough. Now you've got to work!"</figcaption></figure> <p>Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27, 1866. His veto message objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when 11 out of 36 states were unrepresented and attempted to fix by federal law "a perfect equality of the white and black races in every state of the Union". Johnson said it was an invasion by federal authority of the rights of the states; it had no warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. It was a "stride toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national government".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._68_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._68-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Democratic Party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, North and South, supported Johnson.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Republicans in Congress overrode his veto (the Senate by the close vote of 33–15, and the House by 122–41) and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">civil rights bill</a> became law. Congress also passed a watered-down Freedmen's Bureau bill; Johnson quickly vetoed as he had done to the previous bill. Once again, however, Congress had enough support and overrode Johnson's veto.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_Rucker_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander_Rucker-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last moderate proposal was the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, whose principal drafter was Representative <a href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</a>. It was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution, but it went much further. It extended citizenship to everyone born in the United States (except <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Indians</a> on reservations), penalized states that did not give the vote to freedmen, and most important, created new federal civil rights that could be protected by federal courts. It guaranteed the federal war debt would be paid (and promised the Confederate debt would never be paid). Johnson used his influence to block the amendment in the states since three-fourths of the states were required for ratification (the amendment was later ratified). The moderate effort to compromise with Johnson had failed, and a political fight broke out between the Republicans (both Radical and moderate) on one side, and on the other side, Johnson and his allies in the Democratic Party in the North, and the groupings (which used different names) in each Southern state.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Congressional_Reconstruction">Congressional Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Congressional Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg/250px-Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg/375px-Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Seymour_US_Reconstruction_antidem_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>1868 Republican cartoon identifies Democratic candidates Seymour and Blair (right) with KKK violence and with Confederate soldiers (left).</figcaption></figure> <p>Concerned by multiple reports of abuse of black freedmen by Southern white officials and plantation owners, Republicans in Congress took control of Reconstruction policies after the election of 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2014b224–227_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2014b224–227-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johnson ignored the policy mandate, and he openly encouraged Southern states to deny ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment (except for Tennessee, all former Confederate states did refuse to ratify, as did the border states of Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky). Radical Republicans in Congress, led by Stevens and Sumner, opened the way to suffrage for male freedmen. They were generally in control, although they had to compromise with the moderate Republicans (the Democrats in Congress had almost no power). Historians refer to this period as "Radical Reconstruction" or "congressional Reconstruction".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The business spokesmen in the North generally opposed Radical proposals. Analysis of 34 major business newspapers showed that 12 discussed politics, and only one, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iron_Age_(newspaper)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iron Age (newspaper) (page does not exist)">Iron Age</a></i>, supported radicalism. The other 11 opposed a "harsh" Reconstruction policy, favored the speedy return of the Southern states to congressional representation, opposed legislation designed to protect the freedmen, and deplored the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The South's White leaders, who held power in the immediate post-bellum era before the vote was granted to the freedmen, renounced secession and slavery, but not White supremacy. People who had previously held power were angered in 1867 when new elections were held. New Republican lawmakers were elected by a coalition of White Unionists, freedmen and Northerners who had settled in the South. Some leaders in the South tried to accommodate new conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_amendments">Constitutional amendments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Constitutional amendments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three constitutional amendments, known as the Reconstruction amendments, were adopted. The Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery was ratified in 1865. The Fourteenth Amendment was proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868, guaranteeing <a href="/wiki/United_States_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="United States citizenship">United States citizenship</a> to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and granting them federal civil rights. The Fifteenth Amendment, proposed in late February 1869, and passed in early February 1870, decreed that the right to vote could not be denied because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". Left unaffected was that states would still determine voter registration and electoral laws. The amendments were directed at ending slavery and providing full citizenship to freedmen. Northern congressmen believed that providing Black men with the right to vote would be the most rapid means of political education and training.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many Blacks took an active part in voting and political life, and rapidly continued to build churches and community organizations. Following Reconstruction, White Democrats and insurgent groups used force to regain power in the state legislatures, and pass laws that effectively <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> most Blacks and many poor Whites in the South. From 1890 to 1910, Southern states passed new state constitutions that completed the disenfranchisement of Blacks. U.S. Supreme Court rulings on these provisions upheld many of these new Southern state constitutions and laws, and most Blacks were prevented from voting in the South until the 1960s. Full federal enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments did not reoccur until after passage of legislation in the mid-1960s as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For details, see: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Prose plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Prose" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is in <a href="/wiki/MOS:LIST" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:LIST">list</a> format but may read better as <a href="/wiki/MOS:PROSE" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:PROSE">prose</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit">converting this section</a>, if appropriate. <a href="/wiki/Help:Editing" title="Help:Editing">Editing help</a> is available.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1875),<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> related to the <a href="/wiki/Colfax_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Colfax Massacre">Colfax Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posse_Comitatus_Act" title="Posse Comitatus Act">Posse Comitatus Act</a> (1878)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Mississippi" title="Williams v. Mississippi">Williams v. Mississippi</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i> (1903)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutes">Statutes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Statutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a>, as originally passed, were initially called "An act to provide for the more efficient Government of the Rebel States".<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legislation was enacted by the 39th Congress, on March 2, 1867. It was vetoed by President Johnson, and the veto then overridden by a two-thirds majority, in both the House and the Senate, the same day. Congress also clarified the scope of the federal writ of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, to allow federal courts to <a href="/wiki/Vacated_judgment" title="Vacated judgment">vacate</a> unlawful state court convictions or sentences, in 1867.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_Reconstruction">Military Reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Military Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstruction_military_districts.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Reconstruction_military_districts.svg/330px-Reconstruction_military_districts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Reconstruction_military_districts.svg/495px-Reconstruction_military_districts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Reconstruction_military_districts.svg/660px-Reconstruction_military_districts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Map of the five Reconstruction military districts <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/First_Military_District" title="First Military District">First Military District</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#009F6B; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Second_Military_District" title="Second Military District">Second Military District</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C40233; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Third_Military_District" title="Third Military District">Third Military District</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFD300; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Military_District" title="Fourth Military District">Fourth Military District</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0087BD; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Military_District" title="Fifth Military District">Fifth Military District</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>With the Radicals in control, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Act">Reconstruction Acts</a> on July 19, 1867. The first Reconstruction Act, authored by Oregon Sen. <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Williams" title="George Henry Williams">George Henry Williams</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republican" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical Republican">Radical Republican</a>, placed 10 of the former Confederate states—all but Tennessee—under military control, grouping them into five military districts:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Military_District" title="First Military District">First Military District</a>: Virginia, under General <a href="/wiki/John_Schofield" title="John Schofield">John Schofield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Military_District" title="Second Military District">Second Military District</a>: North Carolina and South Carolina, under General <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Sickles" title="Daniel Sickles">Daniel Sickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Military_District" title="Third Military District">Third Military District</a>: Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, under Generals <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">John Pope</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">George Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Military_District" title="Fourth Military District">Fourth Military District</a>: Arkansas and Mississippi, under General <a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Edward Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Military_District" title="Fifth Military District">Fifth Military District</a>: Texas and Louisiana, under Generals <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock" title="Winfield Scott Hancock">Winfield Scott Hancock</a></li></ul> <p>20,000 U.S. troops were deployed to enforce the act. </p><p>The five <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border states</a> that had not joined the Confederacy were not subject to military Reconstruction. West Virginia, which had <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">seceded</a> from Virginia in 1863, and Tennessee, which had already been re-admitted in 1866, were not included in the military districts. Federal troops, however, were kept in West Virginia through 1868 in order to control civil unrest in several areas throughout the state.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal troops were removed from Kentucky and Missouri in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 10 Southern state governments were re-constituted under the direct control of the United States Army. One major purpose was to recognize and protect the right of African Americans to vote.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was little to no combat, but rather a state of <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> in which the military closely supervised local government, supervised elections, and tried to protect office holders and freedmen from violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6–7_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6–7-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blacks were enrolled as voters; former Confederate leaders were excluded for a limited period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988274–275_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988274–275-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No one state was entirely representative. Randolph Campbell describes what happened in Texas:<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The first critical step ... was the registration of voters according to guidelines established by Congress and interpreted by Generals Sheridan and Charles Griffin. The Reconstruction Acts called for registering all adult males, white and black, except those who had ever sworn an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States and then engaged in rebellion.... Sheridan interpreted these restrictions stringently, barring from registration not only all pre-1861 officials of state and local governments who had supported the Confederacy but also all city officeholders and even minor functionaries such as sextons of cemeteries. In May Griffin ... appointed a three-man board of registrars for each county, making his choices on the advice of known scalawags and local Freedmen's Bureau agents. In every county where practicable a freedman served as one of the three registrars.... Final registration amounted to approximately 59,633 whites and 49,479 blacks. It is impossible to say how many whites were rejected or refused to register (estimates vary from 7,500 to 12,000), but blacks, who constituted only about 30 percent of the state's population, were significantly over-represented at 45 percent of all voters.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_constitutional_conventions:_1867–1869"><span id="State_constitutional_conventions:_1867.E2.80.931869"></span>State constitutional conventions: 1867–1869</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: State constitutional conventions: 1867–1869"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 11 Southern states held constitutional conventions giving Black men the right to vote,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988316–333_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988316–333-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the factions divided into the Radical, "<a href="/wiki/Conservative_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Conservative Republicans (Reconstruction era)">conservative</a>", and in-between delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Radicals were a coalition: 40% were Southern White Republicans; 25% were White and 34% were Black.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to expanding the franchise, they pressed for provisions designed to promote economic growth, especially financial aid to rebuild the ruined railroad system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988323–325_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988323–325-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conventions set up systems of free public schools funded by tax dollars, but did not require them to be racially integrated.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyack_Lowe_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyack_Lowe-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg/220px-This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg/330px-This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg/440px-This_is_a_White_Man%27s_Government.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1036" /></a><figcaption>"This is a white man's government", <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a>'s caricature of the forces arraigned against Grant and Reconstruction in the 1868 election. Atop a black Union veteran reaching for a ballot box: the New York City Irish; Confederate and Klansman <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a>; and big-money Democratic Party chairman <a href="/wiki/August_Belmont" title="August Belmont">August Belmont</a>, a burning freedmen's school in the background. <i><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly" title="Harper's Weekly">Harper's Weekly</a></i>, September 5, 1868.</figcaption></figure> <p>Until 1872, most former Confederate or prewar Southern office holders were disqualified from voting or holding office; all but 500 top Confederate leaders were pardoned by the <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_Act_of_1872" class="mw-redirect" title="Amnesty Act of 1872">Amnesty Act of 1872</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Proscription" was the policy of disqualifying as many ex-Confederates as possible. For example, in 1865 Tennessee had disenfranchised 80,000 ex-Confederates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._2_p._635_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._2_p._635-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, proscription was soundly rejected by the Black element, which insisted on universal suffrage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988324_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988324-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerman198536–37_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerman198536–37-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue would come up repeatedly in several states, especially in Texas and Virginia. In Virginia, an effort was made to disqualify for public office every man who had served in the Confederate Army even as a private, and any civilian farmer who sold food to the Confederate States Army.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_p._323;_Vol._2_pp._645,_698_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_p._323;_Vol._2_pp._645,_698-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disenfranchising Southern Whites was also opposed by moderate Republicans in the North, who felt that ending proscription would bring the South closer to a republican form of government based on the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>, as called for by the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. Strong measures that were called for in order to forestall a return to the defunct Confederacy increasingly seemed out of place, and the role of the United States Army and controlling politics in the state was troublesome. Historian Mark Summers states that increasingly "the disenfranchisers had to fall back on the contention that denial of the vote was meant as punishment, and a lifelong punishment at that ... Month by month, the un-<a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> character of the regime looked more glaring."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014160–161_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014160–161-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1868">Election of 1868</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Election of 1868"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">1868 United States presidential election</a></div> <p>During the Civil War, many in the North believed that fighting for the Union was a noble cause—for the preservation of the Union and the end of slavery. After the war ended, with the North victorious, the fear among Radicals was that President Johnson too quickly assumed that slavery and Confederate nationalism were dead and that the Southern states could return. The Radicals sought out a candidate for president who represented their viewpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001455–457_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001455–457-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1868, the Republicans unanimously chose <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> as their presidential candidate, and <a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Schuyler Colfax</a> as their vice-presidential candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun201741–42_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun201741–42-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant won favor with the Radicals after he allowed <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Edwin Stanton</a>, a Radical, to be reinstated as secretary of war. As early as 1862, during the Civil War, Grant had appointed the Ohio military chaplain <a href="/wiki/John_Eaton_(General)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Eaton (General)">John Eaton</a> to protect and gradually incorporate refugee slaves in west Tennessee and northern Mississippi into the Union war effort and pay them for their labor. It was the beginning of his vision for the Freedmen's Bureau.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant opposed President Johnson by supporting the Reconstruction Acts passed by the Radicals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001437–453,_458–460_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001437–453,_458–460-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northern cities Grant contended with a strong immigrant, and particularly in New York City an Irish, anti-Reconstructionist Democratic bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-Montgomery_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montgomery-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Republicans sought to make inroads campaigning for the Irish taken prisoner in the <a href="/wiki/Fenian_raids" title="Fenian raids">Fenian raids</a> into Canada, and calling on the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Johnson administration</a> to recognize a lawful state of war between Ireland and England. In 1867 Grant personally intervened with <a href="/wiki/David_Bell_(Irish_Republican)" title="David Bell (Irish Republican)">David Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Scanlon_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Scanlon (poet)">Michael Scanlon</a> to move their paper, the <i>Irish Republic</i>, articulate in its support for black equality, to New York from Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yanoso_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanoso-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Democrats, having abandoned Johnson, nominated former governor <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour" title="Horatio Seymour">Horatio Seymour</a> of New York for president and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Preston_Blair_Jr." title="Francis Preston Blair Jr.">Francis P. Blair</a> of Missouri for vice president.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002245_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002245-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Democrats advocated the immediate restoration of former Confederate states to the Union and amnesty from "all past political offenses".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersWoolley2018b_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersWoolley2018b-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grant won the popular vote by 300,000 votes out of 5,716,082 votes cast, receiving an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">Electoral College</a> landslide of 214 votes to Seymour's 80.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001461_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001461-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seymour received a majority of white votes, but Grant was aided by 500,000 votes cast by blacks,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002245_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002245-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> winning him 52.7 percent of the popular vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun201755_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun201755-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He lost Louisiana and Georgia primarily due to <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> violence against African-American voters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2014a243–244_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2014a243–244-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the age of 46, Grant was the youngest president yet elected, and the first president elected after the nation had outlawed slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002284_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002284-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001461_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001461-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2016471_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2016471-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grant's_presidential_Reconstruction"><span id="Grant.27s_presidential_Reconstruction"></span>Grant's presidential Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Grant's presidential Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg/170px-Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg/255px-Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg/340px-Ulysses_S_Grant_by_Brady_c1870-restored.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2014" data-file-height="2518" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, 18th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1869–1877)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effective_civil_rights_executive">Effective civil rights executive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Effective civil rights executive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> was considered an effective civil rights executive, concerned about the plight of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201861-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant met with prominent black leaders for consultation and signed a bill into law, on March 18, 1869, that guaranteed equal rights to both blacks and whites, to serve on juries, and hold office, in Washington D.C.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201861-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spxiii_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spxiii-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870 Grant signed into law a <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act</a> that opened a path to citizenship for foreign-born Black residents in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201861-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Grant's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Creswell" title="John Creswell">John Creswell</a> used his patronage powers to integrate the postal system and appointed a record number of African-American men and women as postal workers across the nation, while also expanding many of the mail routes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsborneBombaro20156,_12,_54_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborneBombaro20156,_12,_54-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017629_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017629-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant appointed Republican abolitionist and champion of black education <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Lennox_Bond" title="Hugh Lennox Bond">Hugh Lennox Bond</a> as U.S. Circuit Court judge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017628_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017628-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_three_Reconstruction_states_admitted">Final three Reconstruction states admitted</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Final three Reconstruction states admitted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immediately upon inauguration in 1869, Grant bolstered Reconstruction by prodding Congress to readmit <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> into the Union, while ensuring their state constitutions protected every citizen's voting rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Spxiii_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spxiii-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grant advocated the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a> that said states could not disenfranchise <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a year, the three remaining states—Mississippi, Virginia, and Texas—adopted the new amendment—and were admitted to Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012435,_465Chernow2017686–687Simon2002247_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012435,_465Chernow2017686–687Simon2002247-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant put military pressure on Georgia to reinstate its black legislators and adopt the new amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012465_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012465-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Georgia complied, and on February 24, 1871, its senators were seated in Congress, with all the former Confederate states represented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002246_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002246-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern Reconstructed states were controlled by Republicans and former slaves. Eight years later, in 1877, the Democratic Party had full control of the region and Reconstruction was dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002247–248_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002247–248-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Department_of_Justice_created">Department of Justice created</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Department of Justice created"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1870, to enforce Reconstruction, Congress and Grant created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Justice_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Justice Department">Justice Department</a> that allowed the Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Amos_Akerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Amos Akerman">Amos Akerman</a> and the first <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Solicitor General</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Bristow" title="Benjamin Bristow">Benjamin Bristow</a> to prosecute the Klan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001543–545_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001543–545-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012474_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012474-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Grant's two terms he strengthened Washington's legal capabilities to directly intervene to protect citizenship rights even if the states ignored the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaczorowski1995_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaczorowski1995-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enforcement_Acts_(1870–1871)"><span id="Enforcement_Acts_.281870.E2.80.931871.29"></span>Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Congress and Grant passed a series (three) of powerful civil rights <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> between 1870 and 1871, designed to protect blacks and Reconstruction governments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were criminal codes that protected the freedmen's right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and receive equal protection of laws. Most important, they authorized the federal government to intervene when states did not act. Urged by Grant and his Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman" title="Amos T. Akerman">Amos T. Akerman</a>, the strongest of these laws was the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a>, passed on April 20, 1871, that authorized the president to impose <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> and suspend the writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001545–546White2016521_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001545–546White2016521-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002248_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002248-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grant was so adamant about the passage of the Ku Klux Klan Act, he earlier had sent a message to Congress, on March 23, 1871, in which he said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"A condition of affairs now exists in some of the States of the Union rendering life and property insecure, and the carrying of the mails and the collection of the revenue dangerous. The proof that such a, condition of affairs exists in some localities is now before the Senate. That the power to correct these evils is beyond the control of State authorities, I do not doubt. That the power of the Executive of the United States, acting within the limits of existing laws, is sufficient for present emergencies, is not clear."<sup id="cite_ref-:00_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:00-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Grant also recommended the enforcement of laws in all parts of the United States to protect life, liberty, and property.<sup id="cite_ref-:00_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:00-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecution_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan">Prosecution of the Ku Klux Klan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Prosecution of the Ku Klux Klan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg/170px-Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg/255px-Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg/340px-Amos_T_Akerman_-_crop_and_minor_retouch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="2584" /></a><figcaption>Grant's Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman" title="Amos T. Akerman">Amos T. Akerman</a> prosecuted the Ku Klux Klan, believing that the strong arm of the federal Justice Department could pacify the South.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg/220px-Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg/330px-Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg/440px-Thomas_Nast_1874.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5399" data-file-height="8029" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a> illustration entitled "Halt," published October 17, 1874</figcaption></figure> <p>Grant's Justice Department destroyed the Ku Klux Klan, but during both of his terms, Blacks lost their political strength in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>. By October, Grant suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> in part of South Carolina and he also sent federal troops to help marshals, who initiated prosecutions of Klan members.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002248_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002248-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant's Attorney General, <a href="/wiki/Amos_T._Akerman" title="Amos T. Akerman">Amos T. Akerman</a>, who replaced Hoar, was zealous in his attempt to destroy the Klan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201866_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201866-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Akerman and South Carolina's U.S. marshal arrested over 470 Klan members, but hundreds of Klansmen, including the Klan's wealthy leaders, fled the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017324_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017324-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Akerman returned over 3,000 indictments of the Klan throughout the South and obtained 600 convictions for the worst offenders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1872, Grant had crushed the Klan, and African Americans peacefully voted in record numbers in elections in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547–548_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547–548-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2019120–122_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2019120–122-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Williams" title="George Henry Williams">George H. Williams</a>, Akerman's replacement, suspended his prosecutions of the Klan in North Carolina and South Carolina in the Spring of 1873, but prior to the election of 1874, he changed course and prosecuted the Klan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan2018122_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan2018122-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil rights prosecutions continued but with fewer yearly cases and convictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1997102Kaczorowski1995182_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1997102Kaczorowski1995182-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amnesty_Act_of_1872">Amnesty Act of 1872</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Amnesty Act of 1872"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to fighting for African American civil rights, Grant wanted to reconcile with white southerners, out of a spirit of Appomattox.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To placate the South, in May 1872, Grant signed the <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_Act" title="Amnesty Act">Amnesty Act</a>, which restored political rights to former Confederates, except for a few hundred former Confederate officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201867–68Chernow2017746_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201867–68Chernow2017746-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant wanted people to vote and practice free speech despite their "views, color or nativity."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Civil Rights Act of 1875"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> was one of the last major acts of Congress and Grant to preserve Reconstruction and equality for <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017479_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017479-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial bill was created by Senator <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a>. Grant endorsed the measure, despite his previous feud with Sumner, signing it into law on March 1, 1875. The law, ahead of its times, outlawed discrimination for blacks in <a href="/wiki/Public_accommodations" class="mw-redirect" title="Public accommodations">public accommodations</a>, schools, transportation, and selecting juries. Although weakly enforceable, the law spread fear among whites opposed to interracial justice and was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1883. The later enforceable <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> borrowed many of the earlier 1875's law's provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Countered_election_fraud">Countered election fraud</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Countered election fraud"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To counter vote fraud in the Democratic stronghold of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, Grant sent in tens of thousands of armed, uniformed federal marshals and other election officials to regulate the 1870 and subsequent elections. Democrats across the North then mobilized to defend their base and attacked Grant's entire set of policies.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 21, 1876, President Grant deployed troops to protect Black and White Republican voters in Petersburg, Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair2005400_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2005400-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_support_of_Reconstruction_declines">National support of Reconstruction declines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: National support of Reconstruction declines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grant's support from Congress and the nation declined due to scandals within his administration and the political resurgence of the Democrats in the North and South. Anti-Reconstruction whites claimed that wealthy white landowners had lost power, and they blamed governmental scandals in the South on it. Meanwhile, white northern Republicans were becoming more conservative. Republicans and Black Americans lost power in the South. By 1870, most Republicans felt the war goals had been achieved, and they turned their attention to other issues such as economic policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White Americans were in almost full control again by the start of the 1900s and did not enforce Black voting rights. The United States government eventually pulled all its troops from the Southern states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="African_American_officeholders">African American officeholders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: African American officeholders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war,_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Radical members of the first legislature after the war, South Carolina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg/220px-Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg/330px-Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg/440px-Radical_members_of_the_first_legislature_after_the_war%2C_South_Carolina_LCCN97504690.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6581" data-file-height="8151" /></a><figcaption>"Radical members of the first legislature after the war, South Carolina"</figcaption></figure> <p>Republicans took control of all Southern state governorships and state legislatures, except for Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Republican coalition elected <a href="/wiki/African_American_officeholders_from_the_end_of_the_Civil_War_until_before_1900" title="African American officeholders from the end of the Civil War until before 1900">numerous African Americans</a> to local, state, and national offices; though they did not dominate any electoral offices, Black men as representatives voting in state and federal legislatures marked a drastic social change. At the beginning of 1867, no African American in the South held political office, but within three or four years "about 15 percent of the officeholders in the South were Black—a larger proportion than in 1990". Most of those offices were at the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199219_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199219-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, Blacks constituted the majority of the population in Mississippi and South Carolina, 47% in Louisiana, 45% in Alabama, and 44% in Georgia and Florida,<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so their political influence was still far less than their percentage of the population. </p><p>About 137 Black officeholders had lived outside the South before the Civil War. Some who had escaped from slavery to the North and had become educated returned to help the South advance in the postwar era. Others were <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free people of color</a> before the war, who had achieved education and positions of leadership elsewhere. Other African American men elected to office were already leaders in their communities, including a number of preachers. As happened in White communities, not all leadership depended upon wealth and literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._7_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._7-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1993introduction_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1993introduction-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Race of delegates to 1867<br />state constitutional conventions<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>State</th> <th>White</th> <th>Black</th> <th>% White</th> <th>Statewide White<br />population<br />(% in 1870)<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Virginia </th> <td style="text-align:right;">80</td> <td style="text-align:right;">25</td> <td style="text-align:right;">76</td> <td style="text-align:right;">58 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">North Carolina </th> <td style="text-align:right;">107</td> <td style="text-align:right;">13</td> <td style="text-align:right;">89</td> <td style="text-align:right;">63 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">South Carolina </th> <td style="text-align:right;">48</td> <td style="text-align:right;">76</td> <td style="text-align:right;">39</td> <td style="text-align:right;">41 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Georgia </th> <td style="text-align:right;">133</td> <td style="text-align:right;">33</td> <td style="text-align:right;">80</td> <td style="text-align:right;">54 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Florida </th> <td style="text-align:right;">28</td> <td style="text-align:right;">18</td> <td style="text-align:right;">61</td> <td style="text-align:right;">51 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Alabama </th> <td style="text-align:right;">92</td> <td style="text-align:right;">16</td> <td style="text-align:right;">85</td> <td style="text-align:right;">52 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Mississippi </th> <td style="text-align:right;">68</td> <td style="text-align:right;">17</td> <td style="text-align:right;">80</td> <td style="text-align:right;">46 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Louisiana </th> <td style="text-align:right;">25</td> <td style="text-align:right;">44</td> <td style="text-align:right;">36</td> <td style="text-align:right;">50 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Texas </th> <td style="text-align:right;">81</td> <td style="text-align:right;">9</td> <td style="text-align:right;">90</td> <td style="text-align:right;">69 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There were few African Americans elected or appointed to national office. African Americans voted for both White and Black candidates. The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> guaranteed only that voting could not be restricted on the basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. From 1868 on, campaigns and elections were surrounded by violence as White insurgents and paramilitaries tried to suppress the Black vote, and fraud was rampant. Many white southerners who had been pro-slavery were angry with governments that had African Americans in office. Furious white Southerners told the rumor that Reconstruction was secretly promoting Black Americans having full control over whites. Many congressional elections in the South were contested. Even states with majority-African-American populations often elected only one or two African American representatives to Congress. Exceptions included South Carolina; at the end of Reconstruction, four of its five congressmen were African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>African Americans in Office 1870–1876<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988354–355_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988354–355-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>State</th> <th>State<br />Legislators</th> <th><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress#In_Reconstruction_era" title="African Americans in the United States Congress">U.S.<br />Senators</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress#In_Reconstruction_era_2" title="African Americans in the United States Congress">U.S.<br />Congressmen</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Alabama </th> <td style="text-align:right;">69</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Arkansas </th> <td style="text-align:right;">8</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Florida </th> <td style="text-align:right;">30</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Georgia </th> <td style="text-align:right;">41</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Louisiana </th> <td style="text-align:right;">87</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/John_Willis_Menard" title="John Willis Menard">1*</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Mississippi </th> <td style="text-align:right;">112</td> <td style="text-align:right;">2</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">North Carolina </th> <td style="text-align:right;">30</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">South Carolina </th> <td style="text-align:right;">190</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">6 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Tennessee </th> <td style="text-align:right;">1</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Texas </th> <td style="text-align:right;">19</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Virginia </th> <td style="text-align:right;">46</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">0 </td></tr> <tr style="background:#b0c4de;"> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td style="text-align:right;"><b>633</b></td> <td style="text-align:right;"><b>2</b></td> <td style="text-align:right;"><b>15</b> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_economic_factors">Social and economic factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Social and economic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastman_Johnson,_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/170px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/255px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg/340px-Eastman_Johnson%2C_The_Lord_is_My_Shepherd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2363" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eastman_Johnson" title="Eastman Johnson">Eastman Johnson</a>'s 1863 painting <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lord_Is_My_Shepherd_(Eastman_Johnson)" title="The Lord Is My Shepherd (Eastman Johnson)">The Lord is My Shepherd</a></i>, of a man reading the Bible</figcaption></figure> <p>Freedmen were very active in forming their own churches, mostly Baptist or Methodist, and giving their ministers both moral and political leadership roles. In a process of self-segregation, practically all Blacks left White churches so that few racially integrated congregations remained (apart from some Catholic churches in Louisiana). They started many new Black Baptist churches and soon, new Black state associations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Four main groups competed with each other across the South to form new Methodist churches composed of freedmen. They were the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a>; the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church</a>, both independent Black denominations founded in Philadelphia and New York, respectively; the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Christian Methodist Episcopal Church">Colored Methodist Episcopal Church</a> (which was sponsored by the White <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" title="Methodist Episcopal Church, South">Methodist Episcopal Church, South</a>) and the well-funded <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> (predominantly White Methodists of the North). The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Methodism_in_the_United_States#Civil_War_and_Reconstruction" title="History of Methodism in the United States">Methodist Church</a> had split before the war due to disagreements about slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStowell1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjQphbo640wACpgPA84_83–84]_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowell1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjQphbo640wACpgPA84_83–84]-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By 1871, the Northern Methodists had 88,000 Black members in the South, and had opened numerous schools for them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweet1914157_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet1914157-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Blacks in the South made up a core element of the Republican Party. Their ministers had powerful political roles that were distinctive since they did not depend on White support, in contrast to teachers, politicians, businessmen, and tenant farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting on the principle as stated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Pearce" title="Charles H. Pearce">Charles H. Pearce</a>, an AME minister in Florida: "A man in this state cannot do his whole duty as a minister except he looks out for the political interests of his people." More than 100 Black ministers were elected to state legislatures during Reconstruction, as well as several to Congress and one, <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Rhodes Revels">Hiram Rhodes Revels</a>, to the U.S. Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner198893_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner198893-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a highly controversial action during the war, the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Northern Methodists</a> used the Army to seize control of Methodist churches in large cities, over the vehement protests of the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church,_South" title="Methodist Episcopal Church, South">Southern Methodists</a>. Historian Ralph Morrow reports:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954202_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954202-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStowell199830–31_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowell199830–31-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A War Department order of November 1863, applicable to the Southwestern states of the Confederacy, authorized the Northern Methodists to occupy "all houses of worship belonging to the Methodist Episcopal Church South in which a loyal minister, appointed by a loyal bishop of said church, does not officiate."