Driver drowsiness is associated with altered facial thermal patterns: Machine learning insights from a thermal imaging approach

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Thermal imaging has emerged as an effective tool for detecting drowsiness by enabling the analysis of facial thermal patterns. However, it is not clear which facial areas are most affected and correlate most strongly with drowsiness. 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Thermal imaging has emerged as an effective tool for detecting drowsiness by enabling the analysis of facial thermal patterns. However, it is not clear which facial areas are most affected and correlate most strongly with drowsiness. 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However, it is not clear which facial areas are most affected and correlate most strongly with drowsiness. 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usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Name must be less than 100 characters </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap existing-collections-controls"> <label for="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-label"> Choose a collection: </label> <select id="collections-action-panel-add-to-existing" class="action-panel-selector collections-action-add-to-existing" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="select_collection" data-ga-label="($('#collections-action-add-to-existing').val() === 'Favorites') ? 'Favorites' : 'non_favorites_collection'"> </select> <div class="collections-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your collection due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="add"> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to Collections' panel" ref="linksrc=close_collections_panel" aria-controls="collections-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="collections" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="bibliography-action-panel" class="bibliography-action-panel action-panel in-progress-dots-panel" aria-hidden="true" data-bibliography-open-panel-enabled="false" data-bibliography-open-panel-url-hash="#open-bibliography-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h3 class="action-panel-heading"> Add to My Bibliography </h3> <form id="bibliography-action-panel-form" class="bibliography-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-add-to-bibliography-max-amount="100" data-add-to-bibliography-batch-size="10" data-bibliography-delegates-url="/list-bibliography-delegates/" data-add-to-bibliography-url="/add-to-bibliography/" data-get-article-ids-by-search-url="/get-article-ids-by-search/" data-mybib-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/mybibliography/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="fqcljh8V89HHcfwX9PuRIdaAPCt6fSuRReqagJ2kVKcFjE4TDmaoyXq8WVqtmpXt"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap bibliographies-controls"> <div class="choice-group"> <ul class="bibliographies-action-add radio-group-items"> <li> <input name="bibliography" id="my-bibliography" class="my-bibliography" type="radio" checked/> <label for="my-bibliography">My Bibliography</label> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="bibliographies-retry-load-on-error usa-input-error-message selection-validation-message"> Unable to load your delegates due to an error<br> <a href="#">Please try again</a> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Adding..." data-pinger-ignore> Add </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Add to bibliography' panel" ref="linksrc=close_bibliography_panel" aria-controls="bibliography-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="mybib" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="saved-search-action-panel" class="saved-search-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true" data-saved-search-open-panel-enabled="false" data-saved-search-open-panel-url-hash="#open-saved-search-panel"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your saved search </h2> <form id="saved-search-action-panel-form" class="saved-search-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-saved-search-url="/create-saved-search/" data-try-search-terms-url="/try-search-term/" data-saved-search-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/searches/"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="fqcljh8V89HHcfwX9PuRIdaAPCt6fSuRReqagJ2kVKcFjE4TDmaoyXq8WVqtmpXt"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-name" class="action-panel-label saved-search-name-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of saved search: </label> <input maxlength="200" type="text" name="saved-search-name" id="saved-search-name" class="saved-search-name" value="" required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-term" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Search terms: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-term" id="saved-search-term" class="saved-search-term" required></textarea> </div> <div class="test-search-term-wrap"> <a href="#" class="try-search-term">Test search terms</a> </div> <div class="choice-group action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <span class="action-panel-label" id="fieldset-label"> Would you like email updates of new search results? </span> <fieldset id="saved-search-alert" aria-describedby="fieldset-label"> <legend class="usa-sr-only">Saved Search Alert Radio Buttons</legend> <ul class="radio-group-items"> <li> <input type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-yes" class="saved-search-alert-yes" name="saved-search-alert" value="yes" checked> <label for="saved-search-alert-yes" class="action-panel-label">Yes</label> </li> <li> <input aria-label="No radio input" type="radio" id="saved-search-alert-no" class="saved-search-alert-no" name="saved-search-alert" value="no"> <label for="saved-search-alert-no" class="action-panel-label">No</label> </li> </ul> </fieldset> </div> <div class="alert-schedule-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label class="action-panel-label"> Email: </label> <span aria-label="Email address" id="saved-search-email" class="action-panel-label"><span class="action-panel-label-bold"></span> (<a class="myncbi-account-settings" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/account/settings/">change</a>)</span> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="saved-search-frequency" class="action-panel-label"> Frequency: </label> <select id="saved-search-frequency" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-frequency"> <option value="monthly">Monthly</option> <option value="weekly">Weekly</option> <option value="daily">Daily</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-monthly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-monthly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector"> <option value="Sunday">The first Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">The first Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">The first Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">The first Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">The first Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">The first Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">The first Saturday</option> <option value="day">The first day</option> <option value="weekday">The first weekday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap saved-search-weekly-additional"> <label for="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="action-panel-label"> Which day? </label> <select id="saved-search-weekly-on-day" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-weekly-on-day"> <option value="Sunday">Sunday</option> <option value="Monday">Monday</option> <option value="Tuesday">Tuesday</option> <option value="Wednesday">Wednesday</option> <option value="Thursday">Thursday</option> <option value="Friday">Friday</option> <option value="Saturday">Saturday</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-report" class="action-panel-label"> Report format: </label> <select id="saved-search-report" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-report"> <option value="DocSum">Summary</option> <option value="DocSumText">Summary (text)</option> <option value="Abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="AbstractText">Abstract (text)</option> <option value="MEDLINE">PubMed</option> </select> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-amount" class="action-panel-label"> Send at most: </label> <select id="saved-search-amount" class="no-border-panel-selector saved-search-amount"> <option value="1">1 item</option> <option value="5" selected>5 items</option> <option value="10">10 items</option> <option value="20">20 items</option> <option value="50">50 items</option> <option value="100">100 items</option> <option value="200">200 items</option> </select> </div> <div> <input type="checkbox" id="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="saved-search-send-if-no-result" name="saved-search-send-if-no-result"> <label for="saved-search-send-if-no-result" class="action-panel-label smaller-checkbox"> Send even when there aren't any new results </label> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap option-text-in-email-wrap"> <label for="saved-search-email-text" class="action-panel-label"> Optional text in email: </label> <textarea name="saved-search-email-text" id="saved-search-email-text" class="saved-search-email-text"></textarea> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Saving..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Save </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your saved search' panel" ref="linksrc=close_saved_search_panel" aria-controls="saved-search-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="citation-manager-action-panel" class="citation-manager-action-panel action-panel" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Create a file for external citation management software </h2> <form id="citation-manager-action-panel-form" class="action-panel-content action-form" action="/results-export-ids/" data-by-search-action="/results-export-search-data/" data-by-ids-action="/results-export-ids/" method="post" data-by-search-method="post" data-by-ids-method="post"> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="fqcljh8V89HHcfwX9PuRIdaAPCt6fSuRReqagJ2kVKcFjE4TDmaoyXq8WVqtmpXt"> <input name="results-format" type="hidden" value="pubmed"/> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Sending..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="save"> Create file </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Send citations to citation manager' panel" ref="linksrc=close_citation_manager_panel" aria-controls="citation-manager-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="citation_manager" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <div id="rss-action-panel" class="rss-action-panel action-panel " aria-hidden="true"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <h2 class="action-panel-heading"> Your RSS Feed </h2> <form id="rss-action-panel-form" class="rss-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form" data-create-rss-feed-url="/create-rss-feed-url/" data-search-form-term-value=""> <input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="fqcljh8V89HHcfwX9PuRIdaAPCt6fSuRReqagJ2kVKcFjE4TDmaoyXq8WVqtmpXt"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap"> <label for="rss-name" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name of RSS Feed: </label> <input maxlength="200" placeholder="Name" type="text" name="rss-name" id="rss-name" class="rss-name" value='' required pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/"> </div> <div class="rss-limit-wrap"> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap action-panel-extra-margin-top"> <label for="rss-limit" class="action-panel-label"> Number of items displayed: </label> <select id="rss-limit" class="no-border-panel-selector rss-limit"> <option value="5">5</option> <option value="10">10</option> <option value="15" selected="selected">15</option> <option value="20">20</option> <option value="50">50</option> <option value="100">100</option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="action-panel-actions"> <button class="action-panel-submit" type="submit" data-loading-label="Creating..." data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="save"> Create RSS </button> <button class="action-panel-cancel" aria-label="Close 'Your RSS' panel" ref="linksrc=close_rss_panel" aria-controls="rss-action-panel" aria-expanded="false" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="alert" data-ga-label="cancel"> Cancel </button> </div> <div class="action-panel-control-wrap rss-link-copy-wrap"> <label for="rss-link" class="usa-sr-only">RSS Link</label> <input placeholder="Your RSS Feed Link" type="text" name="rss-link" id="rss-link" class="rss-link" title="RSS Link"> <button type="button" disabled class="rss-link-copy-button disabled" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="rss" data-ga-label="copy"> Copy </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article-page" id="article-page" data-article-pmid="38917929"> <aside class="page-sidebar"> <div class="inner-wrap"> <div class="full-text-links"> <div class="full-view"> <h3 class="title"> Full text links </h3> <div class="full-text-links-list"> <a class="link-item dialog-focus" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031-9384(24)00164-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=fulltextorjournal_fulltext&is_pmc=False&PrId=3048&itool=Abstract-def&log$=linkouticon&uid=38917929&db=pubmed&nlmid=0151504" title="See full text options at Elsevier Science" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="Elsevier Science" data-ga-label="38917929" ><img src="https://cdn.