</p></blockquote> <p>Across the North, several denominations—especially the Methodists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians, as well as the Quakers—strongly supported Radical policies. The focus on social problems paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a> movement. <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Simpson" title="Matthew Simpson">Matthew Simpson</a>, a Methodist bishop, played a leading role in mobilizing the Northern Methodists for the cause. Biographer Robert D. Clark called him the "High Priest of the Radical Republicans".<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Methodist Ministers Association of Boston, meeting two weeks after Lincoln's assassination, called for a hard line against the Confederate leadership:<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweet1914161_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet1914161-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Resolved, that no terms should be made with traitors, no compromise with rebels.... That we hold the national authority bound by the most solemn obligation to God and man to bring all the civil and military leaders of the rebellion to trial by due course of law, and when they are clearly convicted, to execute them.</p></blockquote> <p>The denominations all sent missionaries, teachers and activists to the South to help the freedmen. Only the Methodists made many converts, however.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activists sponsored by the Northern Methodist Church played a major role in the Freedmen's Bureau, notably in such key educational roles as the bureau's state superintendent or assistant superintendent of education for Virginia, Florida, Alabama, and South Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954205_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954205-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Americans interpreted great events in religious terms. Historian Wilson Fallin Jr. contrasts the interpretation of the Civil War and Reconstruction in White versus Black Baptist sermons in Alabama. White Baptists expressed the view that:<sup id="cite_ref-Fallin_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fallin-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor.</p></blockquote> <p>In sharp contrast, Black Baptists interpreted the Civil War, emancipation, and Reconstruction as:<sup id="cite_ref-Fallin_211-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fallin-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help them; God would be their rock in a stormy land.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_schools">Public schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Public schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian James D. Anderson argues that the freed slaves were the first Southerners "to campaign for universal, state-supported public education".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailseducationblackss00ande_055pagen20_4]_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailseducationblackss00ande_055pagen20_4]-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blacks in the Republican coalition played a critical role in establishing the principle in state constitutions for the first time during congressional Reconstruction. Some slaves had learned to read from White playmates or colleagues before formal education was allowed by law; African Americans started "native schools" before the end of the war; Sabbath schools were another widespread means that freedmen developed to teach literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson19886–15_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson19886–15-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they gained suffrage, Black politicians took this commitment to public education to state constitutional conventions. </p><p>The Republicans created a system of public schools, which were segregated by race everywhere except New Orleans. Generally, elementary and a few secondary schools were built in most cities, and occasionally in the countryside, but the South had few cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyack_Lowe_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyack_Lowe-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The rural areas faced many difficulties opening and maintaining public schools. In the country, the public school was often a one-room affair that attracted about half the younger children. The teachers were poorly paid, and their pay was often in arrears.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988365–368_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988365–368-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservatives contended the rural schools were too expensive and unnecessary for a region where the vast majority of people were cotton or tobacco farmers. They had no expectation of better education for their residents. One historian found that the schools were less effective than they might have been because "poverty, the inability of the states to collect taxes, and inefficiency and corruption in many places prevented successful operation of the schools".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961139_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961139-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Reconstruction ended and White elected officials <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">disenfranchised Blacks</a> and imposed <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> laws, they consistently underfunded Black institutions, including the schools. </p><p>After the war, Northern missionaries founded numerous private academies and colleges for freedmen across the South. In addition, every state founded state colleges for freedmen, such as <a href="/wiki/Alcorn_State_University" title="Alcorn State University">Alcorn State University</a> in Mississippi. The normal schools and state colleges produced generations of teachers who were integral to the education of African American children under the segregated system. By the end of the century, the majority of African Americans were literate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the late 19th century, the federal government established land grant legislation to provide funding for higher education across the United States. Learning that Blacks were excluded from land grant colleges in the South, in 1890 the federal government insisted that Southern states establish Black state institutions as <a href="/wiki/Land_grant_colleges" class="mw-redirect" title="Land grant colleges">land grant colleges</a> to provide for Black higher education, in order to continue to receive funds for their already established White schools. Some states classified their Black state colleges as land grant institutions. Former Congressman <a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Lynch" class="mw-redirect" title="John Roy Lynch">John Roy Lynch</a> wrote: "there are very many liberal, fair-minded and influential Democrats in the state [Mississippi] who are strongly in favor of having the state provide for the liberal education of both races".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2020 study by economist <a href="/wiki/Trevon_Logan" title="Trevon Logan">Trevon Logan</a>, increases in Black politicians led to greater tax revenue, which was put towards public education spending (and land tenancy reforms). Logan finds that this led to greater literacy among Black men.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Railroad_subsidies_and_payoffs">Railroad subsidies and payoffs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Railroad subsidies and payoffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/220px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/330px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg/440px-Atlanta_roundhouse_ruin3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4086" data-file-height="2913" /></a><figcaption>Atlanta's <a href="/wiki/Rail_yard" title="Rail yard">rail yard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Railway_roundhouse" title="Railway roundhouse">roundhouse</a> in ruins shortly after the end of the Civil War</figcaption></figure> <p>Every Southern state subsidized railroads, which modernizers believed could haul the South out of isolation and poverty. Millions of dollars in bonds and subsidies were fraudulently pocketed. One ring in North Carolina spent $200,000 in bribing the legislature and obtained millions of state dollars for its railroads. Instead of building new track, however, it used the funds to speculate in bonds, reward friends with extravagant fees, and enjoy lavish trips to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988387_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988387-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taxes were quadrupled across the South to pay off the railroad bonds and the school costs. </p><p>There were complaints among taxpayers because taxes had historically been low, as the planter elite was not committed to public infrastructure or public education. Taxes historically had been much lower in the South than in the North, reflecting the lack of government investment by the communities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961141–148_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961141–148-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, thousands of miles of lines were built as the Southern system expanded from 11,000 miles (18,000 km) in 1870 to 29,000 miles (47,000 km) in 1890. The lines were owned and directed overwhelmingly by Northerners. Railroads helped create a mechanically skilled group of craftsmen and broke the isolation of much of the region. Passengers were few, however, and apart from hauling the cotton crop when it was harvested, there was little freight traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1955_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1955-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Franklin explains: "numerous railroads fed at the public trough by bribing legislators ... and through the use and misuse of state funds". According to one businessman, the effect "was to drive capital from the state, paralyze industry, and demoralize labor".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961147–148_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961147–148-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Southern_country_store">The Southern country store</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: The Southern country store"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rural_American_history#Southern_country_store" title="Rural American history">Rural American history § Southern country store</a></div> <p>Outside the South, there were plenty of small towns where merchants and storekeepers could prosper. In the antebellum South there was no counterpart. The Civil War had devastated the rural South, as cotton prices fell and the vast sums invested in slaves disappeared overnight.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the Civil War plantation owners handled the cotton or tobacco matters and met consumer needs of their family and slaves. The dealt directly with wholesalers (called "factors") in far-off cities such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St Louis. In poor white areas there were occasional merchants before 1865. When slavery was abolished the rural South urgently needed merchants. Ambitious men suddenly appeared after 1865 and played a leading role in refashioning the economic and social fabric of the South. These merchants served as crucial intermediaries between rural communities and larger markets. Many if not most were Jewish peddlers and merchants; some had been in the South for decades and others were newly arrived from the North. They had a good rapport with their Black customers.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merchants used the newly built railroads to link the rural cotton or tobacco economy to the national economy. They worked with wholesalers in the handful of Southern cities to bring in northern consumer products. Legally they depended on new state laws creating the "<a href="/wiki/Crop_lien_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop lien system">crop lien system</a>". The merchant legally owned the entire commercial crop (usually cotton) from planting to harvest. He sold supplies on credit. When the crop was harvested the farmer brought it all to the merchant who then sold it, paid what the farmer owed the owner of the land, cleared the farmer's debt to the store, and returned the surplus if any. By providing credit to the poor white and black farmers, they exerted more influence every week than the white land owners.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role of the country store extended beyond simple trade. It was a <a href="/wiki/General_store" title="General store">general store</a> that provided a wide range of goods—pills, petticoats and plows and a hundred other items. The local federal post office was inside and there were benches outside for the bystanders. The farmers produced most of their own food, but they did buy necessities. In one Florida store with a largely Black clientele, the items most often purchased were corn, salt pork, sugar, lard, coffee, syrup, rice, flour, cloth, shoes, shotguns, shells, and patent medicines. Everything had a price except the one item in greatest demand: gossip was free.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merchants took food and meat in trade and resold it. These merchants were not just shopkeepers but also acted as bankers and brokers, extending credit to poor farmers and hand pressed landowners. The customers needed supplies every week, but had an income only at the end of the harvest season. The merchants gave them credit in terms of the expected size of their cotton or tobacco crops. Sharecroppers had to give half or more of the crop to the landowner. The rest at harvest time went to the merchant who would sell advantageously, and close the credit accounts. Merchants were thus the liaison between rural areas and the few cities in the postwar South. They handled the flow of goods, information, and credit. Merchants depended on credit from urban wholesalers, and like the sharecroppers they paid off their own debts with proceeds from the cotton or tobacco harvests.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the paternalistic mill villages that opened in the South in the late 19th century, the textile mills provided jobs for all family members, rented them cheap housing and paid then −in script they used to buy food and supplies in company stores. Independent merchants were few.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxation_during_Reconstruction">Taxation during Reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Taxation during Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reconstruction changed the means of taxation in the South. In the U.S. from the earliest days until today, a major source of state revenue was the <a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property tax</a>. In the South, wealthy landowners were allowed to self-assess the value of their own land. These fraudulent assessments were almost valueless, and pre-war property tax collections were lacking due to property value misrepresentation. State revenues came from fees and from sales taxes on slave auctions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988375_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988375-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some states assessed property owners by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">land value</a> and a capitation tax, a tax on each worker employed. This tax was often assessed in a way to discourage a free labor market, where a slave was assessed at 75 cents, while a free White was assessed at a dollar or more, and a free African American at $3 or more. Some revenue also came from <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>. These taxes were more than poor people could pay, with the designed and inevitable consequence that they did not vote. </p><p>During Reconstruction, the state legislature mobilized to provide for public needs more than had previous governments: establishing public schools and investing in infrastructure, as well as charitable institutions such as hospitals and asylums. They set out to increase taxes, which were unusually low. The planters had provided privately for their own needs. There was some fraudulent spending in the postwar years; a collapse in state credit because of huge deficits, forced the states to increase property tax rates. In places, the rate went up to 10 times higher—despite the poverty of the region. The planters had not invested in infrastructure and much had been destroyed during the war. In part, the new tax system was designed to force owners of large plantations with huge tracts of uncultivated land either to sell or to have it confiscated for failure to pay taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988376_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988376-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taxes would serve as a market-based system for redistributing the land to the landless freedmen and White poor. Mississippi, for instance, was mostly frontier, with 90% of the bottom lands in the interior undeveloped.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The following table shows property tax rates for South Carolina and Mississippi. Many local town and county assessments effectively doubled the tax rates reported in the table. These taxes were still levied upon the landowners' own sworn testimony as to the value of their land, which remained the dubious and exploitable system used by wealthy landholders in the South well into the 20th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>State Property Tax Rates during Reconstruction </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>South Carolina</th> <th>Mississippi </th></tr> <tr> <td>1869</td> <td style="text-align:right;">5 mills (0.5%)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">1 mill (0.1%) (lowest rate between 1822 and 1898) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1870</td> <td style="text-align:right;">9 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;">5 mills </td></tr> <tr> <td>1871</td> <td style="text-align:right;">7 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4 mills </td></tr> <tr> <td>1872</td> <td style="text-align:right;">12 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;">8.5 mills </td></tr> <tr> <td>1873</td> <td style="text-align:right;">12 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;">12.5 mills </td></tr> <tr> <td>1874</td> <td style="text-align:right;">10.3–8 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;">14 mills (1.4%) "a rate which virtually amounted to confiscation" (highest rate between 1822 and 1898) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1875</td> <td style="text-align:right;">11 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1876</td> <td style="text-align:right;">7 mills</td> <td style="text-align:right;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sources</td> <td style="text-align:center;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, J. S. (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reconstructioni00reyngoog/page/n538"><i>Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865–1877</i></a>. Columbia, SC: The State Co. p. 329.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+in+South+Carolina%2C+1865%E2%80%931877&rft.place=Columbia%2C+SC&rft.pages=329&rft.pub=The+State+Co.&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freconstructioni00reyngoog%2Fpage%2Fn538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></td> <td style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hollander, J. H. (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Idw0AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13"><i>Studies in State Taxation with Particular Reference to the Southern States</i></a>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. p. 192.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+State+Taxation+with+Particular+Reference+to+the+Southern+States&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Hollander&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIdw0AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Called upon to pay taxes on their property, essentially for the first time, angry plantation owners revolted. The conservatives shifted their focus away from race to taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988415–416_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988415–416-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Former Congressman <a href="/wiki/John_R._Lynch" title="John R. Lynch">John R. Lynch</a>, a Black Republican leader from Mississippi, later wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_217-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The argument made by the taxpayers, however, was plausible and it may be conceded that, upon the whole, they were about right; for no doubt it would have been much easier upon the taxpayers to have increased at that time the interest-bearing debt of the state than to have increased the tax rate. The latter course, however, had been adopted and could not then be changed unless of course they wanted to change them.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_financial_issues">National financial issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: National financial issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedberg_-_639.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Friedberg_-_639.jpg/250px-Friedberg_-_639.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Friedberg_-_639.jpg/375px-Friedberg_-_639.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Friedberg_-_639.jpg/500px-Friedberg_-_639.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>$20 banknote with portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch</figcaption></figure> <p>The Civil War had been financed primarily by issuing short-term and long-term bonds and loans, plus inflation caused by printing paper money, plus new taxes. Wholesale prices had more than doubled, and reduction of inflation was a priority for Secretary McCulloch.<sup id="cite_ref-Schell_1930_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schell_1930-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A high priority, and by far the most controversial, was the currency question. The old paper currency issued by state banks had been withdrawn, and Confederate currency was worthless. The national banks had issued $207 million in currency, which was backed by gold and silver. The federal treasury had issued $428 million in <a href="/wiki/Greenback_(1860s_money)" title="Greenback (1860s money)">greenbacks</a>, which was legal tender but not backed by gold or silver. In addition about $275 million of coin was in circulation. The new administration policy announced in October 1865 would be to make all the paper convertible into specie, if Congress so voted. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865, by a vote of 144 to 6. In the Senate it was a different matter, for the key player was Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">John Sherman</a>, who said that inflation contraction was not nearly as important as refunding the short-term and long-term national debt. The war had been largely financed by national debt, in addition to taxation and inflation. The national debt stood at $2.8 billion. By October 1865, most of it in short-term and temporary loans.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wall Street bankers typified by <a href="/wiki/Jay_Cooke" title="Jay Cooke">Jay Cooke</a> believed that the economy was about to grow rapidly, thanks to the development of agriculture through the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Act">Homestead Act</a>, the expansion of railroads, especially rebuilding the devastated Southern railroads and opening the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">transcontinental railroad line</a> to the West Coast, and especially the flourishing of manufacturing during the war. The gold premium over greenbacks was $145 in greenbacks to $100 in gold, and the optimists thought that the heavy demand for currency in an era of prosperity would return the ratio to 100.<sup id="cite_ref-Schell_1930_238-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schell_1930-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A compromise was reached in April 1866, that limited the treasury to a currency contraction of only $10 million over six months. Meanwhile, the Senate refunded the entire national debt, but the House failed to act. By early 1867, postwar prosperity was a reality, and the optimists wanted an end to contraction, which Congress ordered in January 1868. Meanwhile, the Treasury issued new bonds at a lower interest rate to refinance the redemption of short-term debt. While the old state bank notes were disappearing from circulation, new national bank notes, backed by species, were expanding. By 1868 inflation was minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ending_Reconstruction">Ending Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Ending Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congressional_investigation_into_Reconstruction_states_1872">Congressional investigation into Reconstruction states 1872</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Congressional investigation into Reconstruction states 1872"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On April 20, 1871, prior to the passage of the Ku Klux Klan Act (<i>Last of three Enforcement Acts</i>), on the same day, the U.S. Congress launched a 21-member investigation committee on the status of the Southern Reconstruction states North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. Congressional members on the committee included Rep. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Butler (politician)">Benjamin Butler</a>, Sen. <a href="/wiki/Zachariah_Chandler" title="Zachariah Chandler">Zachariah Chandler</a>, and Sen. <a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Blair" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis P. Blair">Francis P. Blair</a>. Subcommittee members traveled into the South to interview the people living in their respective states. Those interviewed included top-ranking officials, such as <a href="/wiki/Wade_Hampton_III" title="Wade Hampton III">Wade Hampton III</a>, former South Carolina Gov. <a href="/wiki/James_L._Orr" class="mw-redirect" title="James L. Orr">James L. Orr</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Nathan Bedford Forrest</a>, a former Confederate general and prominent <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> leader (Forrest denied in his congressional testimony being a member). Other Southerners interviewed included farmers, doctors, merchants, teachers, and clergymen. The committee heard numerous reports of White violence against Blacks, while many Whites denied Klan membership or knowledge of violent activities. The majority report by Republicans concluded that the government would not tolerate any Southern "conspiracy" to resist violently the congressional Reconstruction. The committee completed its 13-volume report in February 1872. While President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> had been able to suppress the KKK through the Enforcement Acts, other <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Insurgents" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgents">insurgents</a> organized, including the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> in 1874, active in Louisiana; and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Southern_United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Shirts (Southern United States)">Red Shirts</a>, with chapters active in Mississippi and the Carolinas. They used intimidation and outright attacks to run Republicans out of office and repress voting by Blacks, leading to White Democrats regaining power by the elections of the mid-to-late 1870s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961168–173_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961168–173-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Democrats">Southern Democrats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Southern Democrats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg/220px-A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg/330px-A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg/440px-A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4552" data-file-height="3348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Winslow_Homer" title="Winslow Homer">Winslow Homer</a>'s 1876 painting <i>A Visit from the Old Mistress</i></figcaption></figure> <p>While Republican whites supported measures for black civil rights, other whites typically opposed these measures. Some supported armed attacks to suppress blacks. They self-consciously defended their own actions within the framework of a white American discourse of resistance against <a href="/wiki/Tyrannical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannical">tyrannical</a> government, and they broadly succeeded in convincing many fellow White citizens, says Steedman.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opponents of Reconstruction formed state political parties, affiliated with the national Democratic Party and often named the "Conservative Party." They supported or tolerated violent <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> groups, such as the White League in Louisiana and the Red Shirts in Mississippi and the Carolinas, that assassinated and intimidated both Black and White Republican leaders at election time. Historian George C. Rable called such groups the "military arm of the Democratic Party". By the mid-1870s, the "conservatives" and Democrats had aligned with the national Democratic Party, which enthusiastically supported their cause even as the national Republican Party was losing interest in Southern affairs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Lynwood_Fleming" title="Walter Lynwood Fleming">Walter Lynwood Fleming</a>, associated with the early 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a>, describes the mounting anger of Southern Whites:<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Negro troops, even at their best, were everywhere considered offensive by the native whites.... The Negro soldier, impudent by reason of his new freedom, his new uniform, and his new gun, was more than Southern temper could tranquilly bear, and race conflicts were frequent.</p></blockquote> <p>Often, these White Southerners identified as the "Conservative Party" or the "Democratic and Conservative Party" in order to distinguish themselves from the national Democratic Party and to obtain support from former Whigs. These parties sent delegates to the <a href="/wiki/1868_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1868 Democratic National Convention">1868 Democratic National Convention</a> and abandoned their separate names by 1873 or 1874.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerman19856_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerman19856-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most White members of both the planter and business class and common farmer class of the South opposed Reconstruction, Black civil rights and military rule and sought <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. Democrats nominated some Blacks for political office and tried to entice other Blacks from the Republican side. When these attempts to combine with the Blacks failed, the planters joined the common farmers in simply trying to displace the Republican governments. The planters and their business allies dominated the self-styled "conservative" coalition that finally took control in the South. They were paternalistic toward the Blacks but feared they would use power to raise taxes and slow business development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fleming described the first results of the insurgent movement as "good", and the later ones as "both good and bad". According to Fleming (1907), the KKK "quieted the Negroes, made life and property safer, gave protection to women, stopped burnings, forced the Radical leaders to be more moderate, made the Negroes work better, drove the worst of the Radical leaders from the country and started the whites on the way to gain political supremacy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_p._328_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_p._328-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evil result, Fleming said, was that lawless elements "made use of the organization as a cloak to cover their misdeeds ... The lynching habits of today [1907] are largely due to conditions, social and legal, growing out of Reconstruction."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_pp._328–329_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_pp._328–329-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have noted that the peak of <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a> took place near the turn of the century, decades after Reconstruction ended, as Whites were imposing Jim Crow laws and passing new state constitutions that disenfranchised the Blacks. The lynchings were used for intimidation and social control, with a frequency associated more with economic stresses and the settlement of sharecropper accounts at the end of the season, than for any other reason. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ellis_Paxson_Oberholtzer" title="Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer">Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer</a> (a Northern scholar) in 1917 explained:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917485_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917485-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Outrages upon the former slaves in the South there were in plenty. Their sufferings were many. But white men, too, were victims of lawless violence, and in all portions of the North and the late "rebel" states. Not a political campaign passed without the exchange of bullets, the breaking of skulls with sticks and stones, the firing of rival club-houses. Republican clubs marched the streets of Philadelphia, amid revolver shots and brickbats, to save the Negroes from the "rebel" savages in Alabama.... The project to make voters out of black men was not so much for their social elevation as for the further punishment of the Southern white people—for the capture of offices for Radical scamps and the entrenchment of the Radical party in power for a long time to come in the South and in the country at large.</p></blockquote> <p>As Reconstruction continued, Whites accompanied elections with increased violence in an attempt to run Republicans out of office and suppress Black voting. The victims of this violence were overwhelmingly African American, as in the <a href="/wiki/Colfax_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Colfax Massacre">Colfax Massacre</a> of 1873. After federal suppression of the Klan in the early 1870s, White insurgent groups tried to avoid open conflict with federal forces. In 1874 in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a>, the White League entered New Orleans with 5,000 members and defeated the police and militia, to occupy federal offices for three days in an attempt to overturn the disputed government of <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_Kellogg" title="William Pitt Kellogg">William Pitt Kellogg</a>, but retreated before federal troops reached the city. None was prosecuted. Their election-time tactics included violent intimidation of African American and Republican voters prior to elections, while avoiding conflict with the U.S. Army or the state militias, and then withdrawing completely on election day. White supremacist violence continued in both the North and South; the White Liners movement to elect candidates dedicated to white supremacy reached as far as Ohio in 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002420–422_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002420–422-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redemption_1873–1877"><span id="Redemption_1873.E2.80.931877"></span>Redemption 1873–1877</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Redemption 1873–1877"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></div> <p>The Redeemers were the Southern wing of the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon Democrats">Bourbon Democrats</a>, the classically liberal, pro-business faction of the Democratic Party. They were a coalition which sought to regain political power, reestablish white supremacy, and oust the Radical Republicans from influence. Led by rich former planters, businessmen, and professionals, they dominated Southern politics in most areas from the 1870s to 1910. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Republicans_split_nationally:_election_of_1872">Republicans split nationally: election of 1872</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Republicans split nationally: election of 1872"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872 United States presidential election</a></div> <p>As early as 1868, Supreme Court Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a>, a leading Radical during the war, concluded that:<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Congress was right in not limiting, by its Reconstruction acts, the right of suffrage to Whites; but wrong in the exclusion from suffrage of certain classes of citizens and all unable to take its prescribed retrospective oath, and wrong also in the establishment of despotic military governments for the states and in authorizing military commissions for the trial of civilians in time of peace. There should have been as little military government as possible; no military commissions; no classes excluded from suffrage; and no oath except one of faithful obedience and support to the Constitution and laws, and of sincere attachment to the constitutional government of the United States.</p></blockquote> <p>By 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant had alienated large numbers of leading Republicans, including many Radicals, by the corruption of his administration and his use of federal soldiers to prop up Radical state regimes in the South. The opponents, called "<a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">Liberal Republicans</a>", included founders of the party who expressed dismay that the party had succumbed to corruption. They were further wearied by the continued insurgent violence of Whites against Blacks in the South, especially around every election cycle, which demonstrated that the war was not over and changes were fragile. Leaders included editors of some of the nation's most powerful newspapers. Charles Sumner, embittered by the corruption of the Grant administration, joined the new party, which nominated editor <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a>. The loosely-organized Democratic Party also supported Greeley.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Grant made up for the defections by new gains among Union veterans and by strong support from the "<a href="/wiki/Stalwart_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalwart (politics)">Stalwart</a>" faction of his party (which depended on his patronage), and the Southern Republican Party. Grant won with 55.6% of the vote to Greeley's 43.8%. The Liberal Republican Party vanished and many former supporters—even former abolitionists—abandoned the cause of Reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1875[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1875[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Republican_coalition_splinters_in_the_South">The Republican coalition splinters in the South</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: The Republican coalition splinters in the South"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the South, political and racial tensions built up inside the Republican Party as they were attacked by the Democrats. In 1868, Georgia Democrats, with support from some Republicans, expelled all 28 Black Republican members from the state house, arguing Blacks were eligible to vote but not to hold office. In most states, the more Whiggish Republicans fought for control with the more Radical Republicans and their Black allies. Most of the 430 Republican newspapers in the South were edited by native Southerners—only 20 percent were edited by northerners. White businessmen generally boycotted Republican papers, which survived through government patronage.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, in the increasingly bitter battles inside the Republican Party, those who supported Reconstruction usually lost; many of the disgruntled losers switched over to the Whig-leaning or Democratic side. In Mississippi, the Whiggish faction led by <a href="/wiki/James_Lusk_Alcorn" class="mw-redirect" title="James Lusk Alcorn">James Lusk Alcorn</a> was decisively defeated by the Radical faction led by <a href="/wiki/Adelbert_Ames" title="Adelbert Ames">Adelbert Ames</a>. The party lost support steadily as many supporters of Reconstruction left it; few recruits were acquired. The most bitter contest took place inside the Republican Party in Arkansas, where the two sides armed their forces and confronted each other in the streets; no actual combat took place in the <a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a>. The faction led by <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Baxter" title="Elisha Baxter">Elisha Baxter</a> finally prevailed when the White House intervened, but both sides were badly weakened, and the Democrats soon came to power.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, in state after state the freedmen were demanding a bigger share of the offices and patronage, squeezing out white allies but never commanding the numbers equivalent to their population proportion. By the mid-1870s: "The hard realities of Southern political life had taught the lesson that black constituents needed to be represented by black officials."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988537–541_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988537–541-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The financial depression increased the pressure on Reconstruction governments, dissolving progress. </p><p>Finally, some of the more prosperous freedmen were joining the Democrats, as they were angered at the failure of the Republicans to help them acquire land. The South was "sparsely settled"; only 10 percent of Louisiana was cultivated, and 90 percent of Mississippi bottom land was undeveloped in areas away from the river fronts, but freedmen often did not have the stake to get started. They hoped that the government would help them acquire land which they could work. Only South Carolina created any land redistribution, establishing a land commission and resettling about 14,000 freedmen families and some poor Whites on land purchased by the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988374–375_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988374–375-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although historians such as <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> celebrated a cross-racial coalition of poor Whites and Blacks, such coalitions rarely formed in these years. Writing in 1913, former Congressman Lynch, recalling his experience as a Black leader in Mississippi, explained that:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913107–108_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1913107–108-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>While the colored men did not look with favor upon a political alliance with the poor whites, it must be admitted that, with very few exceptions, that class of whites did not seek, and did not seem to desire such an alliance.</p></blockquote> <p>Lynch reported that poor Whites resented the job competition from freedmen. Furthermore, the poor Whites:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913108–109_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1913108–109-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>with a few exceptions, were less efficient, less capable, and knew less about matters of state and governmental administration than many of the former slaves.... As a rule, therefore, the Whites that came into the leadership of the Republican Party between 1872 and 1875 were representatives of the most substantial families of the land.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democrats_try_a_"New_Departure""><span id="Democrats_try_a_.22New_Departure.22"></span>Democrats try a "New Departure"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Democrats try a "New Departure""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Departure_(Democrats)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Departure (Democrats)">New Departure (Democrats)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg/220px-A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg/330px-A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg/440px-A_republican_form_of_government_and_no_domestic_violence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4064" data-file-height="6096" /></a><figcaption><i>A Republican Form of Government and No Domestic Violence</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a>, a political cartoon about the Wheeler Compromise in Louisiana, published in <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly" title="Harper's Weekly">Harper's Weekly</a>, March 6, 1875</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1870, the Democratic leadership across the South decided it had to end its opposition to Reconstruction and Black suffrage to survive and move on to new issues. The Grant administration had proven by its crackdown on the Ku Klux Klan that it would use as much federal power as necessary to suppress open anti-Black violence. Democrats in the North concurred with these Southern Democrats. They wanted to fight the Republican Party on economic grounds rather than race. The <a href="/wiki/New_Departure_(Democrats)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Departure (Democrats)">New Departure</a> offered the chance for a clean slate without having to re-fight the Civil War every election. Furthermore, many wealthy Southern landowners thought they could control part of the newly enfranchised Black electorate to their own advantage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Not all Democrats agreed; an insurgent element continued to resist Reconstruction no matter what. Eventually, a group called "Redeemers" took control of the party in the Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerman1985ch._3_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerman1985ch._3-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They formed coalitions with conservative Republicans, including supporters of Reconstruction, emphasizing the need for economic modernization. Railroad building was seen as a panacea since Northern capital was needed. The new tactics were a success in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia#Reconstruction" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a> where <a href="/wiki/William_Mahone" title="William Mahone">William Mahone</a> built a winning coalition. In Tennessee, the Redeemers formed a coalition with Republican Governor <a href="/wiki/Dewitt_Clinton_Senter" title="Dewitt Clinton Senter">Dewitt Clinton Senter</a>. Across the South, some Democrats switched from the race issue to taxes and corruption, charging that Republican governments were corrupt and inefficient. With a continuing decrease in cotton prices, taxes squeezed cash-poor farmers who rarely saw $20 in currency a year, but had to pay taxes in currency or lose their farms. But major planters, who had never paid taxes before, often recovered their property even after confiscation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988374–376_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988374–376-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In North Carolina, Republican Governor <a href="/wiki/William_Woods_Holden" title="William Woods Holden">William Woods Holden</a> used state troops against the Klan, but the prisoners were released by federal judges. Holden became the first governor in American history to be impeached and removed from office. Republican political disputes in Georgia split the party and enabled the Redeemers to take over.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988440–441_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988440–441-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the North, a live-and-let-live attitude made elections more like a sporting contest. But in the Deep South, many White citizens had not reconciled with the defeat of the war or the granting of citizenship to freedmen. As an Alabamian supporter of Reconstruction explained: "Our contest here is for life, for the right to earn our bread, ... for a decent and respectful consideration as human beings and members of society."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988443_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988443-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panic_of_1873">Panic of 1873</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Panic of 1873"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</a></div> <p>The Panic of 1873 (a <a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">depression</a>) hit the Southern economy hard and disillusioned many Republicans who had gambled that railroads would pull the South out of its poverty. The price of cotton fell by half; many small landowners, local merchants, and cotton factors (wholesalers) went bankrupt. Sharecropping for Black and White farmers became more common as a way to spread the risk of owning land. The old abolitionist element in the North was aging away, or had lost interest, and was not replenished. Many northern whites returned to the North or joined the Redeemers. Blacks had an increased voice in the Republican Party, but across the South it was divided by internal bickering and was rapidly losing its cohesion. Many local Black leaders started emphasizing individual economic progress in cooperation with White elites, rather than racial political progress in opposition to them, a conservative attitude that foreshadowed <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988545–547_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988545–547-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nationally, President Grant was blamed for the depression; the Republican Party lost 96 seats in all parts of the country in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_election,_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="United States House election, 1874">1874 elections</a>. The Bourbon Democrats took control of the House and were confident of electing <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a> president in 1876. President Grant was not running for re-election and seemed to be losing interest in the South. States fell to the Redeemers, with only four in Republican hands in 1873: Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Arkansas then fell after the violent Brooks–Baxter War in 1874 ripped apart the Republican Party there.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence">Violence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the lower South, violence increased as new insurgent groups arose, including the Red Shirts in Mississippi and the Carolinas, and the White League in Louisiana. The disputed election in Louisiana in 1872 found both Republican and Democratic candidates holding inaugural balls while returns were reviewed. Both certified their own slates for local parish offices in many places, causing local tensions to rise. Finally, federal support helped certify the Republican as governor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Slates for local offices were certified by each candidate. In rural <a href="/wiki/Grant_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Grant Parish">Grant Parish</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red River Valley</a>, freedmen fearing a Democratic attempt to take over the parish government reinforced defenses at the small Colfax courthouse in late March. White militias gathered from the area a few miles outside the settlement. Rumors and fears abounded on both sides. William Ward, an African American Union veteran and militia captain, mustered his company in <a href="/wiki/Colfax,_Louisiana" title="Colfax, Louisiana">Colfax</a> and went to the courthouse. On Easter Sunday, April 13, 1873, the Whites attacked the defenders at the courthouse. There was confusion about who shot one of the White leaders after an offer by the defenders to surrender. It was a catalyst to mayhem. In the end, three Whites died and 120–150 Blacks were killed, some 50 that evening while being held as prisoners. The disproportionate numbers of Black to White fatalities and documentation of brutalized bodies are why contemporary historians call it the <a href="/wiki/Colfax_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Colfax Massacre">Colfax Massacre</a> rather than the Colfax Riot, as it was known locally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemann200715–21_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemann200715–21-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This marked the beginning of heightened insurgency and attacks on Republican officeholders and freedmen in Louisiana and other Deep South states. In Louisiana, Judge T. S. Crawford and District Attorney P. H. Harris of the 12th Judicial District were shot off their horses and killed by ambush October 8, 1873, while going to court. One widow wrote to the Department of Justice that her husband was killed because he was a Union man, telling "the efforts made to screen those who committed a crime".<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political violence was endemic in Louisiana. In 1874, the White militias coalesced into <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramilitary organizations">paramilitary organizations</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, first in parishes of the Red River Valley. The new organization operated openly and had political goals: the violent overthrow of Republican rule and suppression of Black voting. White League chapters soon rose in many rural parishes, receiving financing for advanced weaponry from wealthy men. In the <a href="/wiki/Coushatta_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Coushatta Massacre">Coushatta Massacre</a> in 1874, the White League assassinated six White Republican officeholders and five to 20 Black witnesses outside <a href="/wiki/Coushatta" title="Coushatta">Coushatta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Red River Parish">Red River Parish</a>. Four of the White men were related to the Republican representative of the parish, who was married to a local woman; three were native to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg/220px-Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg/330px-Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg/440px-Harpers1874LouisianaOutrage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="961" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>White Leaguers attacking the New Orleans integrated police force and state militia, Battle of Liberty Place, 1874</figcaption></figure> <p>Later in 1874 the White League mounted a serious attempt to unseat the Republican governor of Louisiana, in a dispute that had simmered since the 1872 election. It brought 5,000 troops to New Orleans to engage and overwhelm forces of the metropolitan police and state militia to turn Republican Governor <a href="/wiki/William_P._Kellogg" class="mw-redirect" title="William P. Kellogg">William P. Kellogg</a> out of office and seat <a href="/wiki/John_McEnery_(Louisiana_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John McEnery (Louisiana politician)">John McEnery</a>. The White League took over and held the state house and city hall, but they retreated before the arrival of reinforcing federal troops. Kellogg had asked for reinforcements before, and Grant finally responded, sending additional troops to try to quell violence throughout plantation areas of the Red River Valley, although 2,000 troops were already in the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1990555–556_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1990555–556-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Southern_United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Shirts (Southern United States)">Red Shirts</a>, another paramilitary group, arose in 1875 in Mississippi and the Carolinas. Like the White League and White Liner rifle clubs, to which 20,000 men belonged in North Carolina alone, these groups operated as a "military arm of the Democratic Party", to restore White supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-George_C._Rable_1984,_p.132_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-George_C._Rable_1984,_p.132-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democrats and many Northern Republicans agreed that Confederate nationalism and slavery were dead—the war goals were achieved—and further federal military interference was an undemocratic violation of historical Republican values. The victory of <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> in the hotly contested <a href="/wiki/1875_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Ohio gubernatorial election">1875 Ohio gubernatorial election</a> indicated his "let alone" policy toward the South would become Republican policy, as happened when he won the <a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">1876 Republican nomination</a> for president.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An explosion of violence accompanied the campaign for <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Plan" title="Mississippi Plan">Mississippi's 1875 election</a>, in which Red Shirts and Democratic rifle clubs, operating in the open, threatened or shot enough Republicans to decide the election for the Democrats. Hundreds of Black men were killed. Republican Governor <a href="/wiki/Adelbert_Ames" title="Adelbert Ames">Adelbert Ames</a> asked Grant for federal troops to fight back; Grant initially refused, saying public opinion was "tired out" of the perpetual troubles in the South. Ames fled the state as the Democrats took over Mississippi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988606_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988606-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The campaigns and elections of 1876 were marked by additional murders and attacks on Republicans in Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida. In South Carolina the campaign season of 1876 was marked by murderous outbreaks and fraud against freedmen. Red Shirts paraded with arms behind Democratic candidates; they killed Blacks in the <a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburg Massacre">Hamburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ellenton,_South_Carolina" title="Ellenton, South Carolina">Ellenton</a>, South Carolina massacres. One historian estimated 150 Blacks were killed in the weeks before the 1876 election across South Carolina. Red Shirts prevented almost all Black voting in two majority-Black counties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemann2007174_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemann2007174-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Red Shirts were also active in North Carolina. </p><p>A 2019 study found that counties that were occupied by the U.S. Army to enforce enfranchisement of emancipated slaves were more likely to elect Black politicians. The study also found that "political murders by White-supremacist groups occurred less frequently" in these counties than in Southern counties that were not occupied.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1876">Election of 1876</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Election of 1876"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 United States presidential election</a></div> <p>Reconstruction continued in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida until 1877. The elections of 1876 were accompanied by heightened violence across the Deep South. A combination of <a href="/wiki/Ballot_stuffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballot stuffing">ballot stuffing</a> and intimidating Blacks suppressed their vote even in majority Black counties. The White League was active in Louisiana. After Republican Rutherford B. Hayes won the disputed <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1876">1876 presidential election</a>, the national <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">corrupt bargain</a>) was reached.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The White Democrats in the South agreed to accept Hayes' victory if he withdrew the last federal troops. By this point, the North was weary of insurgency. White Democrats controlled most of the Southern legislatures and armed militias controlled small towns and rural areas. Blacks considered Reconstruction a failure because the federal government withdrew from enforcing their ability to exercise their rights as citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988604_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988604-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hayes_ends_Reconstruction">Hayes ends Reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Hayes ends Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission (United States)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg/170px-President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg/255px-President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg/340px-President_Rutherford_Hayes_1870_-_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3031" data-file-height="3688" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a>, 19th <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1877–1881)</figcaption></figure> <p>On January 29, 1877, President Grant signed the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission Act</a>, which set up a 15-member commission of eight Republicans and seven Democrats to settle the disputed 1876 election. Since the Constitution did not explicitly indicate how Electoral College disputes were to be resolved, Congress was forced to consider other methods to settle the crisis. Many Democrats argued that Congress as a whole should determine which certificates to count. However, the chances that this method would result in a harmonious settlement were slim, as the Democrats controlled the House, while the Republicans controlled the Senate. Several Hayes supporters, on the other hand, argued that the President pro tempore of the Senate had the authority to determine which certificates to count, because he was responsible for chairing the congressional session at which the electoral votes were to be tallied. Since the office of president pro tempore was occupied by a Republican, Senator <a href="/wiki/Thomas_W._Ferry" title="Thomas W. Ferry">Thomas W. Ferry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, this method would have favored Hayes. Still others proposed that the matter should be settled by the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a stormy session that began on March 1, 1877, the House debated the objection for about twelve hours before overruling it. Immediately, another spurious objection was raised, this time to the electoral votes from <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election_in_Wisconsin" title="1876 United States presidential election in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>. Again, the Senate voted to overrule the objection, while a filibuster was conducted in the House. However, the Speaker of the House, Democrat <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Samuel J. Randall</a>, refused to entertain dilatory motions. Eventually, the filibusterers gave up, allowing the House to reject the objection in the early hours of March 2. The House and Senate then reassembled to complete the count of the electoral votes. At 4:10 am on March 2, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_W._Ferry" title="Thomas W. Ferry">Senator Ferry</a> announced that Hayes and <a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">Wheeler</a> had been elected to the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">presidency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice presidency</a>, by an electoral margin of 185–184. </p><p>The Democrats agreed not to block Hayes' inauguration based on a "back room" deal. Key to this deal was the understanding that federal troops would no longer interfere in Southern politics despite substantial election-associated violence against Blacks. The Southern states indicated that they would protect the lives of African Americans; however, such promises were largely not kept. Hayes' friends also let it be known that he would promote federal aid for <a href="/wiki/Internal_improvements" title="Internal improvements">internal improvements</a>, including help with a railroad in Texas (which never happened) and name a Southerner to his cabinet (this did happen). With the end to the political role of Northern troops, the president had no method to enforce Reconstruction; thus, this "back room" deal signaled the end of American Reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodward19663–15_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward19663–15-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After assuming office on March 4, 1877, President Hayes removed troops from the capitals of the remaining Reconstruction states, Louisiana and South Carolina, allowing the <a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a> to have full control of these states. President Grant had already removed troops from Florida, before Hayes was inaugurated, and troops from the other Reconstruction states had long since been withdrawn. Hayes appointed <a href="/wiki/David_M._Key" title="David M. Key">David M. Key</a> from Tennessee, a Southern Democrat, to the position of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">postmaster general</a>. By 1879, thousands of African American "<a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a>" packed up and headed to new opportunities in Kansas.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Democrats gained control of the Senate, and had complete control of Congress, having taken over the House in 1875. Hayes vetoed bills from the Democrats that outlawed the Republican Enforcement Acts; however, with the military underfunded, Hayes could not adequately enforce these laws. African-Americans remained involved in Southern politics, particularly in Virginia, which was run by the biracial <a href="/wiki/Readjuster_Party" title="Readjuster Party">Readjuster Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous African-Americans were elected to local office through the 1880s, and in the 1890s in some states, biracial coalitions of populists and Republicans briefly held control of state legislatures. In the last decade of the 19th century, Southern states elected five Black U.S. congressmen before disenfranchising state constitutions were passed throughout the former Confederacy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_historiography">Legacy and historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Legacy and historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg/220px-Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg/330px-Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg/440px-Map_of_Reconstruction_in_the_United_States_1861_to_1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1786" data-file-height="1185" /></a><figcaption>Map of Reconstruction in the United States 1861 to 1877</figcaption></figure> <p>Besides the election of Southern black people to state governments and the United States Congress, other achievements of the Reconstruction era include "the South's first state-funded public school systems, more equitable taxation legislation, laws against racial discrimination in public transport and accommodations and ambitious economic development programs (including aid to railroads and other enterprises)."<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these achievements the interpretation of Reconstruction has been a topic of controversy because nearly all historians hold that Reconstruction ended in failure, but for very different reasons. </p><p>The first generation of Northern historians believed that the former Confederates were traitors and Johnson was their ally who threatened to undo the Union's constitutional achievements. By the 1880s, however, Northern historians argued that Johnson and his allies were not traitors but had blundered badly in rejecting the Fourteenth Amendment and setting the stage for Radical Reconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Black leader <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, who grew up in <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> during Reconstruction, concluded later that: "the Reconstruction experiment in racial democracy failed because it began at the wrong end, emphasizing political means and civil rights acts rather than economic means and self-determination".<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His solution was to concentrate on building the economic infrastructure of the Black community, in part by his leadership and the Southern <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Institute">Tuskegee Institute</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dunning_School,_1900s–1920s"><span id="Dunning_School.2C_1900s.E2.80.931920s"></span>Dunning School, 1900s–1920s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Dunning School, 1900s–1920s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> of scholars, who were trained at the history department of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> under Professor <a href="/wiki/William_A._Dunning" class="mw-redirect" title="William A. Dunning">William A. Dunning</a>, analyzed Reconstruction as a failure after 1866 for different reasons. They claimed that Congress took freedoms and rights from qualified Whites and gave them to unqualified Blacks who were being duped by what they called "corrupt carpetbaggers and scalawags". As <a href="/wiki/T._Harry_Williams" title="T. Harry Williams">T. Harry Williams</a> (who was a sharp critic of the Dunning School) noted, the Dunning scholars portrayed the era in stark terms:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946473_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946473-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Reconstruction was a battle between two extremes: the Democrats, as the group which included the vast majority of the whites, standing for decent government and racial supremacy, versus the Republicans, the Negroes, alien carpetbaggers, and renegade scalawags, standing for dishonest government and alien ideals. These historians wrote literally in terms of white and black.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revisionists_and_Beardians,_1930s–1940s"><span id="Revisionists_and_Beardians.2C_1930s.E2.80.931940s"></span>Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">historical revisionism</a> became popular among scholars. As disciples of <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a>, revisionists focused on economics, downplaying politics and constitutional issues. The central figure was a young scholar at the University of Wisconsin, <a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale" title="Howard K. Beale">Howard K. Beale</a>, who in his PhD dissertation, finished in 1924, developed a complex new interpretation of Reconstruction. The Dunning School portrayed freedmen as mere pawns in the hands of northern whites. Beale argued that the whites themselves were pawns in the hands of Northern industrialists, who had taken control of the nation during the Civil War and who Beale felt would be threatened by return to power of the Southern Whites. Beale further argued that the rhetoric of civil rights for Blacks, and the dream of equality, was rhetoric designed to fool idealistic voters, calling it "claptrap", arguing: "Constitutional discussions of the rights of the Negro, the status of Southern states, the legal position of ex-rebels, and the powers of Congress and the president determined nothing. They were pure sham."<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Beard–Beale interpretation of Reconstruction became known as "revisionism", and replaced the Dunning School for most historians until the 1950s, after which it was largely discredited.<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946_248-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStamppLitwack196985–106_288-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStamppLitwack196985–106-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontgomery1967vii–ix_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontgomery1967vii–ix-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Beardian interpretation of the causes of the Civil War downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. It ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. As the Beards explained in <i>The Rise of American Civilization</i> (1927), the Civil War was really a:<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.</p></blockquote> <p>The Beards were especially interested in the Reconstruction era, as the industrialists of the Northeast and the farmers of the West cashed in on their great victory over the Southern aristocracy. Historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> paraphrases the Beards as arguing that in victory:<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the Northern capitalists were able to impose their economic program, quickly passing a series of measures on tariffs, banking, homesteads, and immigration that guaranteed the success of their plans for economic development. Solicitude for the freedmen had little to do with Northern policies. The Fourteenth Amendment, which gave the Negro his citizenship, Beard found significant primarily as a result of a conspiracy of a few legislative draftsmen friendly to corporations to use the supposed elevation of the blacks as a cover for a fundamental law giving strong protection to business corporations against regulation by state government.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/William_B._Hesseltine" title="William B. Hesseltine">William B. Hesseltine</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> politician and historian, adhered to the point that there were Northeastern businessmen wanting to control the Southern economy before and after the war, implying that they did by owning railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book, <i>A History of The South 1607-1936</i>, he wrote "when the war closed, Northern business men looked to the South as a colony into which business might expand". Further in the same book, he wrote: "Moderates, Liberals, and Democrats continued to deplore Southern conditions until the Northern business man was persuaded that only a restoration of native white government would bring the peace necessary for economic penetration into the South."<sup id="cite_ref-Hesseltine1936_293-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hesseltine1936-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Beard–Beale interpretation of the monolithic Northern industrialists fell apart in the 1950s when it was closely examined by numerous historians, including Robert P. Sharkey, Irwin Unger, and Stanley Coben.<sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The younger scholars conclusively demonstrated that there was no unified economic policy on the part of the dominant Republican Party. Some wanted high tariffs and some low. Some wanted greenbacks and others wanted gold. There was no conspiracy to use Reconstruction to impose any such unified economic policy on the nation. Northern businessmen were widely divergent on monetary or tariff policy, and seldom paid attention to Reconstruction issues. Furthermore, the rhetoric on behalf of the rights of the freedmen was not claptrap but deeply-held and very serious political philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStamppLitwack196985–106_288-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStamppLitwack196985–106-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner198339–40_297-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner198339–40-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontgomery1967vii–ix_289-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontgomery1967vii–ix-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_historians">Black historians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Black historians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Black scholar <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America,_1860-1880" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880">Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880</a></i>, published in 1935,<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compared results across the states to show achievements by the Reconstruction legislatures and to refute claims about wholesale African American control of governments. He showed Black contributions, as in the establishment of universal public education, charitable and social institutions and <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> as important results, and he noted their collaboration with Whites. He also pointed out that Whites benefited most by the financial deals made, and he put excesses in the perspective of the war's aftermath. He noted that despite complaints, several states kept their Reconstruction-era state constitutions into the early 20th century. Despite receiving favorable reviews, his work was largely ignored by White historians of his time.<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-abolitionists">Neo-abolitionists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Neo-abolitionists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">neo-abolitionist</a> historians emerged, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stampp" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Stampp">Kenneth Stampp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Leon Litwack</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a>. Influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>, they rejected the Dunning School and found a great deal to praise in Radical Reconstruction. Foner, the primary advocate of this view, argued that it was never truly completed, and that a "Second Reconstruction" was needed in the late 20th century to complete the goal of full equality for African Americans. The neo-abolitionists followed the revisionists in minimizing the corruption and waste created by Republican state governments, saying it was no worse than <a href="/wiki/William_M._Tweed" title="William M. Tweed">Boss Tweed</a>'s ring in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946469_300-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946469-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxii_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxii-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead, they emphasized that suppression of the rights of African Americans was a worse scandal, and a grave corruption of America's <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanist</a> ideals. They argued that the tragedy of Reconstruction was not that it failed because Blacks were incapable of governing, especially as they did not dominate any state government, but that it failed because Whites raised an insurgent movement to restore White supremacy. White-elite-dominated state legislatures passed disenfranchising state constitutions from 1890 to 1908 that effectively barred most Blacks and many poor Whites from voting. This disenfranchisement affected millions of people for decades into the 20th century, and closed African Americans <em>and</em> poor Whites out of the political process in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136_302-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glenn_Feldman_2004,_pp._135–136-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Re-establishment of White supremacy meant that within a decade African Americans were excluded from virtually all local, state, and federal governance in all states of the South. Lack of representation meant that they were treated as second-class citizens, with schools and services consistently underfunded in segregated societies, no <a href="/wiki/Jury_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Jury service">representation on juries</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a> in other legislation. It was not until the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> and the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting Rights Act">Voting Rights Act</a> of 1965 that segregation was outlawed and suffrage restored, under what has in retrospect been referred to as the "Second Reconstruction".<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> concluded that from the Black point of view "Reconstruction must be judged a failure."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1990255_306-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1990255-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foner stated Reconstruction was "a noble if flawed experiment, the first attempt to introduce a genuine inter-racial democracy in the United States".<sup id="cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner_2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to him, the many factors contributing to the failure included: lack of a permanent federal agency <i>specifically</i> designed for the enforcement of civil rights; the <a href="/wiki/Morrison_R._Waite" class="mw-redirect" title="Morrison R. Waite">Morrison R. Waite</a> Supreme Court decisions that dismantled previous congressional civil rights legislation; and the economic reestablishment of Whiggish white planters in the South by 1877. Historian <a href="/wiki/William_McFeely" class="mw-redirect" title="William McFeely">William McFeely</a> explained that although the constitutional amendments and civil rights legislation on their own merit were remarkable achievements, no permanent government agency whose specific purpose was civil rights enforcement had been created.<sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>iii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recent work by Nina Silber, <a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a>, Cecelia O'Leary, Laura Edwards, LeeAnn Whites, and Edward J. Blum has encouraged greater attention to race, religion, and issues of gender while at the same time pushing the effective end of Reconstruction to the end of the 19th century, while monographs by Charles Reagan Wilson, Gaines Foster, W. Scott Poole, and Bruce Baker have offered new views of the Southern "<a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-whatreconstructionmeant_310-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatreconstructionmeant-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_311-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dating_the_end_of_the_Reconstruction_era">Dating the end of the Reconstruction era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Dating the end of the Reconstruction era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the national level, textbooks typically date the era from 1865 to 1877. Eric Foner's textbook of national history <i>Give Me Liberty</i> is an example.<sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His monograph <i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</i> (1988) focusing on the situation in the South, covers 1863 to 1865. While 1877 is the usual date given for the end of Reconstruction, some historians such as <a href="/wiki/Orville_Vernon_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Orville Vernon Burton">Orville Vernon Burton</a> extend the era to the 1890s to include the imposition of segregation.<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The year 1877 is also commonly used as a dividing point for two-semester survey courses and two-volume textbooks that aim to cover all of U.S. history.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_role_of_race">Economic role of race</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Economic role of race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economists and economic historians have different interpretations of the economic impact of race on the postwar Southern economy. In 1995, Robert Whaples took a random survey of 178 members of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Association" title="Economic History Association">Economic History Association</a>, who studied American history in all time periods. He asked whether they wholly or partly accepted, or rejected, 40 propositions in the scholarly literature about American economic history. The greatest difference between economics PhDs and history PhDs came in questions on competition and race. For example, the proposition originally put forward by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Higgs" title="Robert Higgs">Robert Higgs</a>, "in the post-bellum South economic competition among Whites played an important part in protecting blacks from racial coercion", was accepted in whole or part by 66% of the economists, but by only 22% of the historians. Whaples says this highlights: "A recurring difference dividing historians and economists. The economists have more faith in the power of the competitive market. For example, they see the competitive market as protecting disenfranchised blacks and are less likely to accept the idea that there was exploitation by merchant monopolists."<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"failure"_issue"><span id="The_.22failure.22_issue"></span>The "failure" issue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: The "failure" issue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reconstruction is widely considered a failure, though the reason for this is a matter of controversy. </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> considered failure inevitable because it felt that taking the right to vote or hold office away from Southern Whites was a violation of republicanism.</li> <li>A second school sees the reason for failure as Northern Republicans' lack of effectiveness in guaranteeing political rights to Blacks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A third school blames the failure on not giving land to the freedmen so they could have their own economic base of power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>A fourth school sees the major reason for the failure of Reconstruction as the states' inability to suppress the violence of Southern Whites when they sought reversal for Blacks' gains. Etcheson (2009) points to the "violence that crushed black aspirations and the abandonment by Northern whites of Southern Republicans".<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Etcheson wrote that it is hard to see Reconstruction "as concluding in anything but failure". Etcheson adds: "W. E. B. DuBois captured that failure well when he wrote in <i>Black Reconstruction in America</i> (1935): 'The slave went free; stood a brief moment in the sun; then moved back again toward slavery.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Other historians emphasize the failure to fully incorporate Southern Unionists into the Republican coalition. Derek W. Frisby points to "Reconstruction's failure to appreciate the challenges of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Unionism">Southern Unionism</a> and incorporate these loyal Southerners into a strategy that would positively affect the character of the peace".<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Historian Donald R. Shaffer maintained that the gains during Reconstruction for African Americans were not entirely extinguished. The legalization of African American marriages and families and the independence of Black churches from White denominations were a source of strength during the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> era. Reconstruction was never forgotten within the Black community and it remained a source of inspiration. The system of <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a> granted Blacks a considerable amount of freedom as compared to slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_pp._20,_22_321-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_pp._20,_22-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> argues:<sup id="cite_ref-322" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed, and that for Blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude cannot be obscured by the genuine accomplishments that did endure.</p></blockquote> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Annette_Gordon-Reed" title="Annette Gordon-Reed">Annette Gordon-Reed</a> described in an October 2015 article for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i> magazine the effects if Reconstruction had not failed.<sup id="cite_ref-323" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 2014, historian Mark Summers argued that the "failure" question should be looked at from the viewpoint of the war goals; in that case, he argues:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2-1wBAAAQBAJpgPA4_4]_324-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid2-1wBAAAQBAJpgPA4_4]-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If we see Reconstruction's purpose as making sure that the main goals of the war would be fulfilled, of a Union held together forever, of a North and South able to work together, of slavery extirpated, and sectional rivalries confined, of the permanent banishment of the fear of vaunting appeals to state sovereignty, backed by armed force, then Reconstruction looks like what in that respect it was, a lasting and unappreciated success.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiographical_Interpretations">Historiographical Interpretations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Historiographical Interpretations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians have long debated the legacy of the Reconstruction era, with interpretations evolving significantly over time. One of the most influential and contested narratives was advanced by the Dunning school, which characterized Reconstruction as a misguided experiment that led to widespread corruption and social disorder. This view marginalized the experiences and achievements of African Americans during Reconstruction and perpetuated myths of white Southern victimhood. Contemporary scholars, including Hannah Rosen, have challenged these interpretations by emphasizing the era's transformative potential and highlighting the efforts of freedmen and their allies to establish civil rights and social equality.<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rosen argues that understanding Reconstruction requires acknowledging both its profound advancements in racial justice and the systemic backlash that sought to undermine them. This historiographical shift has underscored the importance of accurate and inclusive narratives, illustrating how public memory has been shaped by political and cultural forces, and how these narratives continue to influence contemporary discussions on race and justice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg/220px-Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg/330px-Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg/440px-Gone_With_The_Wind_1967_re-release.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption>A poster for the 1939 epic film <i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i>, which is set during the Civil War and Reconstruction eras</figcaption></figure> <p>The journalist <a href="/wiki/Joel_Chandler_Harris" title="Joel Chandler Harris">Joel Chandler Harris</a>, who wrote under the name "Joe Harris" for the <i>Atlanta Constitution</i> (mostly after Reconstruction), tried to advance racial and sectional reconciliation in the late 19th century. He supported <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Grady" title="Henry W. Grady">Henry W. Grady</a>'s vision of a <a href="/wiki/New_South" title="New South">New South</a> during Grady's time as editor from 1880 to 1889. Harris wrote many editorials in which he encouraged Southerners to accept the changed conditions along with some Northern influences, but he asserted his belief that change should proceed under White supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In popular literature, two early 20th-century novels by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Leopard%27s_Spots" title="The Leopard's Spots">The Leopard's Spots</a>: A <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romance</a> of the White Man's Burden – 1865–1900</i> (1902), and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_A_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" title="The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan</a></i> (1905) – idealized White resistance to Northern and Black coercion, hailing vigilante action by the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/D._W._Griffith" title="D. W. Griffith">D. W. Griffith</a> adapted Dixon's <i>The Clansman</i> for the screen in his anti-Republican movie <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></i> (1915); it stimulated the formation of the 20th-century version of the KKK. Many other authors romanticized the supposed benevolence of slavery and the elite world of the antebellum plantations, in memoirs and histories which were published in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; the <a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a> promoted influential works which were written in these genres by women.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner_328-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of much more lasting impact was the story <i>Gone with the Wind</i>, first in the form of <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(novel)" title="Gone with the Wind (novel)">the best-selling 1936 novel</a>, which enabled its author <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mitchell" title="Margaret Mitchell">Margaret Mitchell</a> to win the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>, and an award-winning <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Hollywood blockbuster with the same title</a> in 1939. In each case, the second half of the story focuses on Reconstruction in Atlanta. The book sold millions of copies nationwide; the film is regularly re-broadcast on television. In 2018, it remained at the top of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_films" title="List of highest-grossing films">list of highest-grossing films</a>, adjusted in order to keep up with inflation. The <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i> argues:<sup id="cite_ref-329" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Politically, the film offers a conservative view of Georgia and the South. In her novel, despite her Southern prejudices, Mitchell showed clear awareness of the shortcomings of her characters and their region. The film is less analytical. It portrays the story from a clearly Old South point of view: the South is presented as a great civilization, the practice of slavery is never questioned, and the plight of the freedmen after the Civil War is implicitly blamed on their emancipation. A series of scenes whose racism rivals that of D. W. Griffith's film <i>The Birth of a Nation</i> (1915) mainly portrays Reconstruction as a time when Southern whites were victimized by freed slaves, who themselves were exploited by Northern carpetbaggers.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_education">In education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: In education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a>" dominated white scholarship about Reconstruction during most of the 20th century. Black scholarship on the Reconstruction era was mostly ignored until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, though the racist interpretations of the Dunning School continue to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> said, "for no other period of American history does so wide a gap exist between current scholarship and popular historical understanding, which, judging from references to Reconstruction in recent newspaper articles, films, popular books, and in public monuments across the country, still bears the mark of the old Dunning School."<sup id="cite_ref-331" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> As reported in a January 2022 <i>Time</i> magazine article:<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>In social studies standards for 45 out of 50 states and the District of Columbia, discussion of Reconstruction is "partial" or "non-existent", according to historians who reviewed how the period is discussed in K-12 social studies standards for public schools nationwide. In a report produced by the education nonprofit Zinn Education Project, the study's authors say they are concerned that American children will grow up to be uninformed about a critical period of history that helps explain why full racial equality remains unfulfilled today.</p></blockquote><p>The Zinn Education Project's report, <i>Erasing the Black Freedom Struggle: How State Standards Fail to Teach the Truth About Reconstruction</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> highlights the historical connections to Reconstruction that surround us today and examines Reconstruction's place in state social studies standards across the United States and the barriers to teaching effective Reconstruction history. According to a <i><a href="/wiki/Facing_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Facing South">Facing South</a></i> article entitled "The South's schools are failing to teach accurate Reconstruction history":<sup id="cite_ref-334" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"It is our hope that states and districts will adopt these guidelines for their own educational standards, curricula, and professional development," the report states. "In so doing, they will be better equipped to teach students the true history of Reconstruction, help students understand its significance and make connections to the present day. And they will empower teachers to educate their students and themselves about ongoing Reconstruction scholarship."</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_National_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era National Monument">Reconstruction Era National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remembering_Reconstruction:_Struggles_over_the_Meaning_of_America%27s_Most_Turbulent_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Remembering Reconstruction: Struggles over the Meaning of America's Most Turbulent Era">Remembering Reconstruction: Struggles over the Meaning of America's Most Turbulent Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All Blacks would be counted in 1870, whether or not they were citizens.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georgia had a Republican governor and legislature, but the Republican hegemony was tenuous at best, and Democrats continued to win presidential elections there. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonPou" class="citation web cs1">Jackson, Ed; Pou, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109203144/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/tdgh-mar/mar28.htm">"This Day in Georgia History: March 28"</a>. <i>Today in Georgia History</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/tdgh-mar/mar28.htm">the original</a> on January 9, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Today+in+Georgia+History&rft.atitle=This+Day+in+Georgia+History%3A+March+28&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft.au=Pou%2C+Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu%2Ftdgh-mar%2Fmar28.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span>; <i>cf.</i> <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Bullock" title="Rufus Bullock">Rufus Bullock</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Although Grant and Attorney General Amos T. Akerman set up a strong legal system to protect African Americans, the Department of Justice did not set up a permanent Civil Rights Division until the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002372–373,_424,_425_308-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002372–373,_424,_425-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://objectofhistory.org/objects/extendedtour/votingmachine/?order=2">"The First Vote" by William Waud</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140202212332/http://objectofhistory.org/objects/extendedtour/votingmachine/?order=2">Archived</a> February 2, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Harpers Weekly</i> Nov. 16, 1867</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/reer/learn/historyculture/historyculture.htm">"History & Culture – Reconstruction Era National Historical Park"</a>. <i>U.S. National Park Service</i>. www.nps.gov. February 24, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=History+%26+Culture+%E2%80%93+Reconstruction+Era+National+Historical+Park&rft.date=2023-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Freer%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fhistoryculture.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodrigue2001" class="citation book cs1">Rodrigue, John C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SvK13hta7rQC&pg=PA168"><i>Reconstruction in the Cane Fields: From Slavery to Free Labor in Louisiana's Sugar Parishes, 1862–1880</i></a>. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-5263-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-5263-8"><bdi>978-0-8071-5263-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+in+the+Cane+Fields%3A+From+Slavery+to+Free+Labor+in+Louisiana%27s+Sugar+Parishes%2C+1862%E2%80%931880&rft.place=Baton+Rouge%2C+Louisiana&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-5263-8&rft.aulast=Rodrigue&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSvK13hta7rQC%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynnThorbecke2020" class="citation news cs1">Lynn, Samara; Thorbecke, Catherine (September 27, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Business/america-owes-reparations-pay/story?id=72863094">"What America owes: How reparations would look and who would pay"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225082627/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/america-owes-reparations-pay/story?id=72863094">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 24,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=What+America+owes%3A+How+reparations+would+look+and+who+would+pay&rft.date=2020-09-27&rft.aulast=Lynn&rft.aufirst=Samara&rft.au=Thorbecke%2C+Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FBusiness%2Famerica-owes-reparations-pay%2Fstory%3Fid%3D72863094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo201811–12Foner2019198-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo201811–12Foner2019198_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuelzo2018">Guelzo (2018)</a>, pp. 11–12; <a href="#CITEREFFoner2019">Foner (2019)</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParfait2009440–441,_441n1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParfait2009440–441,_441n1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParfait2009">Parfait (2009)</a>, pp. 440–441, 441n1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxv-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988xxv_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. xxv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStazakMasurWilliamsDowns2015" class="citation journal cs1">Stazak, Luke; Masur, Kate; Williams, Heather Andrea; Downs, Gregory P.; Glymph, Thavolia; Hahn, Steven; <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43903055">"Eric Foner's 'Reconstruction' at Twenty-five"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_the_Gilded_Age_and_Progressive_Era" title="The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era">The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</a></i>. <b>14</b> (1). Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">13–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537781414000516">10.1017/S1537781414000516</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43903055">43903055</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162391933">162391933</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118215245/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43903055">Archived</a> from the original on January 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2022</span>. <q><i>Reconstruction</i> is almost literally a landmark. It defines the territory.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Gilded+Age+and+Progressive+Era&rft.atitle=Eric+Foner%27s+%27Reconstruction%27+at+Twenty-five&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162391933%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43903055%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1537781414000516&rft.aulast=Stazak&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft.au=Masur%2C+Kate&rft.au=Williams%2C+Heather+Andrea&rft.au=Downs%2C+Gregory+P.&rft.au=Glymph%2C+Thavolia&rft.au=Hahn%2C+Steven&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43903055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlow2017" class="citation journal cs1">Harlow, Luke E. (March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journalofthecivilwarera.org/forum-the-future-of-reconstruction-studies/">"The Future of Reconstruction Studies"</a>. <i>Journal of the Civil War Era</i>. <b>7</b> (1). Chapel Hill, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">3–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0001">10.1353/cwe.2017.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2159-9807">2159-9807</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26070478">26070478</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164628161">164628161</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118061534/https://www.journalofthecivilwarera.org/forum-the-future-of-reconstruction-studies/">Archived</a> from the original on January 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=The+Future+of+Reconstruction+Studies&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.date=2017-03&rft.issn=2159-9807&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164628161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26070478%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0001&rft.aulast=Harlow&rft.aufirst=Luke+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofthecivilwarera.org%2Fforum-the-future-of-reconstruction-studies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDownsMasur2017" class="citation book cs1">Downs, Gregory; Masur, Kate (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npshistory.com/publications/nhl/theme-studies/reconstruction-era.pdf"><i>The Reconstruction Era 1861–1900</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Zinn+Education+Project&rft.atitle=Nov.+7%2C+1861%3A+The+Port+Royal+Experiment+Initiated&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zinnedproject.org%2Fnews%2Ftdih%2Fport-royal-experiment-initiated%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npshistory.com/publications/reer/index.htm">"Reconstruction Era National Historical Park"</a>. <i>National Park Service History Electronic Library & Archive</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chapel Hill, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0002">10.1353/cwe.2017.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159753820">159753820</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118061556/https://www.journalofthecivilwarera.org/forum-the-future-of-reconstruction-studies/reconstruction-in-the-south/">Archived</a> from the original on January 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+in+the+South&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159753820%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brundage&rft.aufirst=Fitzhugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofthecivilwarera.org%2Fforum-the-future-of-reconstruction-studies%2Freconstruction-in-the-south%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson201712,_18–19-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardson201712,_18–19_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardson2017">Richardson (2017)</a>, pp. 12, 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESinha2024xvii,_5,_425-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinha2024xvii,_5,_425_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinha2024">Sinha (2024)</a>, pp. xvii, 5, 425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESinha20245–6-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinha20245–6_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinha2024">Sinha (2024)</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln4/1:389?rgn=div1;sort=occur;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=legally+void">First Inaugural Address—Final Text, March 4, 1861</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln4/1:527?rgn=div1;sort=occur;subview=detail;type=simple;view=fulltext;q1=combinations+too+powerful+to+be+suppressed+by+the+ordinary+course+of+judicial+proceedings">Proclamation Calling Militia and Convening Congress, April 15, 1861</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html">Text of Emancipation Proclamation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201072-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201072_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201072_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2010">Jones (2010)</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199721–73_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunter1997">Hunter (1997)</a>, pp. 21–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowns201241-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowns201241_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowns2012">Downs (2012)</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldinLewis1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Goldin" title="Claudia Goldin">Goldin, Claudia D.</a>; Lewis, Frank D. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/2662305/Goldin_EconomicCost.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+economic+cost+of+the+American+Civil+War%3A+Estimates+and+implications&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.date=1975-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18760067%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2119410%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700075070&rft.aulast=Goldin&rft.aufirst=Claudia+D.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Frank+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F2662305%2FGoldin_EconomicCost.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlight2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">Blight, David W.</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racereunion00davi"><i>Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674022096" title="Special:BookSources/9780674022096"><bdi>9780674022096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Reunion%3A+The+Civil+War+in+American+Memory&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780674022096&rft.aulast=Blight&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracereunion00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paskoff-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paskoff_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paskoff_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaskoff2008" class="citation journal cs1">Paskoff, Paul F. (2008). "Measures of War: A Quantitative Examination of the Civil War's Destructiveness in the Confederacy". <i><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_History" title="Civil War History">Civil War History</a></i>. <b>54</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.2008.0007">10.1353/cwh.2008.0007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=Measures+of+War%3A+A+Quantitative+Examination+of+the+Civil+War%27s+Destructiveness+in+the+Confederacy&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.2008.0007&rft.aulast=Paskoff&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199238_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1992">McPherson (1992)</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHesseltine1936" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Hesseltine" title="William B. Hesseltine">Hesseltine, William B.</a> (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofthesout027909mbp/"><i>A History of the South, 1607–1936</i></a>. New York: Prentice-Hall. pp. <span class="nowrap">573–</span>574. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/477679">477679</a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+South%2C+1607%E2%80%931936&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E574&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F477679&rft.aulast=Hesseltine&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofthesout027909mbp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ezell, John Samuel. 1963. <i>The South Since 1865</i>. pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLash1993" class="citation journal cs1">Lash, Jeffrey N. (1993). "Civil War Irony: Confederate Commanders and the Destruction of Southern Railways". <i>Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prologue%3A+Quarterly+of+the+National+Archives&rft.atitle=Civil+War+Irony%3A+Confederate+Commanders+and+the+Destruction+of+Southern+Railways&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lash&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRansom2010" class="citation web cs1">Ransom, Roger L. (February 1, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111213062917/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/ransom.civil.war.us">"The Economics of the Civil War"</a>. <i>Economic History Services</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/ransom.civil.war.us">the original</a> on December 13, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Economic+History+Services&rft.atitle=The+Economics+of+the+Civil+War&rft.date=2010-02-01&rft.aulast=Ransom&rft.aufirst=Roger+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feh.net%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fransom.civil.war.us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Direct costs for the Confederacy are based on the value of the dollar in 1860.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander1961" class="citation journal cs1">Alexander, Thomas B. (August 1961). 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"Republican Reconstruction in North Carolina: A Roll-call Analysis of the State House of Representatives, 1866–1870". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern History">Journal of Southern History</a></i>. <b>42</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">319–</span>344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2207155">10.2307/2207155</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2207155">2207155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Republican+Reconstruction+in+North+Carolina%3A+A+Roll-call+Analysis+of+the+State+House+of+Representatives%2C+1866%E2%80%931870&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E319-%3C%2Fspan%3E344&rft.date=1976-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2207155&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2207155%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Trelease&rft.aufirst=Allen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foner_2009-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foner_2009_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (Winter 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/if-lincoln-hadn%E2%80%99t-died">"If Lincoln hadn't died ..."</a> <i>American Heritage Magazine</i>. <b>58</b> (6). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120616125206/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/if-lincoln-hadn%E2%80%99t-died">Archived</a> from the original on June 16, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=If+Lincoln+hadn%27t+died+...&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fcontent%2Fif-lincoln-hadn%25E2%2580%2599t-died&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris (1997)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimpson2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimpson2009[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson2009">Simpson (2009)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/shermans-field-order-no-15/"><i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212225842/https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/shermans-field-order-no-15/">Archived</a> December 12, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516193457/http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/99sep/9909lincaddress.htm">"The Second Inaugural Address"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="The Atlantic Monthly">The Atlantic Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 284, no. 3. September 1999. p. 60. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/99sep/9909lincaddress.htm">the original</a> on May 16, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Second+Inaugural+Address&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=60&rft.date=1999-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpast%2Fdocs%2Fissues%2F99sep%2F9909lincaddress.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson19926-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson19926_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1992">McPherson (1992)</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander_Rucker-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_Rucker_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_Rucker_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderRucker2010" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA699"><i>Encyclopedia of African American History</i></a>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 699. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-774-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-774-6"><bdi>978-1-85109-774-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=699&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-774-6&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Leslie+M.&rft.au=Rucker%2C+Walter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuivtCqOlpTsC%26pg%3DPA699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrefousse1989[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrefousse1989">Trefousse (1989)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26–27-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._26–27_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConklin1993" class="citation journal cs1">Conklin, Forrest (1993). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Wiping Out' Andy" Johnson's Moccasin Tracks: The Canvass of Northern States By Southern Radicals, 1866". <i><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Historical_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Historical Quarterly">Tennessee Historical Quarterly</a></i>. <b>52</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">122–</span>133. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42627061">42627061</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9973918681">9973918681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tennessee+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%27Wiping+Out%27+Andy%22+Johnson%27s+Moccasin+Tracks%3A+The+Canvass+of+Northern+States+By+Southern+Radicals%2C+1866&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E133&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9973918681&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42627061%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Conklin&rft.aufirst=Forrest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValelly2004" class="citation book cs1">Valelly, Richard M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V4__EYITWk4C"><i>The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84530-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84530-2"><bdi>978-0-226-84530-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Reconstructions%3A+The+Struggle+for+Black+Enfranchisement&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-226-84530-2&rft.aulast=Valelly&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV4__EYITWk4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefousse1975" class="citation book cs1">Trefousse, Hans L. (1975). <i>The Radical Republicans</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807101698" title="Special:BookSources/9780807101698"><bdi>9780807101698</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Radical+Republicans&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9780807101698&rft.aulast=Trefousse&rft.aufirst=Hans+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._28–29-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._28–29_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._29-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._29_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._30-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._30_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyman1959" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, Harold (1959). <i>To Try Men's Souls: Loyalty Tests in American History</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fjj.8306230">10.2307/jj.8306230</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34566-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-34566-9"><bdi>978-0-520-34566-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.8306230">jj.8306230</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/421583">421583</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:265454373">265454373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Try+Men%27s+Souls%3A+Loyalty+Tests+in+American+History&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fjj.8306230%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fjj.8306230&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F421583&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A265454373%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-520-34566-9&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988273–276-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988273–276_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 273–276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeverance2002" class="citation thesis cs1">Severance, Benjamin Horton (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/6305"><i>Tennessee's Radical Army: The State Guard and Its Role in Reconstruction</i></a> (PhD thesis). University of Tennessee. p. 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Tennessee%27s+Radical+Army%3A+The+State+Guard+and+Its+Role+in+Reconstruction&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Tennessee&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Severance&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Horton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrace.tennessee.edu%2Futk_graddiss%2F6305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988223-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988223_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner 1988</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGienapp2002" class="citation book cs1">Gienapp, William (2002). <i>Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: a biography</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195150995" title="Special:BookSources/9780195150995"><bdi>9780195150995</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+Civil+War+America%3A+a+biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780195150995&rft.aulast=Gienapp&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatton1934126-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatton1934126_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatton1934">Patton (1934)</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson to Gov. William L. Sharkey, August 1865; quoted in <a href="#CITEREFFranklin1961">Franklin (1961)</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donald-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Donald_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald1970" class="citation book cs1">Donald, David Herbert (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qph2AAAAMAAJ"><i>Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man</i></a>. New York: Knopf. p. 201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394418995" title="Special:BookSources/9780394418995"><bdi>9780394418995</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+Sumner+and+the+Rights+of+Man&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780394418995&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQph2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayers-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ayers_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyers2007" class="citation book cs1">Ayers, Edward L. (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/promiseofnewsout0000ayer_h6c1"><i>The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction</i></a></span> (15th anniversary ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 418. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199724550" title="Special:BookSources/9780199724550"><bdi>9780199724550</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Promise+of+the+New+South%3A+Life+After+Reconstruction&rft.pages=418&rft.edition=15th+anniversary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780199724550&rft.aulast=Ayers&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpromiseofnewsout0000ayer_h6c1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988244–245-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988244–245_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1988">Anderson (1988)</a>, pp. 244–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERandallDonald2016581-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandallDonald2016581_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRandallDonald2016">Randall & Donald (2016)</a>, p. 581.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1993" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (1993). <i>Freedom's lawmakers: a directory of Black officeholders during Reconstruction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195074062" title="Special:BookSources/9780195074062"><bdi>9780195074062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+lawmakers%3A+a+directory+of+Black+officeholders+during+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780195074062&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuBois1978" class="citation book cs1">DuBois, Ellen (1978). <i>Feminism and suffrage: The emergence of an independent women's movement in America, 1848–1869</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801410437" title="Special:BookSources/9780801410437"><bdi>9780801410437</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvv411tt">10.7591/j.ctvv411tt</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminism+and+suffrage%3A+The+emergence+of+an+independent+women%27s+movement+in+America%2C+1848%E2%80%931869&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7591%2Fj.ctvv411tt%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780801410437&rft.aulast=DuBois&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2004" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Glenn (2004). <i>The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama</i>. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820326153" title="Special:BookSources/9780820326153"><bdi>9780820326153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Disfranchisement+Myth%3A+Poor+Whites+and+Suffrage+Restriction+in+Alabama&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780820326153&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">25 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">U.S.C.</a> Sec. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120317074540/http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/25C3.txt">"Act of Congress, R.S. Sec. 2080 derived from act July 5, 1862, ch. 135, Sec. 1, 12 Stat. 528"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/25C3.txt">the original</a> on March 17, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2012</span> – via USCode.House.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Act+of+Congress%2C+R.S.+Sec.+2080+derived+from+act+July+5%2C+1862%2C+ch.+135%2C+Sec.+1%2C+12+Stat.+528.&rft.pub=United+States+House+of+Representatives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fdownload%2Fpls%2F25C3.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1936" class="citation journal cs1">Perry, Dan W. (March 1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120214095157/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/chronicles/v014/v014p022.html">"Oklahoma, A Foreordained Commonwealth"</a>. <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>. <b>14</b> (1). Oklahoma Historical Society: 30. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Chronicles/v014/v014p022.html">the original</a> on February 14, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.atitle=Oklahoma%2C+A+Foreordained+Commonwealth&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30&rft.date=1936-03&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Dan+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2FChronicles%2Fv014%2Fv014p022.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCimbalaMiller2002" class="citation book cs1">Cimbala, Paul A.; Miller, Randall M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZKybV1mPbcC"><i>An uncommon time: the Civil War and the northern home front</i></a>. North's Civil War (1st ed.). New York: Fordham University Press. pp. 285, 305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823221950" title="Special:BookSources/9780823221950"><bdi>9780823221950</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+uncommon+time%3A+the+Civil+War+and+the+northern+home+front&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=North%27s+Civil+War&rft.pages=285%2C+305&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780823221950&rft.aulast=Cimbala&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Randall+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ZKybV1mPbcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002735–736-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002735–736_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002">Wagner, Gallagher & McPherson (2002)</a>, pp. 735–736.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_2006_pp._54–59-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2006_pp._54–59_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2006" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Frank J. (2006). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Doing Less' and 'Doing More': The President and the Proclamation Legally, Militarily, Politically". <i>The Emancipation Proclamation : three views (social, political, iconographic)</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">54–</span>59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807155486" title="Special:BookSources/9780807155486"><bdi>9780807155486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Doing+Less%27+and+%27Doing+More%27%3A+The+President+and+the+Proclamation+Legally%2C+Militarily%2C+Politically&rft.btitle=The+Emancipation+Proclamation+%3A+three+views+%28social%2C+political%2C+iconographic%29&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780807155486&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage290_290–291]-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage290_290–291]_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuelzo1999">Guelzo (1999)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnre00guel/page/290">290–291</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefousse1991" class="citation book cs1">Trefousse, Hans L. (1991). <i>Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction</i>. New York: Greenwood Press. pp. viiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313258626" title="Special:BookSources/9780313258626"><bdi>9780313258626</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=viiii&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780313258626&rft.aulast=Trefousse&rft.aufirst=Hans+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100719122659/http://blueandgraytrail.com/event/Abraham_Lincoln">"Abraham Lincoln"</a>. <i>Blue and Gray Trail</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blueandgraytrail.com/event/Abraham_Lincoln">the original</a> on July 19, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Blue+and+Gray+Trail&rft.atitle=Abraham+Lincoln&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblueandgraytrail.com%2Fevent%2FAbraham_Lincoln&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage333_333–335]_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuelzo1999">Guelzo (1999)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnre00guel/page/333">333–335</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Catton_1963_pp._365–367-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Catton_1963_pp._365–367_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Catton_1963_pp._365–367_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatton1963" class="citation book cs1">Catton, Bruce (1963). <i>Terrible Swift Sword</i>. The Centennial History of the Civil War. Vol. 2. New York: Doubleday. pp. <span class="nowrap">365–</span>367, <span class="nowrap">461–</span>468. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307833068" title="Special:BookSources/9780307833068"><bdi>9780307833068</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2158762">2158762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terrible+Swift+Sword&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Centennial+History+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E365-%3C%2Fspan%3E367%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E461-%3C%2Fspan%3E468&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2158762&rft.isbn=9780307833068&rft.aulast=Catton&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage390_390]-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo1999[httpsarchiveorgdetailsabrahamlincolnre00guelpage390_390]_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuelzo1999">Guelzo (1999)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnre00guel/page/390">390</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1916" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Clifton R. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnsonmil01hall"><i>Andrew Johnson: military governor of Tennessee</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnsonmil01hall/page/19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/259055353">259055353</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 24,</span> 2010</span> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Johnson%3A+military+governor+of+Tennessee&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F259055353&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Clifton+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fandrewjohnsonmil01hall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarner1964" class="citation book cs1">Warner, Ezra J. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/23721"><i>Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders</i></a>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807108222" title="Special:BookSources/9780807108222"><bdi>9780807108222</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generals+in+Blue%3A+Lives+of+the+Union+Commanders&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=9780807108222&rft.aulast=Warner&rft.aufirst=Ezra+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbook%2F23721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuelzo20041-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuelzo20041_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGuelzo2004">Guelzo (2004)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowns201247-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowns201247_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowns2012">Downs (2012)</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008279-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008279_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStauffer2008">Stauffer (2008)</a>, p. 279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_1995_pp._38–41_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1995" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Merrill D. (1995). <i>Lincoln in American Memory</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">38–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195065701" title="Special:BookSources/9780195065701"><bdi>9780195065701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln+in+American+Memory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780195065701&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Merrill+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy_1901_p._76-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy_1901_p._76_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1901" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Charles H. (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56039"><i>Lincoln's plan of Reconstruction</i></a>. New York: McClure, Phillips and Co. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4672039">4672039</a> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln%27s+plan+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=McClure%2C+Phillips+and+Co.&rft.date=1901&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4672039&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F56039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008280-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStauffer2008280_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStauffer2008">Stauffer (2008)</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Making_of_the_American_South-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Making_of_the_American_South_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2006" class="citation book cs1">Harris, J. William (2006). <i>The Making of the American South: A Short History 1500–1877</i>. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470773338">10.1002/9780470773338</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631209638" title="Special:BookSources/9780631209638"><bdi>9780631209638</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+American+South%3A+A+Short+History+1500%E2%80%931877&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470773338&rft.isbn=9780631209638&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=J.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p53-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p53_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1997" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Laura F. (1997). <i>Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction</i>. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02297-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02297-5"><bdi>978-0-252-02297-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gendered+Strife+and+Confusion%3A+The+Political+Culture+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02297-5&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Laura+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199734-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199734_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunter1997">Hunter (1997)</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkelson2011" class="citation web cs1">Mikkelson, Barbara (May 27, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/black-tax-credit/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Black Tax' Credit"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Snopes&rft.atitle=%27Black+Tax%27+Credit&rft.date=2011-05-27&rft.aulast=Mikkelson&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.snopes.com%2Ffact-check%2Fblack-tax-credit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZebley2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Zebley, Kathleen (October 8, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=517">"Freedmen's Bureau"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Encyclopedia" title="Tennessee Encyclopedia">Tennessee Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 29,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Freedmen%27s+Bureau&rft.btitle=Tennessee+Encyclopedia&rft.date=2017-10-08&rft.aulast=Zebley&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftennesseeencyclopedia.net%2Fentry.php%3Frec%3D517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelz1998" class="citation book cs1">Belz, Herman (1998). <i>Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era</i>. North's Civil War. Vol. 2. New York: Fordham University Press. pp. 138, 141, 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823217694" title="Special:BookSources/9780823217694"><bdi>9780823217694</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln%2C+Constitutionalism%2C+and+Equal+Rights+in+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=North%27s+Civil+War&rft.pages=138%2C+141%2C+145&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780823217694&rft.aulast=Belz&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawley2003" class="citation book cs1">Rawley, James A. (2003). <i>Abraham Lincoln and a nation worth fighting for</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803289949" title="Special:BookSources/9780803289949"><bdi>9780803289949</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln+and+a+nation+worth+fighting+for&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780803289949&rft.aulast=Rawley&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002198–207-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002198–207_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFeely2002">McFeely (2002)</a>, pp. 198–207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2013" class="citation book cs1">Smith, John David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TpInTOhPf1sC&pg=PT17"><i>A Just and Lasting Peace: A Documentary History of Reconstruction</i></a>. Penguin. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101617465" title="Special:BookSources/9781101617465"><bdi>9781101617465</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Just+and+Lasting+Peace%3A+A+Documentary+History+of+Reconstruction&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781101617465&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTpInTOhPf1sC%26pg%3DPT17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKitrick1988" class="citation book cs1">McKitrick, Eric L. (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnsonrec00mcki"><i>Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnsonrec00mcki/page/172">172</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195057072" title="Special:BookSources/9780195057072"><bdi>9780195057072</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Johnson+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780195057072&rft.aulast=McKitrick&rft.aufirst=Eric+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fandrewjohnsonrec00mcki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillingtonRidge1981" class="citation book cs1">Billington, Ray Allen; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ridge_(historian)" title="Martin Ridge (historian)">Ridge, Martin</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X9FWZLCfi4gC&pg=PA3"><i>American History After 1865</i></a>. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822600275" title="Special:BookSources/9780822600275"><bdi>9780822600275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+History+After+1865&rft.place=Totowa%2C+NJ&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780822600275&rft.aulast=Billington&rft.aufirst=Ray+Allen&rft.au=Ridge%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX9FWZLCfi4gC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincove2000" class="citation book cs1">Lincove, David A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3EQcT7-Dpi0C&pg=PA80"><i>Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography</i></a>. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313291999" title="Special:BookSources/9780313291999"><bdi>9780313291999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+in+the+United+States%3A+An+Annotated+Bibliography&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780313291999&rft.aulast=Lincove&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3EQcT7-Dpi0C%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> citing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandallCurrent1955" class="citation book cs1">Randall, J. G.; Current, Richard N. (1955). <i>Lincoln the President: Last Full Measure</i>. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5852442">5852442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln+the+President%3A+Last+Full+Measure&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+%26+Company&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5852442&rft.aulast=Randall&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft.au=Current%2C+Richard+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely1974125-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely1974125_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFeely1974">McFeely (1974)</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarney1987245-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarney1987245_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarney1987">Barney (1987)</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightweis-Goff2025" class="citation book cs1">Lightweis-Goff, Jennie (2025). <i>Captive city: meditations on slavery in the urban south</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-2668-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-2668-5"><bdi>978-1-5128-2668-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captive+city%3A+meditations+on+slavery+in+the+urban+south&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2025&rft.isbn=978-1-5128-2668-5&rft.aulast=Lightweis-Goff&rft.aufirst=Jennie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._31-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001ch._31_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, ch. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917128–129-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917128–129_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOberholtzer1917">Oberholtzer (1917)</a>, pp. 128–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001527-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonaldBakerHolt2001527_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001">Donald, Baker & Holt (2001)</a>, p. 527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter199767-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter199767_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunter1997">Hunter (1997)</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarney1987251,_284–286-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarney1987251,_284–286_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarney1987">Barney (1987)</a>, pp. 251, 284–286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schurz_1865-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schurz_1865_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schurz_1865_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchurz1865" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schurz" title="Carl Schurz">Schurz, Carl</a> (December 1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014083500/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext05/cnsth10.htm">Report on the Condition of the South</a> (Report). U.S. Senate Exec. Doc. No. 2, 39th Congress, 1st session. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext05/cnsth10.htm">the original</a> on October 14, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Condition+of+the+South&rft.date=1865-12&rft.aulast=Schurz&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfomotions.com%2Fetexts%2Fgutenberg%2Fdirs%2Fetext05%2Fcnsth10.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter1997-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHunter1997_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunter1997">Hunter (1997)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackmon2009" class="citation book cs1">Blackmon, Douglas A. (2009). <i>Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II</i>. New York: Anchor Books. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385722704" title="Special:BookSources/9780385722704"><bdi>9780385722704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+by+Another+Name%3A+The+Re-enslavement+of+Black+Americans+from+the+Civil+War+to+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780385722704&rft.aulast=Blackmon&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p202-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gendered_Strife_and_Confusion_p202_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1997" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Laura F. (1997). <i>Gendered Strife and Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction</i>. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02297-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02297-5"><bdi>978-0-252-02297-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gendered+Strife+and+Confusion%3A+The+Political+Culture+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02297-5&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Laura+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freedwomen_and_the_Freedmen's_Bureau-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freedwomen_and_the_Freedmen's_Bureau_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer-Kaiser2010" class="citation book cs1">Farmer-Kaiser, Mary (2010). <i>Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation</i>. New York: Fordham University Press. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823234943" title="Special:BookSources/9780823234943"><bdi>9780823234943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedwomen+and+the+Freedmen%27s+Bureau%3A+Race%2C+Gender%2C+and+Public+Policy+in+the+Age+of+Emancipation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780823234943&rft.aulast=Farmer-Kaiser&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201070-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones201070_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2010">Jones (2010)</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schouler_1913_43–57-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schouler_1913_43–57_111-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchouler1913" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Schouler, James (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst12schogoog"><i>History of the United States of America under the Constitution</i></a>. Vol. 7: The Reconstruction Period (Revised ed.). New York: Kraus Reprints. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst12schogoog/page/n69">43</a>–57. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1540160">1540160</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2010</span> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+United+States+of+America+under+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=43-57&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Kraus+Reprints&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1540160&rft.aulast=Schouler&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryunitedst12schogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_pp._65–66-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_pp._65–66_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1920">Rhodes (1920)</a>, v. 6: pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924004559/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section4/section4_11.html">"The Freedman's Bureau, 1866"</a>. <i>America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War</i>. Digital History Project, University of Houston. image 11 of 40. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section4/section4_11.html">the original</a> on September 24, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=America%27s+Reconstruction%3A+People+and+Politics+After+the+Civil+War&rft.atitle=The+Freedman%27s+Bureau%2C+1866&rft.pages=image+11+of+40&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Freconstruction%2Fsection4%2Fsection4_11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._68-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._68_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1920">Rhodes (1920)</a>, v. 6: p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2014b224–227-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2014b224–227_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner2014b">Foner (2014b)</a>, pp. 224–227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeedLadd_Teed2015" class="citation book cs1">Teed, Paul E.; Ladd Teed, Melissa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kpMeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51"><i>Reconstruction: A Reference Guide</i></a>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 51, 174 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-533-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-533-6"><bdi>978-1-61069-533-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+A+Reference+Guide&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=51%2C+174+ff&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-533-6&rft.aulast=Teed&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft.au=Ladd+Teed%2C+Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkpMeCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span>. Foner (1988) entitles his sixth chapter "The Making of Radical Reconstruction". Benedict argues the Radical Republicans were conservative on many other issues, in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict1974" class="citation journal cs1">Benedict, Michael Les (1974). "Preserving the Constitution: The Conservative Basis of Radical Reconstruction". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_American_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of American History">Journal of American History</a></i>. <b>61</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">65–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1918254">10.2307/1918254</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1918254">1918254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Preserving+the+Constitution%3A+The+Conservative+Basis+of+Radical+Reconstruction&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1918254&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1918254%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Michael+Les&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolchin1967" class="citation journal cs1">Kolchin, Peter (1967). 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Cruikshank</i> (1876) belongs at the heart of the American constitutional canon"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Civil_Rights%E2%80%93Civil_Liberties_Law_Review" title="Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review">Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review</a></i>. <b>49</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">385–</span>447. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harvardcrcl.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/385_Pope.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 20, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 15,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Civil+Rights%E2%80%93Civil+Liberties+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Snubbed+landmark%3A+Why+United+States+v.+Cruikshank+%281876%29+belongs+at+the+heart+of+the+American+constitutional+canon&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E447&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=James+Gray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fharvardcrcl.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F09%2F385_Pope.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2012" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, Jamal (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150107063310/http://columbialawreview.org/thirteenth-amendment-optimism/">"Thirteenth Amendment optimism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review" title="Columbia Law Review">Columbia Law Review</a></i>. <b>112</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">1733–</span>1768. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41708163">41708163</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://columbialawreview.org/thirteenth-amendment-optimism/">the original</a> on January 7, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Thirteenth+Amendment+optimism&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1733-%3C%2Fspan%3E1768&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41708163%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Jamal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcolumbialawreview.org%2Fthirteenth-amendment-optimism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023919/http://columbialawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/1733-1768.pdf">PDF version</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014/llsl014.db&recNum=459">"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Memory" title="American Memory">American Memory</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201203193317/http://www.memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014%2Fllsl014.db&recNum=459">Archived</a> from the original on December 3, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 21,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Memory&rft.atitle=A+Century+of+Lawmaking+for+a+New+Nation%3A+U.S.+Congressional+Documents+and+Debates%2C+1774%E2%80%931875&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmemory.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fampage%3FcollId%3Dllsl%26fileName%3D014%2Fllsl014.db%26recNum%3D459&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">28 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">U.S.C.</a> § 2254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, ch. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzotAQAAMAAJ"><i>Journal of the Senate of the State of West Virginia for the Sixth Session, Commencing January 21, 1868</i></a>, Wheeling: John Frew, 1868, p. 10 – via Google Books</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Senate+of+the+State+of+West+Virginia+for+the+Sixth+Session%2C+Commencing+January+21%2C+1868&rft.place=Wheeling&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=John+Frew&rft.date=1868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgzotAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2016" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Christopher (2016). <i>The Rivers Ran Backward: The Civil War and the Remaking of the American Middle Border</i> (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199720170" title="Special:BookSources/9780199720170"><bdi>9780199720170</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rivers+Ran+Backward%3A+The+Civil+War+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+Middle+Border&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=296&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780199720170&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2004" class="citation journal cs1">Chin, Gabriel Jackson (September 14, 2004). "The 'Voting Rights Act of 1867': The Constitutionality of Federal Regulation of Suffrage During Reconstruction". <i>North Carolina Law Review</i>. <b>82</b> (5): 1581. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=589301">589301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=North+Carolina+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+%27Voting+Rights+Act+of+1867%27%3A+The+Constitutionality+of+Federal+Regulation+of+Suffrage+During+Reconstruction&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1581&rft.date=2004-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D589301%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=Gabriel+Jackson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6–7-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._6–7_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, ch. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988274–275-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988274–275_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 274–275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2003" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Randolph B. (2003). <i>Gone to Texas: a history of the Lone Star State</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513842-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513842-9"><bdi>978-0-19-513842-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gone+to+Texas%3A+a+history+of+the+Lone+Star+State&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513842-9&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Randolph+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1920v._6:_p._199_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1920">Rhodes (1920)</a>, v. 6: p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988316–333-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988316–333_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 316–333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumeGough2008" class="citation book cs1">Hume, Richard L.; Gough, Jerry B. (2008). <i>Blacks, Carpetbaggers, and Scalawags: the Constitutional Conventions of Radical Reconstruction</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807133248" title="Special:BookSources/9780807133248"><bdi>9780807133248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blacks%2C+Carpetbaggers%2C+and+Scalawags%3A+the+Constitutional+Conventions+of+Radical+Reconstruction&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780807133248&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft.au=Gough%2C+Jerry+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkinsHeersink2016" class="citation conference cs1">Jenkins, Jeffery A.; Heersink, Boris (June 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160418074800/http://faculty.virginia.edu/jajenkins/Jenkins%20Heersink%20SPSA%202016.pdf"><i>Republican Party Politics and the American South: From Reconstruction to Redemption, 1865–1880</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2016 Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association, San Juan, Puerto Rico. p. 18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.virginia.edu/jajenkins/Jenkins%20Heersink%20SPSA%202016.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 18, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Republican+Party+Politics+and+the+American+South%3A+From+Reconstruction+to+Redemption%2C+1865%E2%80%931880&rft.pages=18&rft.date=2016-06-04&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+A.&rft.au=Heersink%2C+Boris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.virginia.edu%2Fjajenkins%2FJenkins%2520Heersink%2520SPSA%25202016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988323–325-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988323–325_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 323–325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSummers2014a">Summers (2014a)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tyack_Lowe-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyack_Lowe_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyack_Lowe_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyackLowe1986" class="citation journal cs1">Tyack, David; Lowe, Robert (1986). "The constitutional moment: Reconstruction and Black education in the South". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Education" title="American Journal of Education">American Journal of Education</a></i>. <b>94</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">236–</span>256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F443844">10.1086/443844</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1084950">1084950</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143849662">143849662</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Education&rft.atitle=The+constitutional+moment%3A+Reconstruction+and+Black+education+in+the+South&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E236-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143849662%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1084950%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F443844&rft.aulast=Tyack&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Lowe%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperTerrill2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Cooper_Jr." title="William J. Cooper Jr.">Cooper, William J. Jr.</a>; Terrill, Thomas E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=foGTgJkUOTEC&pg=PA436"><i>The American South: A History</i></a> (4th ed.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 436. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6450-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6450-3"><bdi>978-0-7425-6450-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+South%3A+A+History&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pages=436&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6450-3&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=William+J.+Jr.&rft.au=Terrill%2C+Thomas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfoGTgJkUOTEC%26pg%3DPA436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._2_p._635-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._2_p._635_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZuczek2006">Zuczek (2006)</a>, Vol. 2 p. 635.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988324-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988324_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerman198536–37-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerman198536–37_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerman1985">Perman (1985)</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillette1982" class="citation book cs1">Gillette, William (1982). <i>Retreat from reconstruction: 1869–1879</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807110065" title="Special:BookSources/9780807110065"><bdi>9780807110065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retreat+from+reconstruction%3A+1869%E2%80%931879&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780807110065&rft.aulast=Gillette&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_p._323;_Vol._2_pp._645,_698-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuczek2006Vol._1_p._323;_Vol._2_pp._645,_698_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZuczek2006">Zuczek (2006)</a>, Vol. 1 p. 323; Vol. 2 pp. 645, 698.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESummers2014160–161-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESummers2014160–161_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSummers2014">Summers (2014)</a>, pp. 160–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001455–457-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001455–457_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, pp. 455–457.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun201741–42-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun201741–42_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2017">Calhoun (2017)</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1999" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Brooks D. (1999). "Ulysses S. Grant and the Freedmen's Bureau". In Cimbala, Paul A. & Miller, Randall M. (eds.). <i>The Freedmen's Bureau and Reconstruction: Reconsiderations</i> (1st ed.). New York: Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823219346" title="Special:BookSources/9780823219346"><bdi>9780823219346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ulysses+S.+Grant+and+the+Freedmen%27s+Bureau&rft.btitle=The+Freedmen%27s+Bureau+and+Reconstruction%3A+Reconsiderations&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780823219346&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brooks+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001437–453,_458–460-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001437–453,_458–460_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, pp. 437–453, 458–460.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Montgomery-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Montgomery_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomery1967" class="citation book cs1">Montgomery, David (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ktsm2lS5BegC&pg=PA130"><i>Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans, 1862–1872</i></a>. New York: Alfred Knopf. pp. <span class="nowrap">130–</span>133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252008696" title="Special:BookSources/9780252008696"><bdi>9780252008696</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Equality%3A+Labor+and+the+Radical+Republicans%2C+1862%E2%80%931872&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E130-%3C%2Fspan%3E133&rft.pub=Alfred+Knopf&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780252008696&rft.aulast=Montgomery&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dktsm2lS5BegC%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGleeson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gleeson, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039x.2016.1208911">"Failing to 'unite with the abolitionists': the Irish Nationalist Press and U.S. emancipation"</a>. <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>. <b>37</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">622–</span>637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039x.2016.1208911">10.1080/0144039x.2016.1208911</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-039X">0144-039X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=Failing+to+%27unite+with+the+abolitionists%27%3A+the+Irish+Nationalist+Press+and+U.S.+emancipation&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E622-%3C%2Fspan%3E637&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039x.2016.1208911&rft.issn=0144-039X&rft.aulast=Gleeson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F0144039x.2016.1208911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Knight_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2017" class="citation journal cs1">Knight, Matthew (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/680371/summary">"The Irish Republic: Reconstructing Liberty, Right Principles, and the Fenian Brotherhood"</a>. <i>Éire-Ireland</i>. <b>52</b> (3 & 4). Irish-American Cultural Institute: <span class="nowrap">252–</span>271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feir.2017.0029">10.1353/eir.2017.0029</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159525524">159525524</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201141335/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/680371/summary">Archived</a> from the original on December 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89ire-Ireland&rft.atitle=The+Irish+Republic%3A+Reconstructing+Liberty%2C+Right+Principles%2C+and+the+Fenian+Brotherhood&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3+%26+4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E252-%3C%2Fspan%3E271&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Feir.2017.0029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159525524%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F680371%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yanoso-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yanoso_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanoso2017" class="citation book cs1">Yanoso, Nicole Anderson (2017). <i>The Irish and the American Presidency</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">75–</span>80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351480635" title="Special:BookSources/9781351480635"><bdi>9781351480635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+and+the+American+Presidency&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E80&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351480635&rft.aulast=Yanoso&rft.aufirst=Nicole+Anderson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002245-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002245_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002245_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersWoolley2018b-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersWoolley2018b_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetersWoolley2018b">Peters & Woolley (2018b)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001461-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001461_153-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001461_153-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, p. 461.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun201755-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun201755_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2017">Calhoun (2017)</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2014a243–244-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2014a243–244_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner2014a">Foner (2014a)</a>, pp. 243–244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002284-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002284_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFeely2002">McFeely (2002)</a>, p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2016471-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2016471_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite2016">White (2016)</a>, p. 471.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201861-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201861_158-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahan2018">Kahan (2018)</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2013" class="citation book cs1">Brands, H. W. (2013). <i>The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses Grant in War and Peace</i>. New York: Anchor Books. pp. <span class="nowrap">463–</span>479. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307475152" title="Special:BookSources/9780307475152"><bdi>9780307475152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Man+Who+Saved+the+Union%3A+Ulysses+Grant+in+War+and+Peace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E463-%3C%2Fspan%3E479&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780307475152&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spxiii-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spxiii_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spxiii_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1967" class="citation book cs1">Simon, John Y. (1967). <i>Papers of Ulysses S. Grant</i>. Vol. 19. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. pp. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780809319640" title="Special:BookSources/9780809319640"><bdi>9780809319640</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+of+Ulysses+S.+Grant&rft.place=Carbondale&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780809319640&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=John+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborneBombaro20156,_12,_54-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsborneBombaro20156,_12,_54_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOsborneBombaro2015">Osborne & Bombaro (2015)</a>, pp. 6, 12, 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017629-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017629_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, p. 629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017628-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017628_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, p. 628.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012435,_465Chernow2017686–687Simon2002247-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012435,_465Chernow2017686–687Simon2002247_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2012">Brands (2012)</a>, pp. 435, 465; <a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, pp. 686–687; <a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012465-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012465_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2012">Brands (2012)</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002246-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002246_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002247–248-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002247–248_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>, pp. 247–248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001543–545-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001543–545_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, pp. 543–545.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2012474-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrands2012474_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrands2012">Brands (2012)</a>, p. 474.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaczorowski1995-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaczorowski1995_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaczorowski1995">Kaczorowski (1995)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201864–65Calhoun2017317–319_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahan2018">Kahan (2018)</a>, pp. 64–65; <a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2017">Calhoun (2017)</a>, pp. 317–319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001545–546White2016521-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001545–546White2016521_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, pp. 545–546; <a href="#CITEREFWhite2016">White (2016)</a>, p. 521.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimon2002248-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002248_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimon2002248_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimon2002">Simon (2002)</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:00-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:00_175-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:00_175-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ACA4911.0001.001"><i>Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States February 19, 1872</i></a>. January 31, 1872. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210604011404/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ACA4911.0001.001">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 13,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Joint+Select+Committee+to+Inquire+into+the+Condition+of+Affairs+in+the+Late+Insurrectionary+States+February+19%2C+1872&rft.date=1872-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Dmoa%26cc%3Dmoa%26sid%3D95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1%26view%3Dtext%26rgn%3Dmain%26idno%3DACA4911.0001.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201866-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201866_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahan2018">Kahan (2018)</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547_177-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, p. 547.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017324-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017324_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2017">Calhoun (2017)</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2001547–548-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2001547–548_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith (2001)</a>, pp. 547–548.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner2019120–122-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner2019120–122_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner2019">Foner (2019)</a>, pp. 120–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan2018122-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan2018122_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahan2018">Kahan (2018)</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1997102Kaczorowski1995182-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang1997102Kaczorowski1995182_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang1997">Wang (1997)</a>, p. 102; <a href="#CITEREFKaczorowski1995">Kaczorowski (1995)</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017746_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, p. 746.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahan201867–68Chernow2017746-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKahan201867–68Chernow2017746_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKahan2018">Kahan (2018)</a>, pp. 67–68; <a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, pp. 746.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2017795_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChernow2017">Chernow (2017)</a>, p. 795.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017479-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalhoun2017479_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalhoun2017">Calhoun (2017)</a>, p. 479.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuigley2008" class="citation journal cs1">Quigley, David (January 2008). "Constitutional Revision and the City: The Enforcement Acts and Urban America, 1870–1894". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Policy_History" title="Journal of Policy History">Journal of Policy History</a></i>. <b>20</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">64–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjph.0.0001">10.1353/jph.0.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153347617">153347617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Policy+History&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Revision+and+the+City%3A+The+Enforcement+Acts+and+Urban+America%2C+1870%E2%80%931894&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjph.0.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153347617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Quigley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlair2005400-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlair2005400_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlair2005">Blair (2005)</a>, p. 400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199219-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson199219_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1992">McPherson (1992)</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis" class="citation web cs1">Willis, John C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140816055749/http://www.sewanee.edu/faculty/willis/Civil_War/tables/dateSecession.html">"America's Civil War: Date of Secession Compared to 1860 Black Population"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sewanee:_The_University_of_the_South" title="Sewanee: The University of the South">Sewanee: The University of the South</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sewanee.edu/faculty/willis/Civil_War/tables/dateSecession.html">the original</a> on August 16, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 9,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sewanee%3A+The+University+of+the+South&rft.atitle=America%27s+Civil+War%3A+Date+of+Secession+Compared+to+1860+Black+Population&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sewanee.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fwillis%2FCivil_War%2Ftables%2FdateSecession.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._7-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988ch._7_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, ch. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1993introduction-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1993introduction_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1993">Foner (1993)</a>, introduction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2005" class="citation book cs1">Hahn, Steven (2005). <i>A Nation under Our Feet</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674017658" title="Special:BookSources/9780674017658"><bdi>9780674017658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Nation+under+Our+Feet&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780674017658&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1870a-03.pdf">"Table I. Population of the United States (by States and Territories) in the Aggregate and as White, Colored, Free Colored, Slave, Chinese, and Indian, at Each Census"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Population by States and Territories – 1790–1870</i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a>. 1872. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721040939/http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1870a-03.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on July 21, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 20,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Population+by+States+and+Territories+%E2%80%93+1790%E2%80%931870&rft.atitle=Table+I.+Population+of+the+United+States+%28by+States+and+Territories%29+in+the+Aggregate+and+as+White%2C+Colored%2C+Free+Colored%2C+Slave%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Indian%2C+at+Each+Census&rft.date=1872&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.census.gov%2Fprod2%2Fdecennial%2Fdocuments%2F1870a-03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> The complete 1870 census documents are <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1872/dec/1870a.html">available from Census.gov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019155659/https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1872/dec/1870a.html">Archived</a> October 19, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2018" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (January 31, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/human-interest/2018/01/the-many-black-americans-who-held-public-office-during-reconstruction-in-southern-states-like-south-carolina.html">"South Carolina's Forgotten Black Political Revolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Slate_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Slate (website)">Slate</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201104205629/https://slate.com/human-interest/2018/01/the-many-black-americans-who-held-public-office-during-reconstruction-in-southern-states-like-south-carolina.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 4, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=South+Carolina%27s+Forgotten+Black+Political+Revolution&rft.date=2018-01-31&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Fhuman-interest%2F2018%2F01%2Fthe-many-black-americans-who-held-public-office-during-reconstruction-in-southern-states-like-south-carolina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988354–355-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988354–355_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 354–355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowell1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjQphbo640wACpgPA84_83–84]-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStowell1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjQphbo640wACpgPA84_83–84]_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStowell1998">Stowell (1998)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQphbo640wAC&pg=PA84">83–84</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1982" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Clarence Earl (1982). <i>A Rock in a Weary Land: The African Methodist Episcopal Church During the Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807108833" title="Special:BookSources/9780807108833"><bdi>9780807108833</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Rock+in+a+Weary+Land%3A+The+African+Methodist+Episcopal+Church+During+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780807108833&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Clarence+Earl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet1914157-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweet1914157_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSweet1914">Sweet (1914)</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant1993" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Donald Lee (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zpmjRm4cdswC&pg=PA264"><i>The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. p. 264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2329-9"><bdi>978-0-8203-2329-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+It+Was+in+the+South%3A+The+Black+Experience+in+Georgia&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-2329-9&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Donald+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzpmjRm4cdswC%26pg%3DPA264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner198893-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner198893_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954202-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954202_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorrow1954">Morrow (1954)</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrow1956" class="citation book cs1">Morrow, Ralph Ernest (1956). <i>Northern Methodism and Reconstruction</i>. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301551">301551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Methodism+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=East+Lansing&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F301551&rft.aulast=Morrow&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStowell199830–31-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStowell199830–31_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStowell1998">Stowell (1998)</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1956" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Robert D. (1956). <i>The Life of Matthew Simpson</i>. New York: Macmillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>267. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/852504">852504</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Matthew+Simpson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F852504&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwood1982" class="citation book cs1">Norwood, Fredrick A., ed. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofamer00norw"><i>Sourcebook of American Methodism</i></a></span>. Nashville: Abingdon. p. 323. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780687391400" title="Special:BookSources/9780687391400"><bdi>9780687391400</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sourcebook+of+American+Methodism&rft.place=Nashville&rft.pages=323&rft.pub=Abingdon&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780687391400&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcebookofamer00norw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweet1914161-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweet1914161_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSweet1914">Sweet (1914)</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1990" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Victor B. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200709085935/https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1139&context=upk_united_states_history"><i>Religion and the Radical Republican Movement, 1860–1870</i></a>. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. pp. <span class="nowrap">212–</span>213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813117027" title="Special:BookSources/9780813117027"><bdi>9780813117027</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1139&context=upk_united_states_history">the original</a> on July 9, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 1,</span> 2024</span> – via University of Kentucky.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Radical+Republican+Movement%2C+1860%E2%80%931870&rft.place=Lexington&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E212-%3C%2Fspan%3E213&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780813117027&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Victor+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuknowledge.uky.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3D%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1139%26context%3Dupk_united_states_history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954205-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorrow1954205_210-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorrow1954">Morrow (1954)</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fallin-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fallin_211-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fallin_211-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFallin2007" class="citation book cs1">Fallin, Wilson Jr. (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upliftingpeoplet0000fall/page/n19/mode/2up"><i>Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama</i></a></span>. Religion and American culture. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">52–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780817380304" title="Special:BookSources/9780817380304"><bdi>9780817380304</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uplifting+the+People%3A+Three+Centuries+of+Black+Baptists+in+Alabama&rft.place=Tuscaloosa&rft.series=Religion+and+American+culture&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780817380304&rft.aulast=Fallin&rft.aufirst=Wilson+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fupliftingpeoplet0000fall%2Fpage%2Fn19%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailseducationblackss00ande_055pagen20_4]-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailseducationblackss00ande_055pagen20_4]_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1988">Anderson (1988)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/educationblackss00ande_055/page/n20">4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson19886–15-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson19886–15_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1988">Anderson (1988)</a>, pp. 6–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaughn2015" class="citation book cs1">Vaughn, William Preston (2015). <i>Schools for All: The Blacks and Public Education in the South, 1865–1877</i>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813155326" title="Special:BookSources/9780813155326"><bdi>9780813155326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schools+for+All%3A+The+Blacks+and+Public+Education+in+the+South%2C+1865%E2%80%931877&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780813155326&rft.aulast=Vaughn&rft.aufirst=William+Preston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988365–368-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988365–368_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 365–368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961139-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961139_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin1961">Franklin (1961)</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_217-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1913[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_217-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1913">Lynch (1913)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayberry1992" class="citation book cs1">Mayberry, B. D. (1992). <i>A Century of Agriculture in the 1890 Land Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University, 1890–1990</i>. New York: Vantage Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780533095100" title="Special:BookSources/9780533095100"><bdi>9780533095100</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Agriculture+in+the+1890+Land+Grant+Institutions+and+Tuskegee+University%2C+1890%E2%80%931990&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vantage+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780533095100&rft.aulast=Mayberry&rft.aufirst=B.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLogan2020" class="citation journal cs1">Logan, Trevon D. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050719000755">"Do Black Politicians Matter? Evidence from Reconstruction"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>80</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050719000755">10.1017/S0022050719000755</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Do+Black+Politicians+Matter%3F+Evidence+from+Reconstruction&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050719000755&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=Trevon+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0022050719000755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988387-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988387_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961141–148-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961141–148_221-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin1961">Franklin (1961)</a>, pp. 141–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStover1955-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStover1955_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStover1955">Stover (1955)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961147–148-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961147–148_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin1961">Franklin (1961)</a>, pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David B. Danbom, <i>Born in the Country: A History of Rural America</i> (2017) pp. 99–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Dollard, <i>Caste and Class in a Southern Town</i> (1949) pp. 4, 128-130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hasia R. Diner, <i>A time for gathering : the second migration, 1820-1880</i> (1992) pp.60-85. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeforgathering0000dine">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diane C. Vecchio, "Making their way in the New South: Jewish peddlers and merchants in the South Carolina Up-Country.” <i>South Carolina Historical Magazine</i> 113#2, (2012), pp. 100–24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/41698099">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas D. Clark, "The Furnishing and Supply System in Southern Agriculture since 1865," <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 12#1 (1946), pp. 24-44 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2197729">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifton L. Paisley, "Van Brunt's Store, Iamonia, Florida, 1902-1911." <i>Florida Historical Quarterly</i> 48.4 (1969): 3+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3160&context=fhq">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The best source is Thomas C. Clark, <i>Pills Petticoats and Plows: The Southern Country Store</i> (1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156316/page/n1/mode/1up">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacqueline P. Bull, "The General Merchant in the Economic History of the New South." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 18.1 (1952): 37-59. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954791">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacy K. Ford, “Rednecks and Merchants: Economic Development and Social Tensions in the South Carolina Upcountry, 1865-1900.” <i>Journal of American History</i> 71#2 (1984), pp. 294–318. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1901757">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holland Thompson, "Life in a Southern Mill Town." <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> 15.1 (1900): 1-13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2140703.pdf">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dale Newman, "Work and community life in a southern textile town." <i>Labor History</i> 19.2 (1978): 204-225. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00236567808584489">https://doi.org/10.1080/00236567808584489</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988375-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988375_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988376-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988376_236-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988415–416-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988415–416_237-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, pp. 415–416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schell_1930-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schell_1930_238-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schell_1930_238-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchell1930" class="citation journal cs1">Schell, Herbert S. (1930). "Hugh McCulloch and the Treasury Department, 1865–1869". <i>Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">404–</span>421. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1893078">10.2307/1893078</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1893078">1893078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mississippi+Valley+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Hugh+McCulloch+and+the+Treasury+Department%2C+1865%E2%80%931869&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E404-%3C%2Fspan%3E421&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1893078&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1893078%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schell&rft.aufirst=Herbert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an econometric approach, see: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhanian2018" class="citation book cs1">Ohanian, Lee E. (2018). <i>The Macroeconomic Effects of War Finance in the United States: Taxes, Inflation, and Deficit Finance</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815349662" title="Special:BookSources/9780815349662"><bdi>9780815349662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Macroeconomic+Effects+of+War+Finance+in+the+United+States%3A+Taxes%2C+Inflation%2C+and+Deficit+Finance&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780815349662&rft.aulast=Ohanian&rft.aufirst=Lee+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers1970" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Margaret G. (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/financialhistory00myerrich"><i>A financial history of the United States</i></a></span>. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">174–</span>196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231024426" title="Special:BookSources/9780231024426"><bdi>9780231024426</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+financial+history+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E174-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780231024426&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Margaret+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffinancialhistory00myerrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudenskiKroos1963" class="citation book cs1">Studenski, Paul; Kroos, Herman E. (1963). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/financialhistory0000paul"><i>Financial History of the United States</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/492589832">492589832</a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Financial+History+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F492589832&rft.aulast=Studenski&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Kroos%2C+Herman+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffinancialhistory0000paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger1964" class="citation book cs1">Unger, Irwin (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenbackerasoci0000unge"><i>The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance 1865–1879</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859833035">859833035</a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greenback+Era%3A+A+Social+and+Political+History+of+American+Finance+1865%E2%80%931879&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859833035&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Irwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreenbackerasoci0000unge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharkey1967" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Robert P. (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moneyclasspartye0000robe"><i>Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction</i></a></span>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1458620">1458620</a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Money%2C+Class%2C+and+Party%3A+An+Economic+Study+of+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1458620&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoneyclasspartye0000robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961168–173-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranklin1961168–173_244-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFranklin1961">Franklin (1961)</a>, pp. 168–173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteedman2009" class="citation journal cs1">Steedman, Marek D. (Spring 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250202064">"Resistance, Rebirth, and Redemption: The Rhetoric of White Supremacy in Post-Civil War Louisiana"</a>. <i>Historical Reflections</i>. <b>35</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">97–</span>113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3167%2Fhrrh2009.350106">10.3167/hrrh2009.350106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Reflections&rft.atitle=Resistance%2C+Rebirth%2C+and+Redemption%3A+The+Rhetoric+of+White+Supremacy+in+Post-Civil+War+Louisiana&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E113&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3167%2Fhrrh2009.350106&rft.aulast=Steedman&rft.aufirst=Marek+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F250202064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1919" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, Walter L. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sequelofappomatt0032walt/"><i>The Sequel of Appomattox: A Chronicle of the Reunion of the States</i></a>. Chronicles of America series. Vol. 32. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780554271941" title="Special:BookSources/9780554271941"><bdi>9780554271941</bdi></a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sequel+of+Appomattox%3A+A+Chronicle+of+the+Reunion+of+the+States&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.series=Chronicles+of+America+series&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1919&rft.isbn=9780554271941&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsequelofappomatt0032walt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerman19856-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerman19856_247-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerman1985">Perman (1985)</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946_248-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946_248-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1946">Williams (1946)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_p._328-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_p._328_249-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1906–1907">Fleming (1906–1907)</a>, Vol. II, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_pp._328–329-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming1906–1907Vol._II,_pp._328–329_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleming1906–1907">Fleming (1906–1907)</a>, Vol. II, pp. 328–329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917485-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOberholtzer1917485_251-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOberholtzer1917">Oberholtzer (1917)</a>, p. 485.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002420–422-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002420–422_252-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFeely2002">McFeely (2002)</a>, pp. 420–422.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuckers1874" class="citation book cs1">Schuckers, J. W. (1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifepublicservic00schu/"><i>The Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase</i></a>. New York, D. Appleton and Company. p. 585 – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Public+Services+of+Salmon+Portland+Chase&rft.pages=585&rft.pub=New+York%2C+D.+Appleton+and+Company&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Schuckers&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifepublicservic00schu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span>; letter of May 30, 1868 to August Belmont.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1875[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcPherson1875[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_254-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcPherson1875">McPherson (1875)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaughn2007" class="citation book cs1">Vaughn, Stephen L., ed. (2007). <i>Encyclopedia of American Journalism</i>. London: Routledge. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415969505" title="Special:BookSources/9780415969505"><bdi>9780415969505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+American+Journalism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=441&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780415969505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott2004" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Richard H. (2004). <i>For Free Press and Equal Rights: Republican Newspapers in the Reconstruction South</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2004-01/reconstruction.html">the original</a> on September 16, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=Forty+Acres+and+a+Mule%3A+The+Ruined+Hope+of+Reconstruction&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2004-01%2F2004-02&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Danielle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fnews%2Fhumanities%2F2004-01%2Freconstruction.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1990555–556-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1990555–556_270-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1990">Foner (1990)</a>, p. 555–556.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-George_C._Rable_1984,_p.132-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-George_C._Rable_1984,_p.132_271-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRable1984" class="citation book cs1">Rable, George C. (1984). <i>But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction</i>. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820307107" title="Special:BookSources/9780820307107"><bdi>9780820307107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=But+There+Was+No+Peace%3A+The+Role+of+Violence+in+the+Politics+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780820307107&rft.aulast=Rable&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988606-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988606_272-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 606.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemann2007174-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemann2007174_273-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemann2007">Lemann (2007)</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChacónJensen2020" class="citation journal cs1">Chacón, Mario L.; Jensen, Jeffrey L. (2020). "Democratization, De Facto Power, and Taxation: Evidence from Military Occupation during Reconstruction". <i>World Politics</i>. <b>72</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0043887119000157">10.1017/S0043887119000157</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-8871">0043-8871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211320983">211320983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics&rft.atitle=Democratization%2C+De+Facto+Power%2C+and+Taxation%3A+Evidence+from+Military+Occupation+during+Reconstruction&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211320983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0043-8871&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0043887119000157&rft.aulast=Chac%C3%B3n&rft.aufirst=Mario+L.&rft.au=Jensen%2C+Jeffrey+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1988604-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1988604_275-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1988">Foner (1988)</a>, p. 604.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.htm">"Hayes vs. Tilden: The Electoral College Controversy of 1876–1877"</a>. <i>HarpWeek</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010124080100/http://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HarpWeek&rft.atitle=Hayes+vs.+Tilden%3A+The+Electoral+College+Controversy+of+1876%E2%80%931877&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felections.harpweek.com%2FControversy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward19663–15-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodward19663–15_277-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodward1966">Woodward (1966)</a>, pp. 3–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainter1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Painter, Nell Irvin</a> (1976). <i>Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas After Reconstruction</i>. 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(January 1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/epdf/10.2307/2714704">"Historians of the Reconstruction"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Negro History">The Journal of Negro History</a></i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">16–</span>34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2714704">10.2307/2714704</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2714704">2714704</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150066533">150066533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Historians+of+the+Reconstruction&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E16-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.date=1938-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150066533%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2714704%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2714704&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fepdf%2F10.2307%2F2714704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946473-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1946473_284-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1946">Williams (1946)</a>, p. 473.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeale1958" class="citation book cs1">Beale, Howard K. (1958). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalyearstud0000beal/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Critical Year; A study of Andrew Johnson and reconstruction</i></a></span>. New York: F. Ungar. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/458675179">458675179</a> – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Critical+Year%3B+A+study+of+Andrew+Johnson+and+reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=F.+Ungar&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F458675179&rft.aulast=Beale&rft.aufirst=Howard+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalyearstud0000beal%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTulloch1999" class="citation book cs1">Tulloch, Hugh (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVD1-qcknywC&pg=PA226"><i>The Debate on the American Civil War Era</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4938-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4938-5"><bdi>978-0-7190-4938-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debate+on+the+American+Civil+War+Era&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4938-5&rft.aulast=Tulloch&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVD1-qcknywC%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles1983" class="citation book cs1">Charles, Allan D. (1983). "Howard K Beale". In Wilson, Clyde N. (ed.). <i>Twentieth-century American Historians</i>. 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New York: Macmillan. p. 54 – via Archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+American+Civilization&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft.au=Beard%2C+Mary+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofamericanci02bear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofstadter2012" class="citation book cs1">Hofstadter, Richard (2012) [1968]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iLdMzbv2IDQC&pg=PT458"><i>Progressive Historians</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Constitutional+Commentary&rft.atitle=Democracy%2C+Anti-democracy%2C+and+the+Canon&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pildes&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D224731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1978" class="citation journal cs1">McPherson, James M. (1978). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+United+States+Needs+a+Third+Reconstruction&rft.date=2020-07-20&rft.aulast=Codrington+III&rft.aufirst=Wilfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fideas%2Farchive%2F2020%2F07%2Funited-states-needs-third-reconstruction%2F614293%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoner1990255-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoner1990255_306-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1990">Foner (1990)</a>, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFoner1990">Foner 1990</a>, p. 256: Foner adds: "What remains certain is that Reconstruction failed, and that for blacks its failure was a disaster whose magnitude cannot be obscured by the accomplishments that endured."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002372–373,_424,_425-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcFeely2002372–373,_424,_425_308-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcFeely2002">McFeely (2002)</a>, pp. 372–373, 424, 425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whatreconstructionmeant-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whatreconstructionmeant_310-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2007" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Bruce E. (2007). <i>What Reconstruction Meant: Historical Memory in the American South</i>. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813926605" title="Special:BookSources/9780813926605"><bdi>9780813926605</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Reconstruction+Meant%3A+Historical+Memory+in+the+American+South&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780813926605&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Bruce+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-311"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_311-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2008">Brown (2008)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2017" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2017). <i>Give me liberty! : an American history. volume 2, From 1865</i> (Brief 5th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Why+It+Matters+That+U.S.+Schools+Are+Failing+to+Teach+the+Reconstruction+Period&rft.date=2022-01-12&rft.aulast=Waxman&rft.aufirst=Olivia+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F6128421%2Fteaching-reconstruction-study%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosadoCohn-PostarEisen2022" class="citation web cs1">Rosado, Ana; Cohn-Postar, Gideon; Eisen, Mimi (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teachreconstructionreport.org/">"Erasing the Black Freedom Struggle: How State Standards Fail to Teach the Truth About Reconstruction"</a>. <i>Teach Reconstruction Report</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308184047/https://www.teachreconstructionreport.org/">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Teach+Reconstruction+Report&rft.atitle=Erasing+the+Black+Freedom+Struggle%3A+How+State+Standards+Fail+to+Teach+the+Truth+About+Reconstruction&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Rosado&rft.aufirst=Ana&rft.au=Cohn-Postar%2C+Gideon&rft.au=Eisen%2C+Mimi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.teachreconstructionreport.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarber2022" class="citation web cs1">Barber, Benjamin (February 17, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facingsouth.org/2022/02/souths-schools-are-failing-teach-accurate-reconstruction-history">"The South's schools are failing to teach accurate Reconstruction history"</a>. <i>Facing South</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308184055/https://www.facingsouth.org/2022/02/souths-schools-are-failing-teach-accurate-reconstruction-history">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Facing+South&rft.atitle=The+South%27s+schools+are+failing+to+teach+accurate+Reconstruction+history&rft.date=2022-02-17&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facingsouth.org%2F2022%2F02%2Fsouths-schools-are-failing-teach-accurate-reconstruction-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For more sources, see <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction:_Bibliography" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction: Bibliography">Reconstruction: Bibliography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_secondary_sources">Scholarly secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Scholarly secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1988" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James D. (1988). <a href="/wiki/The_Education_of_Blacks_in_the_South,_1860%E2%80%931935" title="The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935"><i>The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Education+of+Blacks+in+the+South%2C+1860%E2%80%931935&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarney1987" class="citation book cs1">Barney, William L. (1987). <i>Passage of the Republic: An Interdisciplinary History of Nineteenth Century America</i>. D. C. Heath. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-669-04758-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-669-04758-9"><bdi>0-669-04758-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passage+of+the+Republic%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+History+of+Nineteenth+Century+America&rft.pub=D.+C.+Heath&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-669-04758-9&rft.aulast=Barney&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehrend2015" class="citation book cs1">Behrend, Justin (2015). <i>Reconstructing Democracy: Grassroots Black Politics in the Deep South after the Civil War</i>. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Democracy%3A+Grassroots+Black+Politics+in+the+Deep+South+after+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Behrend&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellaniHagerMaurer2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bellani, Luna; Hager, Anselm; Maurer, Stephan (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050721000590">"The Long Shadow of Slavery: The Persistence of Slave Owners in Southern Lawmaking"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>82</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050721000590">10.1017/S0022050721000590</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F224053">10419/224053</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211165817">211165817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Long+Shadow+of+Slavery%3A+The+Persistence+of+Slave+Owners+in+Southern+Lawmaking&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E283&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F224053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211165817%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050721000590&rft.aulast=Bellani&rft.aufirst=Luna&rft.au=Hager%2C+Anselm&rft.au=Maurer%2C+Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0022050721000590&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlair2005" class="citation journal cs1">Blair, William (2005). "The use of military force to protect the gains of reconstruction". <i>Civil War History</i>. <b>51</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">388–</span>402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.2005.0055">10.1353/cwh.2005.0055</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144025738">144025738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+War+History&rft.atitle=The+use+of+military+force+to+protect+the+gains+of+reconstruction&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E388-%3C%2Fspan%3E402&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwh.2005.0055&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144025738%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2005" class="citation book cs1">Blum, Edward J. (2005). <i>Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865–1898</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reforging+the+White+Republic%3A+Race%2C+Religion%2C+and+American+Nationalism%2C+1865%E2%80%931898&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2009" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Mark L. (2009). <i>Bluecoats and Tar Heels: Soldiers and Civilians in Reconstruction North Carolina</i>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2507-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2507-7"><bdi>978-0-8131-2507-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bluecoats+and+Tar+Heels%3A+Soldiers+and+Civilians+in+Reconstruction+North+Carolina&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-2507-7&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Mark+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H.W._Brands" class="mw-redirect" title="H.W. Brands">Brands, H. W.</a> (2012). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fGn2t-tuQBMC"><i>The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses S. Grant in War and Peace</i></a></span>. New York: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-53241-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-53241-9"><bdi>978-0-385-53241-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Man+Who+Saved+the+Union%3A+Ulysses+S.+Grant+in+War+and+Peace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-385-53241-9&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfGn2t-tuQBMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2008" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Thomas J., ed. (2008). <i>Reconstructions: New Perspectives on the Postbellum United States</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructions%3A+New+Perspectives+on+the+Postbellum+United+States&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalhoun2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Calhoun" title="Charles W. Calhoun">Calhoun, Charles W.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KWXdswEACAAJ"><i>The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant</i></a>. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-2484-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-2484-3"><bdi>978-0-7006-2484-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Ulysses+S.+Grant&rft.place=Lawrence&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3&rft.aulast=Calhoun&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKWXdswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> scholarly review and response by Calhoun at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14296%2FRiH%2F2014%2F2270">10.14296/RiH/2014/2270</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernow2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ron_Chernow" title="Ron Chernow">Chernow, Ron</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wRYcDgAAQBAJ"><i>Grant</i></a>. New York: Penguin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-487-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-487-6"><bdi>978-1-59420-487-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grant&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-487-6&rft.aulast=Chernow&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwRYcDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cimbala, Paul, and Randall Miller, eds. <i>The Freedmen's Bureau and Reconstruction</i> (Fordham UP, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780823296828">https://doi.org/10.1515/9780823296828</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCimbalaMillerSimpson2002" class="citation book cs1">Cimbala, Paul Alan; Miller, Randall M.; Simpson, Brooks D. (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uncommontimecivi00paul"><i>An Uncommon Time: The Civil War and the Northern Home Front</i></a></span>. Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2195-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2195-0"><bdi>978-0-8232-2195-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Uncommon+Time%3A+The+Civil+War+and+the+Northern+Home+Front&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-2195-0&rft.aulast=Cimbala&rft.aufirst=Paul+Alan&rft.au=Miller%2C+Randall+M.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+Brooks+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funcommontimecivi00paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruden" class="citation book cs1">Cruden, Robert. <i>The Negro in Reconstruction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Negro+in+Reconstruction&rft.aulast=Cruden&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (October 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001" class="citation book cs1">Donald, David Herbert; Baker, Jean H.; Holt, Michael F. (2001). <i>The Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393974270" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393974270"><bdi>978-0393974270</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/247969097">247969097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F247969097&rft.isbn=978-0393974270&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David+Herbert&rft.au=Baker%2C+Jean+H.&rft.au=Holt%2C+Michael+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowns2015" class="citation book cs1">Downs, Gregory P. (2015). <i>After Appomattox: Military Occupation and the Ends of War</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Appomattox%3A+Military+Occupation+and+the+Ends+of+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=Gregory+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowns2012" class="citation book cs1">Downs, Jim (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8u7q5CB9yYC"><i>Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199758722" title="Special:BookSources/9780199758722"><bdi>9780199758722</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sick+from+Freedom%3A+African-American+Illness+and+Suffering+during+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780199758722&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8u7q5CB9yYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Don_H._Doyle" title="Don H. Doyle">Doyle, Don H.</a> (2024). <i>The Age of Reconstruction: How Lincoln's New Birth of Freedom Remade the World</i>. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reconstruction%3A+How+Lincoln%27s+New+Birth+of+Freedom+Remade+the+World&rft.place=Princeton+%26+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=Don+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2014" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas (2014). <i>The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America's Most Progressive Era</i>. Bloomsbury Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60819-566-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60819-566-4"><bdi>978-1-60819-566-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Reconstruction%3A+The+Brief%2C+Violent+History+of+America%27s+Most+Progressive+Era&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-60819-566-4&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nothingbutfreedo00fone/page/40/mode/2up"><i>Nothing But Freedom: Emancipation and its Legacy</i></a></span> <span class="cs1-format">(pdf)</span> (1st ed.). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">39–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1118-5"><bdi>978-0-8071-1118-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/83007906">83007906</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/422767493">422767493</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nothing+But+Freedom%3A+Emancipation+and+its+Legacy&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F422767493&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F83007906&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-1118-5&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnothingbutfreedo00fone%2Fpage%2F40%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1990" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (1990). <i>A Short History of Reconstruction</i>. New York: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060964313" title="Special:BookSources/9780060964313"><bdi>9780060964313</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780060964313&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonerMahoney1997" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric; Mahoney, Olivia (June 1997). <i>America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War</i>. LSU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-2234-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-2234-3"><bdi>0-8071-2234-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Reconstruction%3A+People+and+Politics+After+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=1997-06&rft.isbn=0-8071-2234-3&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Mahoney%2C+Olivia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060158514"><i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</i></a>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-015851-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-015851-4"><bdi>0-06-015851-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+America%27s+Unfinished+Revolution%2C+1863%E2%80%931877&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-06-015851-4&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780060158514&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Pulitzer-prize winning history, and most detailed synthesis of original and previous scholarship.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (2005). <i>Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forever+Free%3A+The+Story+of+Emancipation+and+Reconstruction&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2014b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (2014b) [1988]. <i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</i> (updated ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-235451-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-235451-8"><bdi>978-0-06-235451-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+America%27s+Unfinished+Revolution%2C+1863%E2%80%931877&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=updated&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-06-235451-8&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (2019). <i>The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution</i>. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35852-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-35852-0"><bdi>978-0-393-35852-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Founding%3A+How+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction+Remade+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-393-35852-0&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1961" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, John Hope (1961). <i>Reconstruction After the Civil War</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-26079-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-26079-8"><bdi>0-226-26079-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+After+the+Civil+War&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=0-226-26079-8&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=John+Hope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gates Jr, Henry Louis. <i>Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow</i> (Penguin, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2QOEAAAQBAJ&dq=reconstruction+us+history&pg=PR13">online</a>; see also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/130.OWA_db8iuz71.pdf">online book review</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuelzo1999" class="citation book cs1">Guelzo, Allen C. (1999). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnre00guel"><i>Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President</i></a></span>. W.B. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802838728" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802838728"><bdi>978-0802838728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abraham+Lincoln%3A+Redeemer+President&rft.pub=W.B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0802838728&rft.aulast=Guelzo&rft.aufirst=Allen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fabrahamlincolnre00guel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> 2nd ed. (2022).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuelzo2004" class="citation book cs1">Guelzo, Allen C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOFHPTQYqzgC"><i>Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4795-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4795-2"><bdi>978-1-4165-4795-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln%27s+Emancipation+Proclamation%3A+The+End+of+Slavery+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Paperbacks&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-4795-2&rft.aulast=Guelzo&rft.aufirst=Allen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOFHPTQYqzgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuelzo2018" class="citation book cs1">Guelzo, Allen C. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0hBQDwAAQBAJ"><i>Reconstruction: A Concise History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190865696" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190865696"><bdi>978-0190865696</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407004447/https://books.google.com/books?id=0hBQDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0190865696&rft.aulast=Guelzo&rft.aufirst=Allen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0hBQDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1997" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William C. (1997). <i>With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=With+Charity+for+All%3A+Lincoln+and+the+Restoration+of+the+Union&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Portrays Lincoln as opponent of Radicals.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzerMedfordWilliams2006" class="citation book cs1">Holzer, Harold; Medford, Edna Greene; Williams, Frank J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZaB5NiiIKMcC"><i>The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views (Social, Political, Iconographic)</i></a>. Louisiana State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3144-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-3144-2"><bdi>978-0-8071-3144-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emancipation+Proclamation%3A+Three+Views+%28Social%2C+Political%2C+Iconographic%29&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-3144-2&rft.aulast=Holzer&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft.au=Medford%2C+Edna+Greene&rft.au=Williams%2C+Frank+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZaB5NiiIKMcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHubbs2015" class="citation book cs1">Hubbs, G. Ward (2015). <i>Searching for Freedom after the Civil War: Klansman, Carpetbagger, Scalawg, and Freedman</i>. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Searching+for+Freedom+after+the+Civil+War%3A+Klansman%2C+Carpetbagger%2C+Scalawg%2C+and+Freedman&rft.place=Tuscaloosa&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hubbs&rft.aufirst=G.+Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1997" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Tera W. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674893092"><i>To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+%27Joy+My+Freedom%3A+Southern+Black+Women%27s+Lives+and+Labors+after+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Tera+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780674893092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2002" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Wilbert L. 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(1967). <i>Reconstruction</i>. New York, Evanston, and London: Harper & Row, Publishers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1901" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Charles Hallan (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BkAOAAAAIAAJ"><i>Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction</i></a>. 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New York: Delacorte Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-440-05923-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-440-05923-3"><bdi>978-0-440-05923-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Responses+of+the+Presidents+to+Charges+of+Misconduct&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Delacorte+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-440-05923-3&rft.aulast=McFeely&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcFeely2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_S._McFeely" title="William S. McFeely">McFeely, William S.</a> (2002) [1981]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grantbiography00mcfe"><i>Grant: A Biography</i></a>. 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(1954). 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University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unionism+and+Reconstruction+in+Tennessee%2C+1860%E2%80%931869&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Patton&rft.aufirst=James+Welch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerman1985" class="citation book cs1">Perman, Michael (1985). <i>The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807841419" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807841419"><bdi>978-0807841419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Redemption%3A+Southern+Politics%2C+1869%E2%80%931879&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0807841419&rft.aulast=Perman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerman2003" class="citation book cs1">Perman, Michael (2003). <i>Emancipation and Reconstruction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emancipation+and+Reconstruction&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Perman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1994" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Merrill D. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D_FjY_ARcGoC"><i>Lincoln in American Memory</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802304-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802304-3"><bdi>978-0-19-802304-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln+in+American+Memory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-802304-3&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Merrill+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD_FjY_ARcGoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandallDonald2016" class="citation book cs1">Randall, J. G.; Donald, David (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JoHjDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Civil War and Reconstruction [Second Edition]</i></a>. Pickle Partners Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1787200272" title="Special:BookSources/978-1787200272"><bdi>978-1787200272</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction+%5BSecond+Edition%5D&rft.pub=Pickle+Partners+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1787200272&rft.aulast=Randall&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft.au=Donald%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJoHjDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1920" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, James F. (1920). <i>History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley–Bryan Campaign of 1896</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+United+States+from+the+Compromise+of+1850+to+the+McKinley%E2%80%93Bryan+Campaign+of+1896&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Highly detailed narrative by Pulitzer Prize winner; argues was a political disaster because it violated the rights of White Southerners. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst07rhodgoog">Volume: 6: 1865–72</a> (via Google Books)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst05rhodgoog">Volume: 7: 1877</a> (via Google Books)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichter2009" class="citation book cs1">Richter, William L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fa2_G9yaX38C"><i>A to Z of the Civil War and Reconstruction</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarecrow Press">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6336-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6336-1"><bdi>978-0-8108-6336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+to+Z+of+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6336-1&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFa2_G9yaX38C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Y._Simon" title="John Y. Simon">Simon, John Y.</a> (2002). "Ulysses S. Grant". In Graff, Henry (ed.). <i>The Presidents: A Reference History</i> (7th ed.). Macmillan Library Reference USA. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80551-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80551-0"><bdi>0-684-80551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ulysses+S.+Grant&rft.btitle=The+Presidents%3A+A+Reference+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E260&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Macmillan+Library+Reference+USA&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-684-80551-0&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=John+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brooks_D._Simpson" title="Brooks D. Simpson">Simpson, Brooks D.</a> (2009). <i>The Reconstruction Presidents</i> (2nd ed.). Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+Presidents&rft.place=Lawrence%2C+Kansas&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brooks+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manisha_Sinha" title="Manisha Sinha">Sinha, Manisha</a> (2024). <i>The Rise and Fall of the Second American Republic: Reconstruction, 1860–1920</i>. <a href="/wiki/Liveright_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Liveright Publishing">Liveright Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-844-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63149-844-2"><bdi>978-1-63149-844-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Second+American+Republic%3A+Reconstruction%2C+1860%E2%80%931920&rft.pub=Liveright+Publishing&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-63149-844-2&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Manisha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Smith, Jean Edward</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grant00smit"><i>Grant</i></a></span>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-84927-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-84927-5"><bdi>0-684-84927-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grant&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-684-84927-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrant00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampp1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Stampp, Kenneth M.</a> (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eraofreconstruct00stam"><i>The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877</i></a>. New York: Vintage Books; short survey; rejects Dunning School analysis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Era+of+Reconstruction%2C+1865%E2%80%931877&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Stampp&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feraofreconstruct00stam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStauffer2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Stauffer_(professor)" title="John Stauffer (professor)">Stauffer, John</a> (2008). <i>Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass & Abraham Lincoln</i>. New York: Twelve.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giants%3A+The+Parallel+Lives+of+Frederick+Douglass+%26+Abraham+Lincoln&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Twelve&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stauffer&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stewart, Megan A., and Karin E. Kitchens. "Social transformation and violence: Evidence from US Reconstruction." <i>Comparative Political Studies</i> 54.11 (2021): 1939–1983. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zbw.eu/econis-archiv/bitstream/11159/375029/1/EBP075922525_0.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStover1955" class="citation book cs1">Stover, John F. (1955). <i>The Railroads of the South, 1865–1900: A Study in Finance and Control</i>. University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Railroads+of+the+South%2C+1865%E2%80%931900%3A+A+Study+in+Finance+and+Control&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Stover&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStowell1998" class="citation book cs1">Stowell, Daniel W. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQphbo640wAC"><i>Rebuilding Zion: The Religious Reconstruction of the South, 1863–1877</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802621-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-802621-1"><bdi>978-0-19-802621-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebuilding+Zion%3A+The+Religious+Reconstruction+of+the+South%2C+1863%E2%80%931877&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-802621-1&rft.aulast=Stowell&rft.aufirst=Daniel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjQphbo640wAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummers2009" class="citation book cs1">Summers, Mark Wahlgren (2009). <i>A Dangerous Stir: Fear, Paranoia, and the Making of Reconstruction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dangerous+Stir%3A+Fear%2C+Paranoia%2C+and+the+Making+of+Reconstruction&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=Mark+Wahlgren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Dangerous-Stir-Paranoia-Reconstruction-America/dp/0807833045/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170307235440/https://www.amazon.com/Dangerous-Stir-Paranoia-Reconstruction-America/dp/0807833045">Archived</a> March 7, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummers2014" class="citation book cs1">Summers, Mark Wahlgren (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-1wBAAAQBAJ"><i>The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1757-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1757-2"><bdi>978-1-4696-1757-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ordeal+of+the+Reunion%3A+A+New+History+of+Reconstruction&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-1757-2&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=Mark+Wahlgren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2-1wBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1469617579/">text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210320015239/https://www.amazon.com/dp/1469617579">Archived</a> March 20, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummers2014a" class="citation book cs1">Summers, Mark Wahlgren (2014a). <i>Railroads, Reconstruction, and the Gospel of Prosperity: Aid Under the Radical Republicans, 1865–1877</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-61282-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-61282-9"><bdi>978-0-691-61282-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Railroads%2C+Reconstruction%2C+and+the+Gospel+of+Prosperity%3A+Aid+Under+the+Radical+Republicans%2C+1865%E2%80%931877&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-691-61282-9&rft.aulast=Summers&rft.aufirst=Mark+Wahlgren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweet1914" class="citation journal cs1">Sweet, William W. (1914). "The Methodist Episcopal Church and Reconstruction". <i>Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society</i>. <b>7</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">147–</span>165. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40194198">40194198</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Illinois+State+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Methodist+Episcopal+Church+and+Reconstruction&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E165&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40194198%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sweet&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2010" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, C. Mildred (2010) [1915]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_i5shAQAAIAAJ"><i>Reconstruction In Georgia: Economic, Social, Political 1865–1872</i></a> (reprint ed.). New York: The Columbia University Press; [etc.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+In+Georgia%3A+Economic%2C+Social%2C+Political+1865%E2%80%931872&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=The+Columbia+University+Press%3B+%5Betc.%5D&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=C.+Mildred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_i5shAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrefousse1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_L._Trefousse" title="Hans L. Trefousse">Trefousse, Hans L.</a> (1989). <i>Andrew Johnson: A Biography</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Johnson%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Trefousse&rft.aufirst=Hans+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, Margaret E.; <a href="/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher" title="Gary W. Gallagher">Gallagher, Gary W.</a>; McPherson, James M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7svFnyOLknUC"><i>The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4884-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4884-6"><bdi>978-1-4391-4884-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Library+of+Congress+Civil+War+Desk+Reference&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster+Paperbacks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-4884-6&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Margaret+E.&rft.au=Gallagher%2C+Gary+W.&rft.au=McPherson%2C+James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7svFnyOLknUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang1997" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Xi (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Rn8AAAAQBAJ"><i>The Trial of Democracy: Black Suffrage and Northern Republicans, 1860–1910</i></a>. Athens: The University of Georgia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-4206-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-4206-1"><bdi>978-0-8203-4206-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trial+of+Democracy%3A+Black+Suffrage+and+Northern+Republicans%2C+1860%E2%80%931910&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=The+University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-4206-1&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Xi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Rn8AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation book cs1">White, Richard C. (2017). <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_for_Which_It_Stands" title="The Republic for Which It Stands"><i>The Republic for Which It Stands</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+for+Which+It+Stands&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._White" title="Ronald C. White">White, Ronald C.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TPNRCwAAQBAJ"><i>American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant</i></a>. Random House Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-992-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58836-992-5"><bdi>978-1-58836-992-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Ulysses%3A+A+Life+of+Ulysses+S.+Grant&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-58836-992-5&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Ronald+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTPNRCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1946" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._Harry_Williams" title="T. Harry Williams">Williams, T. Harry</a> (November 1946). "An Analysis of Some Reconstruction Attitudes". <i>Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>12</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">469–</span>486. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2197687">10.2307/2197687</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2197687">2197687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=An+Analysis+of+Some+Reconstruction+Attitudes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E469-%3C%2Fspan%3E486&rft.date=1946-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2197687&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2197687%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=T.+Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodward1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">Woodward, C. Vann</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=azoAk_r9cP8C"><i>Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506423-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506423-0"><bdi>978-0-19-506423-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reunion+and+Reaction%3A+The+Compromise+of+1877+and+the+End+of+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506423-0&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=C.+Vann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DazoAk_r9cP8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuczek2006" class="citation book cs1">Zuczek, Richard, ed. (2006). <i>Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Reconstruction+Era&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> (2 vols.)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2014a" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2014a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l7PtAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT21">"Introduction to the 2014 Anniversary Edition"</a>. <i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–18</i> (Updated ed.). Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062383235" title="Special:BookSources/978-0062383235"><bdi>978-0062383235</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+2014+Anniversary+Edition&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+America%27s+Unfinished+Revolution%2C+1863%E2%80%9318&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0062383235&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl7PtAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ford, Lacy K., ed. <i>A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction</i>. Blackwell (2005) 518 pp.</li> <li>Frantz, Edward O., ed. <i>A Companion to the Reconstruction Presidents 1865–1881</i> (2014). 30 essays by scholars.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParfait2009" class="citation journal cs1">Parfait, Claire (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-etudes-anglaises-2009-4-page-440.htm?contenu=article">"Reconstruction Reconsidered: A Historiography of Reconstruction, from the Late Nineteenth Century to the 1960s"</a>. <i>Études anglaises</i>. <b>62</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">440–</span>454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fetan.624.0440">10.3917/etan.624.0440</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182805/https://www.cairn.info/revue-etudes-anglaises-2009-4-page-440.htm?contenu=article">Archived</a> from the original on January 18, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 18,</span> 2022</span> – via Cairn Info.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+anglaises&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+Reconsidered%3A+A+Historiography+of+Reconstruction%2C+from+the+Late+Nineteenth+Century+to+the+1960s&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E440-%3C%2Fspan%3E454&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fetan.624.0440&rft.aulast=Parfait&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-etudes-anglaises-2009-4-page-440.htm%3Fcontenu%3Darticle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Perman, Michael and Amy Murrell Taylor, eds. <i>Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction: Documents and Essays</i> (2010)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heather_Cox_Richardson" title="Heather Cox Richardson">Richardson, Heather Cox</a> (2017). "Reconstructing the Gilded Age and Progressive Era". In <a href="/wiki/Christopher_McKnight_Nichols" title="Christopher McKnight Nichols">Nichols, Christopher McKnight</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Unger" title="Nancy C. Unger">Unger, Nancy</a> (eds.). <i>A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i>. Wiley Blackwell Companions to American History. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">5–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118913994.ch1">10.1002/9781118913994.ch1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118913963" title="Special:BookSources/9781118913963"><bdi>9781118913963</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+the+Gilded+Age+and+Progressive+Era&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Gilded+Age+and+Progressive+Era&rft.series=Wiley+Blackwell+Companions+to+American+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118913994.ch1&rft.isbn=9781118913963&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Heather+Cox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Brooks D. (2016). "Mission Impossible: Reconstruction Policy Reconsidered". <i>The Journal of the Civil War Era</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">85–</span>102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2016.0003">10.1353/cwe.2016.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155789816">155789816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=Mission+Impossible%3A+Reconstruction+Policy+Reconsidered&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2016.0003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155789816%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brooks+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2016" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Stacey L. (November 3, 2016). "Beyond North and South: Putting the West in the Civil War and Reconstruction". <i>The Journal of the Civil War Era</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">566–</span>591. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2016.0073">10.1353/cwe.2016.0073</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164313047">164313047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=Beyond+North+and+South%3A+Putting+the+West+in+the+Civil+War+and+Reconstruction&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E566-%3C%2Fspan%3E591&rft.date=2016-11-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2016.0073&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164313047%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Stacey+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStalcup1995" class="citation book cs1">Stalcup, Brenda, ed. (1995). <i>Reconstruction: Opposing Viewpoints</i>. Greenhaven Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+Opposing+Viewpoints&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Press&rft.date=1995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Uses primary documents to present opposing viewpoints.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamppLitwack1969" class="citation book cs1">Stampp, Kenneth M.; Litwack, Leon F., eds. (1969). <i>Reconstruction: An Anthology of Revisionist Writings</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+An+Anthology+of+Revisionist+Writings&rft.date=1969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Essays by scholars.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisberger1959" class="citation journal cs1">Weisberger, Bernard A. (1959). "The dark and bloody ground of Reconstruction historiography". <i>Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>25</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">427–</span>447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2954450">10.2307/2954450</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954450">2954450</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+dark+and+bloody+ground+of+Reconstruction+historiography&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E427-%3C%2Fspan%3E447&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2954450&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2954450%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Weisberger&rft.aufirst=Bernard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yearbooks">Yearbooks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Yearbooks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/appletonsannualc07newyuoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1867</i></a> (highly detailed compendium of facts and primary sources; details on every U.S. state & the national government)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maIoAAAAYAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1868</i></a> (1873)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyMVAAAAYAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1869</i></a> (1869)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LJ4YAAAAIAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1870</i></a> (1871)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jp8YAAAAIAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1872</i></a> (1873)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c6QoAAAAYAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1873</i></a> (1879)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2WcMAAAAYAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1875</i></a> (1876)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newappletonsannu01newyuoft"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1876</i></a> (1877)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Do4EAAAAYAAJ"><i>Appleton's American Annual Cyclopedia... for 1877</i></a> (1878)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dhhesoIKZS4C&pg=PA265"><i>The American year-book and national register for 1869</i> (1869) online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Barnes, William H., ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=70e7f9526905ba30&idno=ABZ4229.0001.001&view=header&c=moa"><i>History of the Thirty-ninth Congress of the United States</i></a> (1868). Summary of Congressional activity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Berlin, Ira</a>, ed. <i>Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867</i> (1982), 970 pp. of archival documents; also <i>Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War</i> ed by Ira Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Fields" title="Barbara J. Fields">Barbara J. Fields</a>, and Steven F. Miller (1993).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine, James G.</a> <i>Twenty Years of Congress: From Lincoln to Garfield. With a review of the events which led to the political revolution of 1860</i> (1886). By Republican Congressional leader <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twentyyearsofcon002blai">Vol. 2</a> (via Internet Archive).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1905" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, Walter L. (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41680/41680-h/41680-h.htm"><i>Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151012115736/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41680/41680-h/41680-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 12, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2016</span> – via Project Gutenberg; the most detailed study; Dunning School.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+and+Reconstruction+in+Alabama&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F41680%2F41680-h%2F41680-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1906–1907" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_L._Fleming" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter L. Fleming">Fleming, Walter L.</a> (1906–1907). <i>Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational, and Industrial</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documentary+History+of+Reconstruction%3A+Political%2C+Military%2C+Social%2C+Religious%2C+Educational%2C+and+Industrial&rft.date=1906%2F1907&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> 2 vols. Presents a broad collection of primary sources; Vol. 1: On National Politics; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1OoLAAAAIAAJ">Vol. 2: On States</a> (via Google Books).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060623150026/http://docsouth.unc.edu/holden/holden.html"><i>Memoirs of W. W. Holden</i></a> (1911); via Internet Archive. North Carolina "scalawag" governor.</li> <li>Hyman, Harold M., ed. <i>The Radical Republicans and Reconstruction, 1861–1870</i> (1967), collection of long political speeches and pamphlets.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1899" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Lee" title="Stephen D. Lee">Lee, Stephen D.</a> (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/confedmilhist12evanrich#page/n283/mode/2up">"The South Since the War"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Clement_A._Evans" title="Clement A. Evans">Evans, Clement A.</a> (ed.). <i>Confederate Military History</i>. Vol. XII. Atlanta, Georgia: Confederate Publishing Company. pp. <span class="nowrap">267–</span>568 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+South+Since+the+War&rft.btitle=Confederate+Military+History&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Georgia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E568&rft.pub=Confederate+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fconfedmilhist12evanrich%23page%2Fn283%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1913" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, John R. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16158/16158-h/16158-h.htm"><i>The Facts of Reconstruction</i></a>. New York: The Neale Publishing Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200113105047/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16158/16158-h/16158-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on January 13, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Facts+of+Reconstruction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Neale+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F16158%2F16158-h%2F16158-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> One of the first Black congressmen during Reconstruction.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews1864" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, James M., ed. (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statutesatlargeo00confed"><i>The Statutes at Large of the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America, from the Institution of the Government, February 8, 1861, to its Termination, February 18, 1862, Inclusive; Arranged in Chronological Order</i></a>. Richmond: R. M. Smith – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Statutes+at+Large+of+the+Provisional+Government+of+the+Confederate+States+of+America%2C+from+the+Institution+of+the+Government%2C+February+8%2C+1861%2C+to+its+Termination%2C+February+18%2C+1862%2C+Inclusive%3B+Arranged+in+Chronological+Order&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pub=R.+M.+Smith&rft.date=1864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatutesatlargeo00confed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1875" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_McPherson" title="Edward McPherson">McPherson, Edward</a> (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor03mcphgoog"><i>The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction</i></a>. Solomons & Chapman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+History+of+the+United+States+of+America+During+the+Period+of+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Solomons+%26+Chapman&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalhistor03mcphgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> large collection of speeches and primary documents, 1865–1870, complete text online. [The copyright has expired.]</li> <li>Palmer, Beverly Wilson; Byers Ochoa, Holly; eds. <i>The Selected Papers of Thaddeus Stevens</i> 2 vols. (1998), 900 pp; his speeches plus and letters to and from Stevens.</li> <li>Palmer, Beverly Wilson, ed. <i>The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner</i>, 2 vols. (1990); Vol. 2 covers 1859–1874.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersWoolley2018b" class="citation web cs1">Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. (2018b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150803193830/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29579">"1868 Democratic Party Platform"</a>. The American Presidency Project. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29579">the original</a> on August 3, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1868+Democratic+Party+Platform&rft.pub=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Woolley%2C+John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2F%3Fpid%3D29579&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Shepherd_Pike" title="James Shepherd Pike">Pike, James Shepherd</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AFK4119.0001.001"><i>The prostrate state: South Carolina under negro government</i> (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid, Whitelaw</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AFJ8942.0001.001"><i>After the War: A Southern Tour, May 1, 1865 to May 1, 1866</i></a> (1866). By Republican editor.</li> <li>Smith, John David, ed. <i>We Ask Only for Even-Handed Justice: Black Voices from Reconstruction, 1865–1877</i> (University of Massachusetts Press, 2014). xviii, 133 pp.</li> <li>Sumner, Charles <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-69">'Our Domestic Relations: or, How to Treat the Rebel States' <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> September 1863</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020725084411/http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-69">Archived</a> July 25, 2002, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, early abolitionist manifesto.</li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1910" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois, W. E. B.</a> (July 1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927173232/http://srufaculty.sru.edu/m.matambanadzo/readings/reconstruction_and_its_benefits.pdf">"Reconstruction and its Benefits"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Historical Review</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">781–</span>799. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1836959">10.2307/1836959</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1836959">1836959</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://srufaculty.sru.edu/m.matambanadzo/readings/reconstruction_and_its_benefits.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 27, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+and+its+Benefits&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E781-%3C%2Fspan%3E799&rft.date=1910-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1836959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1836959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsrufaculty.sru.edu%2Fm.matambanadzo%2Freadings%2Freconstruction_and_its_benefits.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935) <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a>: a history of the part which Black Folk played in the attempt to reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880</i>. Explores the economics and politics of the era from a labor perspective; an early rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> viewpoint.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunning1905" class="citation book cs1">Dunning, William Archibald (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XgIOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR13"><i>Reconstruction: Political & Economic, 1865–1877</i></a>. Harper & brothers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1375489164" title="Special:BookSources/978-1375489164"><bdi>978-1375489164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction%3A+Political+%26+Economic%2C+1865%E2%80%931877&rft.pub=Harper+%26+brothers&rft.date=1905&rft.isbn=978-1375489164&rft.aulast=Dunning&rft.aufirst=William+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXgIOAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Influential book which blamed Carpetbaggers for what it deemed to be the failure of Reconstruction; the Dunning School has been referred to as "part of the edifice of the Jim Crow System"; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonczalFoner2015" class="citation web cs1">Konczal, Mike; Foner, Eric (February 3, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/how-radical-change-occurs-interview-historian-eric-foner/">"How Radical Change Occurs: An Interview With Historian Eric Foner"</a>. <i>The Nation</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=How+Radical+Change+Occurs%3A+An+Interview+With+Historian+Eric+Foner&rft.date=2015-02-03&rft.aulast=Konczal&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Fhow-radical-change-occurs-interview-historian-eric-foner%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fitzgerald, Michael W. <i>Splendid Failure: Postwar Reconstruction in the American South</i> (2007), 224 pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1566637341">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210604011238/https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1566637341">Archived</a> June 4, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Fitzgerald, Michael R. <i>Reconstruction in Alabama: From Civil War to Redemption in the Cotton South</i> (LSU Press, 2017) 464 pp; a standard scholarly history</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner2015" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a> (March 28, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/29/opinion/sunday/why-reconstruction-matters.html">"Why Reconstruction Matters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190802141009/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/29/opinion/sunday/why-reconstruction-matters.html?_r=0">Archived</a> from the original on August 2, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 9,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Reconstruction+Matters&rft.date=2015-03-28&rft.aulast=Foner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F03%2F29%2Fopinion%2Fsunday%2Fwhy-reconstruction-matters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry1938" class="citation book cs1">Henry, Robert Selph (1938). <i>The Story of Reconstruction</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Reconstruction&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=Robert+Selph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith2020" class="citation book cs1">Keith, LeeAnna (2020). <i>When It Was Grand: The Radical Republican History of the Civil War</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+It+Was+Grand%3A+The+Radical+Republican+History+of+the+Civil+War&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=LeeAnna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Grand-Radical-Republican/dp/0809080311">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210815093455/https://www.amazon.com/When-Was-Grand-Radical-Republican/dp/0809080311">Archived</a> August 15, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; online review: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_Bekken2020" class="citation web cs1">Jon Bekken (July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/11717/reviews/6266230/bekken-keith-when-it-was-grand-radical-republican-history-civil-war">"Bekken on Keith, 'When It Was Grand: The Radical Republican History of the Civil War'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>H-Socialisms</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210627014922/https://networks.h-net.org/node/11717/reviews/6266230/bekken-keith-when-it-was-grand-radical-republican-history-civil-war">Archived</a> from the original on June 27, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H-Socialisms&rft.atitle=Bekken+on+Keith%2C+%27When+It+Was+Grand%3A+The+Radical+Republican+History+of+the+Civil+War%27&rft.date=2020-07&rft.au=Jon+Bekken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetworks.h-net.org%2Fnode%2F11717%2Freviews%2F6266230%2Fbekken-keith-when-it-was-grand-radical-republican-history-civil-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Levine" title="Robert S. Levine">Levine, Robert S.</a> <i>The Failed Promise: Reconstruction, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, and the Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</i> (2021). New York: W.W. Norton & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Litwack, Leon</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Been_in_the_Storm_So_Long" title="Been in the Storm So Long">Been in the Storm So Long</a></i> (1979). Pulitzer Prize; social history of the freedmen</li> <li>Prior, David. <i>Between Freedom and Progress: The Lost World of Reconstruction Politics</i> (LSU Press, 2019).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsKytle2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Roberts, Blain; Kytle, Ethan J. (January 17, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/01/when-the-south-was-the-most-progressive-region-in-america/550442/">"When the South Was the Most Progressive Region in America"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=When+the+South+Was+the+Most+Progressive+Region+in+America&rft.date=2018-01-17&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Blain&rft.au=Kytle%2C+Ethan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2018%2F01%2Fwhen-the-south-was-the-most-progressive-region-in-america%2F550442%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimkins1916" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Stewart_Simkins" title="William Stewart Simkins">Simkins, William Stewart</a> (June 1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060922211058/https://www.law.du.edu/russell/lh/alh/docs/simkins.html">"Why the Ku Klux"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Alcalde" title="The Alcalde">The Alcalde</a></i>. Vol. 4. pp. <span class="nowrap">735–</span>748. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.du.edu/russell/lh/alh/docs/simkins.html">the original</a> on September 22, 2006 – via <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_School_of_Law" title="Duke University School of Law">Duke University School of Law</a> / Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Alcalde&rft.atitle=Why+the+Ku+Klux&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E735-%3C%2Fspan%3E748&rft.date=1916-06&rft.aulast=Simkins&rft.aufirst=William+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.du.edu%2Frussell%2Flh%2Falh%2Fdocs%2Fsimkins.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span> Also <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_Stewart_Simkins_1914_Thanksgiving_Day_observance_address" class="extiw" title="s:William Stewart Simkins 1914 Thanksgiving Day observance address">available via WikiSource</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brooks_D._Simpson" title="Brooks D. Simpson">Simpson, Brooks D.</a> (1991). <i>Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861–1868</i>. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807819661" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807819661"><bdi>978-0807819661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Let+Us+Have+Peace%3A+Ulysses+S.+Grant+and+the+Politics+of+War+and+Reconstruction%2C+1861%E2%80%931868&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0807819661&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Brooks+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReconstruction+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Suryanarayan, Pavithra, and White, Steven (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/slavery-reconstruction-and-bureaucratic-capacity-in-the-american-south/989CFE3B42F5A566C6C2182515879024">"Slavery, Reconstruction, and Bureaucratic Capacity in the American South"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201214160951/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/slavery-reconstruction-and-bureaucratic-capacity-in-the-american-south/989CFE3B42F5A566C6C2182515879024">Archived</a> December 14, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>American Political Science Review.</i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newspapers_and_magazines">Newspapers and magazines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Newspapers and magazines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moajrnl/browse.journals/debo.html?sid=4214fd5d270a6573025ab1d49d8151fa"><i>DeBow's Review</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705114316/http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moajrnl/browse.journals/debo.html?sid=4214fd5d270a6573025ab1d49d8151fa">Archived</a> July 5, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> major Southern conservative magazine; stress on business, economics and statistics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070409003247/http://blackhistory.harpweek.com/"><i>Harper's Weekly</i></a> leading New York news magazine; pro-Radical</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091216125013/http://www.thomasnast.com/TheCartoons/NastCartoons.htm">Nast, Thomas, magazine cartoons</a> pro-Radical editorial cartoons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gilderlehrman.org/teachers/module11/mod_primary.html">Primary sources from Gilder-Lehrman collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100610170423/http://www.gilderlehrman.org/teachers/module11/mod_primary.html">Archived</a> June 10, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><i>The New York Times</i> daily edition online through ProQuest at academic libraries</li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction_era&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reconstruction_era" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/reer/index.htm/">Reconstruction Era National Historical Park</a> From <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_National_Historical_Park" title="Reconstruction Era National Historical Park">The National Park Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/reconstruction/network.htm/">The Reconstruction Era National Historical Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zinnedproject.org/news/kidada-williams-on-i-saw-death-coming/">Kidada Williams on <i>I Saw Death Coming: A History of Terror and Survival in the War Against Reconstruction</i></a>, from the Teach the Black Freedom Struggle online series.</li> <li>Behn, Richard J., ed. [2002] 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=60&subjectID=3">"Reconstruction"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150921231649/http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=60&subjectID=3">Archived</a> September 21, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Mr. Lincoln and Freedom</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Lehrman_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="The Lehrman Institute">The Lehrman Institute</a>.</li> <li>Bragg, William Harris. [2005] 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/reconstruction-georgia">"Reconstruction in Georgia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Georgia_Encyclopedia" title="New Georgia Encyclopedia">New Georgia Encyclopedia</a></i>.</li> <li>Eisen, Mimi and Ursula Wolfe-Rocca. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/reconstructing-the-south-what-really-happened/">Reconstructing the South: What Really Happened</a>." <i>The Zinn Education Project.</i></li> <li>Green Jr., Robert P. 1991. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alaskool.org/resources/teaching/socialstudies/Reconstruct_historiography.htm">"Reconstruction Historiography: A Source of Teaching Ideas"</a>. <i>The Social Studies</i> (July/August): 153–157.</li> <li>Jensen, Richard. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/recon.htm">"Jensen's Guide to Reconstruction History, 1861–1877"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150801093403/http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/recon.htm">Archived</a> August 1, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Scholars' Guide to WWW</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Chicago">University of Illinois Chicago</a>. Links to primary and secondary sources.</li> <li>Mabry, Donald J. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060507205729/http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=587">"Reconstruction in Mississippi"</a>. <i>The Historical Text Archive</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward, William H.</a> 1866. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/43/42.html">"Proclamation Declaring the Insurrection at an End"</a>. <i>American Historical Documents, 1000–1904</i>, (<a href="/wiki/Harvard_Classics#Vol._43._AMERICAN_HISTORICAL_DOCUMENTS" title="Harvard Classics"><i>The Harvard Classics</i> 43</a>).</li> <li>Smith, Llewellyn M., dir. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/reconstruction/#film_description">"Reconstruction: The Second Civil War"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. Film connecting the replacement of civil rights with segregation and disenfranchisement at the end of 19th-century during the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow era</a>. <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reconstruction/activism/sf_rights.html">"Civil Rights During Reconstruction"</a> – Historians Eric Foner, David Blight and Ed Ayers discuss "Civil Rights During Reconstruction"</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/reconstruction">"Reconstruction: Era and Definition"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/History_(American_TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (American TV network)">The History Channel</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/A%26E_Networks" title="A&E Networks">A&E Networks</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histclo.com/essay/war/cwa/recon.html">"The Civil War: Reconstruction"</a>. [2002] 2015. – This is part of an extensive assessment of the Civil War and slavery which gives particular attention to children.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-119#overview">"The Civil War and Reconstruction Era, 1845–1877"</a> [HIST 119]. <i><a href="/wiki/Open_Yale_Courses" title="Open Yale Courses">Open Yale Courses</a></i>. New Haven, Connecticut: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>. Full semester course in text/audio/video; materials free under the <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> license.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Reconstruction_era103" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reconstruction_Era" title="Template:Reconstruction Era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reconstruction_Era" title="Template talk:Reconstruction Era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reconstruction_Era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reconstruction Era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Reconstruction_era103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Participants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Federal government</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Presidents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>Congress <ul><li><a href="/wiki/38th_United_States_Congress" title="38th United States Congress">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Congress" title="39th United States Congress">39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/40th_United_States_Congress" title="40th United States Congress">40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/41st_United_States_Congress" title="41st United States Congress">41</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/42nd_United_States_Congress" title="42nd United States Congress">42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/43rd_United_States_Congress" title="43rd United States Congress">43</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/44th_United_States_Congress" title="44th United States Congress">44</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/45th_United_States_Congress" title="45th United States Congress">45</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Moderate Republicans (Reconstruction era)">Moderate Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Republicans_(Reconstruction_era)" title="Conservative Republicans (Reconstruction era)">Conservative Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">African-American senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives#Reconstruction_and_early_post-Reconstruction_era,_1870–1887" title="List of African-American United States representatives">African-American representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Committee_on_Reconstruction" title="United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction">United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Reconstruction" title="United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction">United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>Federal judiciary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>Federal bureaucracy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Edwin Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;">State governments</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_politicians_during_the_Reconstruction_Era" title="Category:African-American politicians during the Reconstruction Era">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour" title="Horatio Seymour">Horatio Seymour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalwarts_(politics)" title="Stalwarts (politics)">Stalwarts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Benjamin Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John Bingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mitchell_Ashley" title="James Mitchell Ashley">James Mitchell Ashley</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_during_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Women during the Reconstruction era">Women during the Reconstruction era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Presidential</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1864 Democratic National Convention">DNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">National Union Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Democracy_Party_(United_States)" title="Radical Democracy Party (United States)">Radical Democracy Party</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">1868</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1868_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1868 Democratic National Convention">DNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Republican_National_Convention" title="1868 Republican National Convention">RNC</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1872_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1872 Democratic National Convention">DNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Republican_National_Convention" title="1872 Republican National Convention">RNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">Liberal Republican Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight-Out_Democratic_Party" title="Straight-Out Democratic Party">Straight-Out Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Woodhull" title="Victoria Woodhull">Victoria Woodhull</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1876_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1876 Democratic National Convention">DNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">RNC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Greenback_National_Convention" title="1876 Greenback National Convention">Greenback Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Prohibition_National_Convention" title="1876 Prohibition National Convention">Prohibition Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">U.S. Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864%E2%80%9365_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1864–65 United States Senate elections">1864–65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866%E2%80%9367_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1866–67 United States Senate elections">1866–67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868%E2%80%9369_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1868–69 United States Senate elections">1868–69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870%E2%80%9371_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1870–71 United States Senate elections">1870–71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872%E2%80%9373_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1872–73 United States Senate elections">1872–73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874%E2%80%9375_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1874–75 United States Senate elections">1874–75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876%E2%80%9377_United_States_Senate_elections" title="1876–77 United States Senate elections">1876–77</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">U.S. House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864%E2%80%9365_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1864–65 United States House of Representatives elections">1864–65</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866%E2%80%9367_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1866–67 United States House of Representatives elections">1866–67</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868%E2%80%9369_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1868–69 United States House of Representatives elections">1868–69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870%E2%80%9371_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1870–71 United States House of Representatives elections">1870–71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872%E2%80%9373_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1872–73 United States House of Representatives elections">1872–73</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874%E2%80%9375_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1874–75 United States House of Representatives elections">1874–75</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876%E2%80%9377_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1876–77 United States House of Representatives elections">1876–77</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Gubernatorial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1863 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1863_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 California gubernatorial election">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Kentucky_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Kentucky gubernatorial election">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_New_Hampshire_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 New Hampshire gubernatorial election">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Pennsylvania_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Virginia_gubernatorial_elections" title="1863 Virginia gubernatorial elections">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1863 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1864 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Illinois_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Illinois gubernatorial election">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Indiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Indiana gubernatorial election">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Louisiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Louisiana gubernatorial election">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Maryland_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Maryland gubernatorial election">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_New_Hampshire_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 New Hampshire gubernatorial election">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1864 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1865 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1865_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Florida_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Florida gubernatorial election">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Louisiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Louisiana gubernatorial election">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 New Jersey gubernatorial election">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1865 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1866 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1866_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Delaware_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Delaware gubernatorial election">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_North_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 North Carolina gubernatorial election">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Oregon_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Oregon gubernatorial election">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Pennsylvania_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Texas_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Texas gubernatorial election">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1866 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1867 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1867_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 California gubernatorial election">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Maryland_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Maryland gubernatorial election">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1867 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1868 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1868_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Florida_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Florida gubernatorial election">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Illinois_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Illinois gubernatorial election">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Indiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Indiana gubernatorial election">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Louisiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Louisiana gubernatorial election">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_North_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 North Carolina gubernatorial election">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 New Jersey gubernatorial election">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1868 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1869 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1869_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Iowa_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Iowa gubernatorial election">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Mississippi_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Mississippi gubernatorial election">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Pennsylvania_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Rhode_Island_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Rhode Island gubernatorial election">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Virginia gubernatorial election">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1869 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1870 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1870_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Delaware_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Delaware gubernatorial election">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Oregon_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Oregon gubernatorial election">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Rhode_Island_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Rhode Island gubernatorial election">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1870 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1871 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1871_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 California gubernatorial election">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Iowa_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Iowa gubernatorial election">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Kentucky_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Kentucky gubernatorial election">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Maryland_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Maryland gubernatorial election">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 New Jersey gubernatorial election">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Rhode_Island_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Rhode Island gubernatorial election">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1871 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1872 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1872_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Florida_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Florida gubernatorial election">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Illinois_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Illinois gubernatorial election">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Indiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Indiana gubernatorial election">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Louisiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Louisiana gubernatorial election">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_North_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 North Carolina gubernatorial election">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Pennsylvania_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Rhode_Island_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Rhode Island gubernatorial election">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1872 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1873 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1873_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Iowa_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Iowa gubernatorial election">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Mississippi_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Mississippi gubernatorial election">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Texas_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Texas gubernatorial election">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Virginia gubernatorial election">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1873 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1874 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1874_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Delaware_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Delaware gubernatorial election">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Kansas_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Kansas gubernatorial election">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 New Jersey gubernatorial election">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Nevada_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Nevada gubernatorial election">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Oregon_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Oregon gubernatorial election">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1874 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1875 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1875_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 California gubernatorial election">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Iowa_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Iowa gubernatorial election">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Kentucky_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Kentucky gubernatorial election">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Maryland_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Maryland gubernatorial election">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Minnesota_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Minnesota gubernatorial election">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Ohio_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Ohio gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Pennsylvania_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_Wisconsin_gubernatorial_election" title="1875 Wisconsin gubernatorial election">Wisconsin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>1876 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1876_Alabama_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Alabama gubernatorial election">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Colorado_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Colorado gubernatorial election">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_1876_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="April 1876 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut <i>April</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1876_Connecticut_gubernatorial_election" title="November 1876 Connecticut gubernatorial election">Connecticut <i>November</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Florida_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Florida gubernatorial election">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Illinois_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Illinois gubernatorial election">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Indiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Indiana gubernatorial election">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Kansas_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Kansas gubernatorial election">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Louisiana_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Louisiana gubernatorial election">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Massachusetts_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Massachusetts gubernatorial election">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Maine_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Maine gubernatorial election">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Michigan_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Michigan gubernatorial election">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Missouri_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Missouri gubernatorial election">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_North_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 North Carolina gubernatorial election">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Rhode_Island_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Rhode Island gubernatorial election">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_South_Carolina_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 South Carolina gubernatorial election">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Vermont_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 Vermont gubernatorial election">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_West_Virginia_gubernatorial_election" title="1876 West Virginia gubernatorial election">West Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">U.S. elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_elections" title="1864 United States elections">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_United_States_elections" title="1866 United States elections">1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_elections" title="1868 United States elections">1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_United_States_elections" title="1870 United States elections">1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_elections" title="1872 United States elections">1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_United_States_elections" title="1874 United States elections">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_elections" title="1876 United States elections">1876</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Prelude</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a></i> (1792)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Equality_of_the_Sexes_and_the_Condition_of_Women&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (page does not exist)">The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women</a></i> (1838)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Woman_in_the_Nineteenth_Century" title="Woman in the Nineteenth Century">Woman in the Nineteenth Century</a></i> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Women%27s_Rights_Convention" title="National Women's Rights Convention">National Women's Rights Convention</a> (1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Compensated_Emancipation_Act" title="District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act">District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1862" title="Militia Act of 1862">Militia Act of 1862</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1863</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Order_No._143" title="General Order No. 143">General Order No. 143</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction">Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">Ten percent plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_Act" title="National Bank Act">National Bank Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Loyal_National_League" title="Women's Loyal National League">Women's Loyal National League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1863 State of the Union Address">1863 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1864</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Davis_Bill" title="Wade–Davis Bill">Wade–Davis Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_elections" title="1864 United States elections">1864 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1864 State of the Union Address">1864 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1865</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_second_inaugural_address" title="Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address">Address</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Field_Orders_No._15" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Field Orders No. 15">Special Field Orders No. 15 </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau_bills" title="Freedmen's Bureau bills">Freedmen's Bureau bills</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House" title="Battle of Appomattox Court House">Confederates surrender at Appomattox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Departure_(United_States)" title="New Departure (United States)">New Departure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1865 State of the Union Address">1865 State of the Union Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Founding of the Ku Klux Klan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1866</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_massacre_of_1866" title="Memphis massacre of 1866">Memphis massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Massacre_of_1866" title="New Orleans Massacre of 1866">New Orleans Massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_Around_the_Circle" title="Swing Around the Circle">Swing Around the Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Conference_and_Cherokee_Reconstruction_Treaty_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866">Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Organic_Act#Treaty_of_Washington_(1866)" title="Oklahoma Organic Act">Choctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866</a></li> <li>Tennessee readmitted to Union</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Petition_for_Universal_Freedom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petition for Universal Freedom (page does not exist)">Petition for Universal Freedom</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Union" title="National Labor Union">National Labor Union</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Garland" title="Ex parte Garland">Ex parte Garland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Milligan" title="Ex parte Milligan">Ex parte Milligan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Kidnapping_Act_of_1866" title="Slave Kidnapping Act of 1866">Slave Kidnapping Act of 1866</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1866_United_States_elections" title="1866 United States elections">1866 elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1867</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_Army_Act" title="Command of Army Act">Command of Army Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_Lodge_Treaty#Indian_Peace_Commission" title="Medicine Lodge Treaty">Indian Peace Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_conventions_of_1867&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutional conventions of 1867 (page does not exist)">Constitutional conventions of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peonage_Act_of_1867" title="Peonage Act of 1867">Peonage Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1867 State of the Union Address">1867 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1868</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">Impeachment managers investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_impeachment_adopted_against_Andrew_Johnson" title="Articles of impeachment adopted against Andrew Johnson">Articles of impeachment</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arkansas readmitted to Union</li> <li>Florida readmitted to Union</li> <li>North Carolina readmitted to Union</li> <li>South Carolina readmitted to Union</li> <li>Louisiana readmitted to Union</li> <li>Alabama readmitted to Union</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Fourth Reconstruction Act</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Stanton" title="Georgia v. Stanton">Georgia v. Stanton</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_elections" title="1868 United States elections">1868 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1868 State of the Union Address">1868 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1869</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="National Woman Suffrage Association">National Woman Suffrage Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Woman_Suffrage_Association" title="American Woman Suffrage Association">American Woman Suffrage Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims"><i>Alabama</i> Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_annexation_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo">Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Indian_Commissioners" title="Board of Indian Commissioners">Board of Indian Commissioners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Credit_Act_of_1869" title="Public Credit Act of 1869">Public Credit Act of 1869</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(1869)" title="Black Friday (1869)">Black Friday (1869)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_McCardle" title="Ex parte McCardle">Ex parte McCardle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1869_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1869 State of the Union Address">1869 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1870</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Justice Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoffner_Act" title="Shoffner Act">Shoffner Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_United_States_elections" title="1870 United States elections">1870 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1870_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1870 State of the Union Address">1870 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1871</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ku_Klux_Klan_hearings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ku Klux Klan hearings (page does not exist)">Ku Klux Klan hearings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Second Enforcement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcorn_State_University" title="Alcorn State University">Alcorn State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian race riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1871)" title="Treaty of Washington (1871)">Treaty of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandals_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration#New_York_custom_house_ring" title="Scandals of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">New York custom house ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_commission" title="Civil service commission">Civil service commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">United States expedition to Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1871_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1871 State of the Union Address">1871 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1872</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Mining_Act_of_1872" title="General Mining Act of 1872">General Mining Act of 1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A9dit_Mobilier_scandal" title="Crédit Mobilier scandal">Crédit Mobilier scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Route_scandal" title="Star Route scandal">Star Route scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salary_Grab_Act" title="Salary Grab Act">Salary Grab Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_Act" title="Amnesty Act">Amnesty Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_elections" title="1872 United States elections">1872 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1872 State of the Union Address">1872 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1873</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1873" title="Panic of 1873">Panic of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginius_Affair" title="Virginius Affair"><i>Virginius</i> Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1873" title="Coinage Act of 1873">Coinage Act of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Depression" title="Long Depression">Long Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comstock_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Comstock laws">Comstock laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1873_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1873 State of the Union Address">1873 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1874</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coushatta_massacre" title="Coushatta massacre">Coushatta massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_Massacre_of_1874" title="Election Massacre of 1874">Election Massacre of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_massacre" title="Vicksburg massacre">Vicksburg massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hills_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hills Gold Rush">Black Hills Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanborn_incident" title="Sanborn incident">Sanborn incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Moiety_Acts" title="Anti-Moiety Acts">Anti-Moiety Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_United_States_elections" title="1874 United States elections">1874 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1874_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1874 State of the Union Address">1874 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1875</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Plan" title="Mississippi Plan">Mississippi Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clifton_Riot_of_1875&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clifton Riot of 1875 (page does not exist)">Clifton Riot of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yazoo_City_Riot_of_1875&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yazoo City Riot of 1875 (page does not exist)">Yazoo City Riot of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Payment_Resumption_Act" title="Specie Payment Resumption Act">Specie Payment Resumption Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Ring" title="Whiskey Ring">Whiskey Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler_Compromise" title="Wheeler Compromise">Wheeler Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandals_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration#Department_of_Interior" title="Scandals of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Delano affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Boyd" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt & Boyd">Pratt & Boyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1875 State of the Union Address">1875 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1876</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellenton_massacre" title="Ellenton massacre">Ellenton massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War of 1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Reese" title="United States v. Reese">United States v. Reese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trader_post_scandal" title="Trader post scandal">Trader post scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial Exposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandals_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration#Cattellism" title="Scandals of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Cattellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_burglary_conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Safe burglary conspiracy">Safe burglary conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_elections" title="1876 United States elections">1876 elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1876 State of the Union Address">1876 State of the Union Address</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">1877</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Land_Act" title="Desert Land Act">Desert Land Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877" title="Great Railroad Strike of 1877">Great Railroad Strike of 1877</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posse_Comitatus_Act" title="Posse Comitatus Act">Posse Comitatus Act</a> (1878)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Harris" title="United States v. Harris">United States v. Harris</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Mississippi" title="Williams v. Mississippi">Williams v. Mississippi</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Historiography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Bibliography of the Reconstruction era">Bibliography of the Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Shepherd_Pike" title="James Shepherd Pike">James Shepherd Pike</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Prostrate_State:_South_Carolina_under_Negro_Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Prostrate State: South Carolina under Negro Government (page does not exist)">The Prostrate State</a></i> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">James Bryce</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Commonwealth">The American Commonwealth</a></i> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_G._Bowers" title="Claude G. Bowers">Claude G. Bowers</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Tragic_Era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Tragic Era (page does not exist)">The Tragic Era</a></i> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burgess_(political_scientist)" title="John Burgess (political scientist)">John Burgess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lynwood_Fleming" title="Walter Lynwood Fleming">Walter Lynwood Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Archibald_Dunning" title="William Archibald Dunning">William Archibald Dunning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Charles A. Beard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_K._Beale" title="Howard K. Beale">Howard K. Beale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Reconstruction_in_America" title="Black Reconstruction in America">Black Reconstruction in America</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">C. Vann Woodward</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joel_Williamson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joel Williamson (page does not exist)">Joel Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_R._Brock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William R. Brock (page does not exist)">William R. Brock</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Crisis" title="The American Crisis">The American Crisis</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=From_Slavery_to_Freedom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="From Slavery to Freedom (page does not exist)">From Slavery to Freedom</a></i> (1947)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=After_Slavery&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="After Slavery (page does not exist)">After Slavery</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Litwack" title="Leon Litwack">Leon Litwack</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Been_in_the_Storm_So_Long" title="Been in the Storm So Long">Been in the Storm So Long</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction:_America%27s_Unfinished_Revolution,_1863%E2%80%931877" title="Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877">Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Stampp" title="Kenneth M. Stampp">Kenneth M. Stampp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Hahn" title="Steven Hahn">Steven Hahn</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Nation_Under_Our_Feet" title="A Nation Under Our Feet">A Nation Under Our Feet</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Founding" title="The Second Founding">The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution</a></i> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winslow_Homer" title="Winslow Homer">Winslow Homer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Visit_from_the_Old_Mistress" title="A Visit from the Old Mistress">A Visit from the Old Mistress</a></i> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Leopard%27s_Spots" title="The Leopard's Spots">The Leopard's Spots</a></i> (1902)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_A_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" title="The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._W._Griffith" title="D. W. Griffith">D. W. Griffith</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(film)" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_W._Blight" title="David W. Blight">David W. Blight</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Race_and_Reunion" title="Race and Reunion">Race and Reunion</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">Forty acres and a mule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">Habeas corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">History of the United States (1865–1917)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">Paramilitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race (human categorization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitecapping" title="Whitecapping">Whitecapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Reconstruction_Era" title="Category:Reconstruction Era">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Reconstruction_era105" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Reconstruction_era105" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Reconstruction era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles608" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles608" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States495" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template talk:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States75" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States75" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and<br />social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage,<br />sexual slavery<br />and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans629" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw Freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_Nebraska" title="African-American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_(state)" title="African Americans in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_jurists" title="List of African American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_firsts" title="Timeline of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abraham_Lincoln869" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abraham_Lincoln" title="Template:Abraham Lincoln"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abraham_Lincoln" title="Template talk:Abraham Lincoln"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abraham_Lincoln" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abraham Lincoln"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abraham_Lincoln869" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">16th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Illinois" title="List of United States representatives from Illinois">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Illinois%27s_7th_congressional_district" title="Illinois's 7th congressional district">IL–7</a> (1847–1849)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidential transition of Abraham Lincoln">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">First inauguration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Bible" title="Lincoln Bible">Lincoln Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Acts" title="Confiscation Acts">Confiscation Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1861" title="Revenue Act of 1861">War based income tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan#Origin_of_the_plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Seaports blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">RMS <i>Trent</i> Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_1863" class="mw-redirect" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act 1863">Habeas Corpus suspended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia#Separation_from_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia statehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign#Background_and_opposing_forces" title="Overland Campaign">Overland Campaign strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War#Evacuation_and_Capture_of_Richmond" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Tour of Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_percent_plan" title="Ten percent plan">Ten percent plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era#Lincoln's_presidential_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment abolishing slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War of 1862</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Northwest" title="Department of the Northwest">Department of the Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_Act" title="National Bank Act">National Banking Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)#Lincoln_and_the_Civil_War" title="Thanksgiving (United States)">Thanksgiving Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_to_Fanny_McCullough" title="Letter to Fanny McCullough">Fanny McCullough letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birchard_Letter" title="Birchard Letter">Birchard Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bixby_letter" title="Bixby letter">Bixby letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences#Origins" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture#Formation_and_subsequent_history" title="United States Department of Agriculture">Department of Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_or_granted_clemency_by_the_President_of_the_United_States#Abraham_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States">Pardons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1863_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1863 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address, 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1864 State of the Union Address">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln#Other_enactments" title="Abraham Lincoln">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln">Judicial appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_Lyceum_address" title="Abraham Lincoln's Lyceum address">Lyceum address (1838)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_Peoria_speech" title="Abraham Lincoln's Peoria speech">Peoria speech (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Lost_Speech" title="Lincoln's Lost Speech">"Lost Speech" (1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_House_Divided_Speech" title="Lincoln's House Divided Speech">House Divided speech (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Douglas_debates" title="Lincoln–Douglas debates">Lincoln–Douglas debates (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Union_speech" title="Cooper Union speech">Cooper Union Address (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_Farewell_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Lincoln's Farewell Address">Farewell Address (1861)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_first_inaugural_address" title="Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address">First inaugural address (1861)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_Address" title="Gettysburg Address">Gettysburg Address (1863,</a> <a href="/wiki/Consecration_of_the_National_Cemetery_at_Gettysburg" title="Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg">event)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_second_inaugural_address" title="Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address">Second inaugural address (1865)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life<br />and views</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_in_the_Black_Hawk_War" title="Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War">Black Hawk War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matson_Trial" title="Matson Trial">Matson Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spot_Resolutions" title="Spot Resolutions">Spot Resolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln%27s_patent" title="Abraham Lincoln's patent">Boat lifting patent</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurd_v._Rock_Island_Bridge_Co." title="Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Co.">Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_Plot" title="Baltimore Plot">Baltimore Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Bedell" title="Grace Bedell">Lincoln's beard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Health of Abraham Lincoln">Medical and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Poetry of Abraham Lincoln">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_career_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(1849%E2%80%931861)" title="Political career of Abraham Lincoln (1849–1861)">Political career, 1849–1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Religious views of Abraham Lincoln">Religious views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Homes<br />and places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Birthplace_National_Historical_Park" title="Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park">Lincoln Birthplace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knob_Creek_Farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Knob Creek Farm">Knob Creek Farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Boyhood_National_Memorial" title="Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial">Lincoln Boyhood Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_State_Park" title="Lincoln State Park">Lincoln State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pigeon_Creek_Community" title="Little Pigeon Creek Community">Little Pigeon Creek Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Trail_Homestead_State_Memorial" title="Lincoln Trail Homestead State Memorial">Lincoln Trail Homestead State Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_New_Salem" title="Lincoln's New Salem">Lincoln's New Salem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln-Berry_General_Store" title="Lincoln-Berry General Store">Lincoln-Berry General Store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Home_National_Historic_Site" title="Lincoln Home National Historic Site">Lincoln Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_Cottage_at_the_Soldiers%27_Home" title="President Lincoln's Cottage at the Soldiers' Home">Cottage at the Soldier's Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Bedroom" title="Lincoln Bedroom">Lincoln Bedroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Sitting_Room" title="Lincoln Sitting Room">Lincoln Sitting Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Pioneer_Village" title="Lincoln Pioneer Village">Lincoln Pioneer Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Log_Cabin_State_Historic_Site" title="Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site">Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1856_Republican_National_Convention" title="1856 Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention, 1856</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Republican_National_Convention" title="1860 Republican National Convention">1860</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">1864</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_and_Liberty" title="Lincoln and Liberty">1860 campaign song</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ford%27s_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Ford's Theater">Ford's Theater</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_American_Cousin" title="Our American Cousin">Our American Cousin</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Our_American_Cousin_(opera)" title="Our American Cousin (opera)">opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkes_Booth" title="John Wilkes Booth">John Wilkes Booth</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Sic_semper_tyrannis" title="Sic semper tyrannis">Sic semper tyrannis</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petersen_House" title="Petersen House">Petersen House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_funeral_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="State funeral of Abraham Lincoln">State funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_catafalque" title="Lincoln catafalque">Lincoln catafalque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Tomb" title="Lincoln Tomb">Lincoln Tomb</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/O_Captain!_My_Captain!" title="O Captain! My Captain!">O Captain! My Captain!</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/When_Lilacs_Last_in_the_Dooryard_Bloom%27d" title="When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd">When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy and<br /><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library and Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Papers_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="The Papers of Abraham Lincoln">Papers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln/Net" title="Lincoln/Net">Lincoln/Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abraham_Lincoln_artifacts_and_relics" title="List of Abraham Lincoln artifacts and relics">Artifacts and relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Birthday" title="Lincoln's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln">Photographs of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln">Cultural depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Depictions_of_Abraham_Lincoln_on_film" title="Category:Depictions of Abraham Lincoln on film">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abraham_Lincoln_in_art" title="Category:Abraham Lincoln in art">Art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_on_currency#Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of presidents of the United States on currency">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Centennial_half_dollar" title="Illinois Centennial half dollar">Illinois Centennial half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_cent" title="Lincoln cent">Lincoln penny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_five-dollar_bill" title="United States five-dollar bill">Five-dollar bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore_Anniversary_coins" title="Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins">Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Association" title="Abraham Lincoln Association">Abraham Lincoln Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Institute" title="Abraham Lincoln Institute">Abraham Lincoln Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Lincoln_Presenters" title="Association of Lincoln Presenters">Association of Lincoln Presenters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Abraham_Lincoln_(SSBN-602)" title="USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)">USS <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> (1960,</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Abraham_Lincoln_(CVN-72)" title="USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)">1988)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Here_I_Grew_Up" title="Here I Grew Up">Here I Grew Up</a></i> mosaic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Highway" title="Lincoln Highway">Lincoln Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Park" title="Lincoln Park">Lincoln Park (Chicago)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Park_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Lincoln Park (Washington, D.C.)">Lincoln Park (D.C.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Prize" title="Lincoln Prize">Lincoln Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Heritage_Trail" title="Lincoln Heritage Trail">Lincoln Heritage Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Trail_State_Memorial" title="Lincoln Trail State Memorial">Lincoln Trail State Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Abraham_(Vermont)" title="Mount Abraham (Vermont)">Mount Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Kennedy_coincidences_urban_legend" title="Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend">Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Moments_with_Mr._Lincoln" title="Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln">Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%27s_ghost" title="Lincoln's ghost">White House ghost</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Statues46" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of statues of Abraham Lincoln">Statues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Lincoln_Memorial)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial)">statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial_Reflecting_Pool" title="Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool">reflecting pool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln:_The_Man" title="Abraham Lincoln: The Man"><i>Abraham Lincoln: The Man</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln:_The_Head_of_State" title="Abraham Lincoln: The Head of State"><i>Abraham Lincoln: The Head of State</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_the_Lawyer" title="Lincoln the Lawyer"><i>Lincoln the Lawyer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Abe_Lincoln" title="Young Abe Lincoln"><i>Young Abe Lincoln</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Memorial" title="Emancipation Memorial">Emancipation Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldiers%27_and_Sailors%27_Arch" title="Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch">Brooklyn relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Cincinnati)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Cincinnati)">Cincinnati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(District_of_Columbia_City_Hall)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (District of Columbia City Hall)">D.C. City Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Hodgenville,_Kentucky)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Hodgenville, Kentucky)">Hodgenville, Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_(relief_by_Schwarz)" title="Abraham Lincoln (relief by Schwarz)">Indianapolis relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Memorial_Monument" title="Abraham Lincoln Memorial Monument">Laramie, Wyoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Lincoln,_Nebraska)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln, Nebraska)">Lincoln, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Lincoln" title="The Young Lincoln">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial_at_Waterfront_Park" title="Lincoln Memorial at Waterfront Park">Louisville, Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seated_Lincoln_(Borglum)" title="Seated Lincoln (Borglum)">Newark, New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(New_York_City)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (New York City)">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_Square#Lincoln" title="Parliament Square">Parliament Square, London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Monument_(Philadelphia)" title="Lincoln Monument (Philadelphia)">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldiers%27_and_Sailors%27_Monument_(Rochester,_New_York)" title="Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Rochester, New York)">Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(Borglum)" title="Bust of Abraham Lincoln (Borglum)">U.S. Capitol bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Abraham Lincoln (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Monument_(Wabash,_Indiana)" title="Lincoln Monument (Wabash, Indiana)">Wabash, Indiana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_family" title="Lincoln family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_family" title="Lincoln family">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Todd_Lincoln" title="Mary Todd Lincoln">Mary Todd Lincoln</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Lincoln" title="Robert Todd Lincoln">Robert Todd Lincoln</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Baker_Lincoln" title="Edward Baker Lincoln">Edward Baker Lincoln</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wallace_Lincoln" title="William Wallace Lincoln">William Wallace Lincoln</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tad_Lincoln" title="Tad Lincoln">Thomas "Tad" Lincoln III</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamie_Lincoln_Isham" title="Mamie Lincoln Isham">Mary Todd "Mamie" Lincoln</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Harlan_Lincoln" title="Jessie Harlan Lincoln">Jessie Harlan Lincoln</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lincoln" title="Thomas Lincoln">Thomas Lincoln</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Lincoln" title="Nancy Lincoln">Nancy Hanks Lincoln</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Bush_Lincoln" title="Sarah Bush Lincoln">Sarah Bush Lincoln</a> (stepmother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Lincoln_Grigsby" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarah Lincoln Grigsby">Sarah Lincoln Grigsby</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_(captain)" title="Abraham Lincoln (captain)">Abraham Lincoln</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Lincoln" title="Mordecai Lincoln">Mordecai Lincoln</a> (uncle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lincoln_Crume" title="Mary Lincoln Crume">Mary Lincoln Crume</a> (aunt)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hanks" title="John Hanks">John Hanks</a> (cousin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hanks" title="Joseph Hanks">Joseph Hanks</a> (great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Lincoln" title="Samuel Lincoln">Samuel Lincoln</a> (17th-century ancestor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lincoln_Beckwith" title="Mary Lincoln Beckwith">Mary Lincoln Beckwith</a> (great-granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Lincoln_Beckwith" title="Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith">Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Bob" title="Old Bob">Old Bob</a> (horse)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fido_(Abraham_Lincoln%27s_dog)" title="Fido (Abraham Lincoln's dog)">Fido</a> (dog)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">← James Buchanan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Abraham_Lincoln" title="Category:Abraham Lincoln">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Outline of Abraham Lincoln">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Andrew_Johnson917" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Andrew_Johnson" title="Template:Andrew Johnson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Andrew_Johnson" title="Template talk:Andrew Johnson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew_Johnson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew Johnson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andrew_Johnson917" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">17th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1865–1869)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">16th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1865)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States senators from Tennessee">Senator from Tennessee</a> (1857–1862, 1875)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Tennessee" title="List of governors of Tennessee">15th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Tennessee" title="Governor of Tennessee">Governor of Tennessee</a> (1853–1857, 1862–1865)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionist" title="Southern Unionist">Southern Unionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">1864 National Union Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson%27s_drunk_vice-presidential_inaugural_address" title="Andrew Johnson's drunk vice-presidential inaugural address">Drunk vice-presidential inaugural address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirkwood_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Kirkwood House (Washington, D.C.)">Kirkwood House</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Inauguration of Andrew Johnson">Inauguration of Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Johnson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Johnson">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardons_for_ex-Confederates" title="Pardons for ex-Confederates">Pardons for ex-Confederates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1865_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1865 State of the Union Address">State of the Union, 1865</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1866_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1866 State of the Union Address">1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1867_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1867 State of the Union Address">1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1868 State of the Union Address">1868</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Territory" title="Colorado Territory">Colorado Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Purchase" title="Alaska Purchase">Alaska Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Circuits_Act" title="Judicial Circuits Act">Judicial Circuits Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_Army_Act" title="Command of Army Act">Command of Army Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_vetoes#Andrew_Johnson" title="List of United States presidential vetoes">Vetoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">First impeachment inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">Second impeachment inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">1868 impeachment managers investigation</a></li> <li>Politics: <a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_National_Union_Convention" title="1866 National Union Convention">1866 National Union Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_Around_the_Circle" title="Swing Around the Circle">Swing Around the Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_and_1867_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1866 and 1867 United States House of Representatives elections">1866 & 1867 U.S. House elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1868 Democratic National Convention">1868 Democratic Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_National_Cemetery" title="Andrew Johnson National Cemetery">Andrew Johnson National Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_National_Historic_Site" title="Andrew Johnson National Historic Site">Andrew Johnson National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_Andrew_Johnson_Museum_and_Library" title="President Andrew Johnson Museum and Library">President Andrew Johnson Museum and Library</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Andy%27s_Trip" title="Andy's Trip">Andy's Trip</a></i> (1866)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Justice_(political_cartoon)" title="Southern Justice (political cartoon)">Southern Justice</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amphitheatrum_Johnsonianum" title="Amphitheatrum Johnsonianum">Amphitheatrum Johnsonianum</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Johnson" title="Tennessee Johnson">Tennessee Johnson</a></i> (1942)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_McCardle_Johnson" title="Eliza McCardle Johnson">Eliza McCardle Johnson</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Johnson_Patterson" title="Martha Johnson Patterson">Martha Johnson Patterson</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_T._Patterson" title="David T. Patterson">David T. Patterson</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Johnson_(Tennessee)" title="Charles Johnson (Tennessee)">Charles Johnson</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Johnson_Stover" title="Mary Johnson Stover">Mary Johnson Stover</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Stover" title="Daniel Stover">Daniel Stover</a> (son-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Johnson_(Tennessee)" title="Robert Johnson (Tennessee)">Robert Johnson</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_Jr." title="Andrew Johnson Jr.">Frank Johnson</a> (son)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slaves</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brown_(steward)" title="Henry Brown (steward)">Henry Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Johnson_Forby" title="Elizabeth Johnson Forby">Elizabeth J. Forby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolly_Johnson" title="Dolly Johnson">Dolly Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Johnson_(Tennessee)" title="Henry Johnson (Tennessee)">Henry Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Johnson_(Tennessee)" title="Sam Johnson (Tennessee)">Sam Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Andrew_Johnson" title="William Andrew Johnson">William A. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Johnson_Smith" title="Florence Johnson Smith">Florence J. Smith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Bibliography of Andrew Johnson">Bibliography of Andrew Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_alcoholism_debate" title="Andrew Johnson alcoholism debate">Alcoholism debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Harold" title="Emily Harold">Mrs. Harold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln%E2%80%93Johnson_ledger-removal_allegation" title="Lincoln–Johnson ledger-removal allegation">Ledger-removal allegation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buell_Military_Commission" title="Buell Military Commission">Buell Commission records</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treason_must_be_made_odious" title="Treason must be made odious">Treason must be made odious</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">← Abraham Lincoln</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">← Hannibal Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Schuyler Colfax →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Andrew_Johnson" title="Category:Andrew Johnson">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ulysses_S._Grant591" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Template:Ulysses S. Grant"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Template talk:Ulysses S. Grant"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ulysses S. Grant"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ulysses_S._Grant591" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">18th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1869–1877)</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ulysses S. Grant and the American Civil War">Grant and the American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicksburg Campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petersburg_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Petersburg Campaign">Richmond–Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Appomattox Campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanding_generalship_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Commanding generalship of Ulysses S. Grant">Commanding generalship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="First inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Second inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandals_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration" title="Scandals of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Scandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grantism" title="Grantism">Grantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_pardoned_or_granted_clemency_by_the_President_of_the_United_States#Ulysses_S._Grant" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States">Pardons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant#Cabinet" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="List of federal judges appointed by Ulysses S. Grant">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union addresses</a> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant%27s_First_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Ulysses S. Grant's First State of the Union Address">1869</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant%27s_Second_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Ulysses S. Grant's Second State of the Union Address">1870</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant%27s_Third_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Ulysses S. Grant's Third State of the Union Address">1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1872 State of the Union Address">1872</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant%27s_Fifth_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Ulysses S. Grant's Fifth State of the Union Address">1873</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant%27s_Sixth_State_of_the_Union_Address" class="extiw" title="s:Ulysses S. Grant's Sixth State of the Union Address">1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1875_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1875 State of the Union Address">1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1876 State of the Union Address">1876</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1871)" title="Treaty of Washington (1871)">Treaty of Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims"><i>Alabama</i> Claims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">Korean Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_annexation_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo">Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economic policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Credit_Act_of_1869" title="Public Credit Act of 1869">Public Credit Act of 1869</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1870" title="Copyright Act of 1870">Copyright Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_Act_of_1870" title="Currency Act of 1870">Currency Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_Act_of_1870" title="Funding Act of 1870">Funding Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Mining_Act_of_1872" title="General Mining Act of 1872">General Mining Act of 1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Payment_Resumption_Act" title="Specie Payment Resumption Act">Specie Payment Resumption Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Land_Act" title="Desert Land Act">Desert Land Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reforms_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration" title="Reforms of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Government<br />reforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Judiciary Act of 1869</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Organic_Act_of_1871" title="District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871">District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission" title="United States Civil Service Commission">Civil Service Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park_Protection_Act" title="Yellowstone National Park Protection Act">Yellowstone National Park Protection Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Consolidation_Act_of_1872" title="Post Office Consolidation Act of 1872">Post Office Consolidation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reconstruction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_Act" title="Amnesty Act">Amnesty Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_policy_of_the_Ulysses_S._Grant_administration" title="Native American policy of the Ulysses S. Grant administration">Native American policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans#Grant's_"Peace_Policy"" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">"Peace Policy"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act of 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Second Enforcement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comstock_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Comstock laws">Comstock Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_Act" title="Poland Act">Poland Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act of 1875</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Post-presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Post-presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1880_Republican_National_Convention" title="1880 Republican National Convention">Bid for a third term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_tour_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="World tour of Ulysses S. Grant">World tour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Personal_Memoirs_of_U._S._Grant" title="Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant">Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Early life and career of Ulysses S. Grant">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Birthplace" title="Grant Birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Boyhood_Home" title="Grant Boyhood Home">Boyhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Schoolhouse" title="Grant Schoolhouse">Schoolhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_National_Historic_Site" title="Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site">White Haven home</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grant%27s_Farm" title="Grant's Farm">farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_Cottage" title="Ulysses S. Grant Cottage">Ulysses S. Grant Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_Home" title="Ulysses S. Grant Home">Galena home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horsemanship_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Horsemanship of Ulysses S. Grant">Horsemanship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrests_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Arrests of Ulysses S. Grant">speeding arrests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Death and state funeral of Ulysses S. Grant">Death and state funeral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grant%27s_Tomb" title="Grant's Tomb">Grant's Tomb</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1868 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1868_Republican_National_Convention" title="1868 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li> <li>1872 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1872_Republican_National_Convention" title="1872 Republican National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Legacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="List of memorials to Ulysses S. Grant">Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_Memorial" title="Ulysses S. Grant Memorial">Grant Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant#Memorials_and_presidential_library" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Presidential library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Park_(Chicago)" title="Grant Park (Chicago)">Grant Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Grant_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="General Grant (ship)"><i>General Grant</i> ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Grant_(tree)" title="General Grant (tree)">General Grant tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Grant_Grove" title="General Grant Grove">grove</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Cottage_State_Historic_Site" title="Grant Cottage State Historic Site">Grant Cottage State Historic Site</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Peacemakers" title="The Peacemakers">The Peacemakers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Ulysses_S._Grant_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Ulysses S. Grant (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldiers%27_and_Sailors%27_Arch" title="Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch">Brooklyn relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_Monument" title="Ulysses S. Grant Monument">Chicago statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/These_Are_My_Jewels" title="These Are My Jewels">Ohio Statehouse statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Equestrian statue of Ulysses S. Grant">Philadelphia statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Ulysses_S._Grant_(San_Francisco)" title="Bust of Ulysses S. Grant (San Francisco)">San Francisco bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_on_currency#Ulysses_S._Grant" title="List of presidents of the United States on currency">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_as_the_Dominant_Force_in_the_World" title="Electricity as the Dominant Force in the World">$5 bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_fifty-dollar_bill" title="United States fifty-dollar bill">$50 bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Memorial_coinage" title="Grant Memorial coinage">1922 Grant Memorial coinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Grant High School (Los Angeles)">Grant High School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Grant_(Nevada)" title="Mount Grant (Nevada)">Mount Grant (Nevada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Grant_(Vermont)" title="Mount Grant (Vermont)">Mount Grant (Vermont)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Grant_Hotel" title="U.S. Grant Hotel">U.S. Grant Hotel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Cultural depictions of Ulysses S. Grant">Cultural depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_(film)" title="Ulysses S. Grant (film)">Ulysses S. Grant</a></i> (2002 documentary)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_(film)" title="Lincoln (film)">Lincoln</a></i> (2012 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grant_(miniseries)" title="Grant (miniseries)">Grant</a></i> (2020 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Grant_family" title="Category:Grant family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Simpson_Grant" title="Hannah Simpson Grant">Hannah Simpson Grant</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Root_Grant" title="Jesse Root Grant">Jesse Root Grant</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Grant" title="Julia Grant">Julia Grant</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Dent_Grant" title="Frederick Dent Grant">Frederick Dent Grant</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_Jr." title="Ulysses S. Grant Jr.">Ulysses S. Grant Jr.</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Root_Grant_(politician)" title="Jesse Root Grant (politician)">Jesse Root Grant II</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nellie_Grant" title="Nellie Grant">Nellie Grant</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_III" title="Ulysses S. Grant III">Ulysses S. Grant III</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapman_Grant" title="Chapman Grant">Chapman Grant</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant_IV" title="Ulysses S. Grant IV">Ulysses S. Grant IV</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Dent_Cantacuz%C3%A8ne_Spiransky-Grant" class="mw-redirect" title="Julia Dent Cantacuzène Spiransky-Grant">Julia Dent Grant</a> (granddaughter)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">← Andrew Johnson</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Category:Ulysses S. Grant">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rutherford_B._Hayes569" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Template:Rutherford B. Hayes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Template talk:Rutherford B. Hayes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rutherford B. Hayes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rutherford_B._Hayes569" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">19th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1877–1881)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Ohio" title="List of governors of Ohio">29th and 32nd Governor of Ohio</a> (1868–1872, 1876–1877)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/23rd_Ohio_Infantry_Regiment" title="23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment">23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanawha_Division" title="Kanawha Division">Kanawha Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Mountain" title="Battle of South Mountain">Battle of South Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_West_Virginia" title="Army of West Virginia">Army of West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cloyd%27s_Mountain" title="Battle of Cloyd's Mountain">Battle of Cloyd's Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiegel_Grove" title="Spiegel Grove">Spiegel Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">1876 Republican National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Commission_(United_States)" title="Electoral Commission (United States)">Electoral Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oakwood_Cemetery_(Fremont,_Ohio)" title="Oakwood Cemetery (Fremont, Ohio)">Oakwood Cemetery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Room_(White_House)" title="Red Room (White House)">Red Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes">Inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission" title="United States Civil Service Commission">United States Civil Service Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Route_scandal" title="Star Route scandal">Star Route scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877" title="Great Railroad Strike of 1877">Great Railroad Strike of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_railroad_strike_of_1877" title="Baltimore railroad strike of 1877">Baltimore railroad strike of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Payment_Resumption_Act" title="Specie Payment Resumption Act">Specie Payment Resumption Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Hayes" title="Villa Hayes">Villa Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidente_Hayes_Department" title="Presidente Hayes Department">Presidente Hayes Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="List of federal judges appointed by Rutherford B. Hayes">List of federal judges appointed by Rutherford B. Hayes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes_Presidential_Center" title="Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center">Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Hayes_(APA-20)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS President Hayes (APA-20)">USS <i>President Hayes</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/These_Are_My_Jewels" title="These Are My Jewels">These Are My Jewels</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudo_Hayes_Firm_Day" title="Laudo Hayes Firm Day">Laudo Hayes Firm Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_Presidente_Hayes" title="Club Presidente Hayes">Club Presidente Hayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayes_County,_Nebraska" title="Hayes County, Nebraska">Hayes County, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes_High_School_(Delaware,_Ohio)" title="Rutherford B. Hayes High School (Delaware, Ohio)">Rutherford B. Hayes High School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University,_Hayes_and_Orton_Halls" title="University, Hayes and Orton Halls">University, Hayes and Orton Halls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Webb_Hayes" title="Lucy Webb Hayes">Lucy Webb Hayes</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webb_Hayes" title="Webb Hayes">Webb Hayes</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_P._Hayes" title="Rutherford P. Hayes">Rutherford P. Hayes</a> (son)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">← Ulysses S. Grant</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Category:Rutherford B. Hayes">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/21px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/32px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/41px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Reconstruction era</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reconstruction_Era" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Reconstruction Era">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era" class="extiw" title="q:Reconstruction era">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Reconstruction" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Reconstruction">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623429" class="extiw" title="d:Q623429">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623429#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1159" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623429#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1159" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q623429#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85111862">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11949920z">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11949920z">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="rekonstrukce (1865-1877 : Spojené státy americké)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1143505&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-hllj9","wgBackendResponseTime":165,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.156","walltime":"6.283","ppvisitednodes":{"value":42474,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1833084,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":396569,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":56,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1316876,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 5219.157 1 -total"," 19.24% 1004.346 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.73% 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[\"CITEREFBillingtonRidge1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackmon2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlair2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlight2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomfield1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrands2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrands2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrundage2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalhoun2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatton1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChacónJensen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernow2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCimbalaMiller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCimbalaMillerSimpson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoben1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCodrington_III2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConklin1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooperTerrill2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCouvares2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCruden\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonald1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonaldBakerHolt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowns2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowns2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownsMasur2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyle2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuBois1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDu_Bois1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDu_Bois1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunning1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards1997\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEgerton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEtcheson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFallin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarmer-Kaiser2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFleming1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleming1906–1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleming1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2014a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2014b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoner2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFonerMahoney1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklin1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrisby2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGienapp2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillette1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGleeson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldinLewis1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon-Reed2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreene2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuelzo1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuelzo2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuelzo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlan1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlow2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesseltine1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesseltine1936\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHofstadter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolzerMedfordWilliams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubbs2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumeGough2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyman1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonPou\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkinsHeersink2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJon_Bekken2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaczorowski1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeith2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolchin1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonczalFoner2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLash1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLightweis-Goff2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLincove2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockeWright2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLocksMergelRosemanSpike2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLynch1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynnThorbecke2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews1864\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayberry1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarthy1901\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcFeely1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcFeely2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKitrick1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPherson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPhersonHogue2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikkelson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilton1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMixon1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrow1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrow1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorwood1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOberholtzer1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhanian2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborneBombaro2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPainter1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParfait2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaskoff2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatton1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersWoolley2018b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPildes2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPope2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPressly1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuigley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRable1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandallCurrent1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandallDonald2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRansom2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertsKytle2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodrigue2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosadoCohn-PostarEisen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuppersburgDobbs2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchell1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchouler1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuckers1874\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchurz1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeverance2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharkey1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimkins1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinha2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStalcup1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStampp1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamppLitwack1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStauffer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStazakMasurWilliamsDowns2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteedman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStover1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStowell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStudenskiKroos1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummers2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSummers2014a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweet1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeedLadd_Teed2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefousse1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefousse1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefousse1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrelease1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTulloch1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyackLowe1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnger1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValelly2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughn2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagnerGallagherMcPherson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarner1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaxman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisberger1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhaples1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodward1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodward1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanoso2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZebley2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuczek2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Abraham Lincoln\"] = 1,\n [\"African American topics\"] = 1,\n [\"African American topics sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Andrew Johnson\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 23,\n [\"Campaignbox Reconstruction Era\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 173,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 54,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 21,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Reconstruction Era Of The United States\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 6,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 6,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 2,\n [\"Explain\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 2,\n [\"History of slavery in the United States\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox historical era\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 5,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Nadir of American race relations\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 24,\n [\"Periods in US history\"] = 1,\n [\"Prose\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote without source\"] = 1,\n [\"Reconstruction era\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Rutherford B. Hayes\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnmp\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 167,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"US history\"] = 1,\n [\"Ulysses S. Grant\"] = 1,\n [\"United States topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 13,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","400","14.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","12.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","220","7.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","220","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","140","5.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","4.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","4.3"],["(for generator)","100","3.6"],["[others]","800","28.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-wnm4b","timestamp":"20250217012032","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Reconstruction era","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reconstruction_era","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q623429","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q623429","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-06-05T18:13:40Z","dateModified":"2025-02-16T16:33:25Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/78\/ReconstructionEraColl.png","headline":"era of military occupation in the Southern United States after the American Civil War (1865\u20131877)"}</script> </body> </html>