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/corehtml/query/egifs/https:--linkinghub.elsevier.com-ihub-images-PubMedLink.gif" alt="Elsevier Science full text link"><span class="text"> Elsevier Science </span></a> </div> </div> <div class="short-view"> <a href="#" class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger"> Full text links </a> </div> </div> <div class="actions-buttons sidebar"><h3 class="title">Actions</h3><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/38917929/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/38917929/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><link type="text/css" href="ncbi-overlay-block/src/overlay-block.css"><div class="collections-button-container" data-article-id="38917929" data-article-db="pubmed"><button class="collections-button collections-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Save article in MyNCBI collections." data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_button" data-collections-open-dialog-enabled="false" data-collections-open-dialog-url="https://account.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F38917929%2F%23open-collections-dialog" data-in-collections="false"><span class="button-label">Collections</span></button><div class="overlay" role="dialog"><div id="collections-action-dialog" class="dialog collections-dialog" aria-hidden="true"><div class="title">Add to Collections</div><div class="collections-action-panel action-panel"><form id="collections-action-dialog-form" class="collections-action-panel-form action-panel-content action-form action-panel-smaller-selectors" data-existing-collections-url="/list-existing-collections/" data-add-to-existing-collection-url="/add-to-existing-collection/" data-create-and-add-to-new-collection-url="/create-and-add-to-new-collection/" data-myncbi-max-collection-name-length="100" data-collections-root-url="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/myncbi/collections/"><input type="hidden" name="csrfmiddlewaretoken" value="fqcljh8V89HHcfwX9PuRIdaAPCt6fSuRReqagJ2kVKcFjE4TDmaoyXq8WVqtmpXt"><div class="choice-group" role="radiogroup"><ul class="radio-group-items"><li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-dialog-new" class="collections-new" name="collections" value="new" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_radio_new"><label for="collections-action-dialog-new">Create a new collection</label></li><li><input type="radio" id="collections-action-dialog-existing" class="collections-existing" name="collections" value="existing" checked="true" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="click" data-ga-label="collections_radio_existing"><label for="collections-action-dialog-existing">Add to an existing collection</label></li></ul></div><div class="controls-wrapper"><div class="action-panel-control-wrap new-collections-controls"><label for="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new" class="action-panel-label required-field-asterisk"> Name your collection: </label><input type="text" name="add-to-new-collection" id="collections-action-dialog-add-to-new" class="collections-action-add-to-new" pattern="[^"&=<>\/]*" title="The following characters are not allowed in the Name field: "&=<>/" maxlength="100" data-ga-category="collections_button" data-ga-action="create_collection" data-ga-label="non_favorties_collection"><div class="collections-new-name-too-long 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Electronic address: amazlomi@tums.ac.ir." href="#full-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 2 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Nikabadi+A&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ahmad Nikabadi">Ahmad Nikabadi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Computer Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran." href="#full-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 3 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Nahvi+A&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ali Nahvi">Ali Nahvi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran." href="#full-view-affiliation-4" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 4 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Khanehshenas+F&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Farin Khanehshenas">Farin Khanehshenas</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Ergonomics, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran." href="#full-view-affiliation-5" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 5 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ebrahimian+S&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Serajeddin Ebrahimian">Serajeddin Ebrahimian</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran; Department of Technical Physics, University of Eastern Finland, 70210 Kuopio, Finland." href="#full-view-affiliation-6" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 6 </a></sup></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="short-article-details"> Affiliations <button class="more-details" id="toggle-authors" data-alt-text="Collapse" aria-controls="expanded-authors" aria-expanded="false" data-pinger-ignore data-fetch-url="/38917929/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title"> Expand </span> </button> </div> <div class="extended-article-details" id="expanded-authors" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="expanded-authors" id="full-view-expanded-authors"> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliations </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-1" id="full-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-2" id="full-view-affiliation-2" ><sup class="key">2</sup> Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Data Science, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan. Electronic address: amazlomi@tums.ac.ir.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-3" id="full-view-affiliation-3" ><sup class="key">3</sup> Computer Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-4" id="full-view-affiliation-4" ><sup class="key">4</sup> Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-5" id="full-view-affiliation-5" ><sup class="key">5</sup> Department of Ergonomics, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="full-view-affiliation-6" id="full-view-affiliation-6" ><sup class="key">6</sup> Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran; Department of Technical Physics, University of Eastern Finland, 70210 Kuopio, Finland.</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="full-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">38917929</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> <div class="short-view" id="short-view-heading"> <h1 class="heading-title"> Driver drowsiness is associated with altered facial thermal patterns: Machine learning insights from a thermal imaging approach </h1> <div class="short-citation"> <span class="authors-list"> <span class="authors-list-item "><span class="full-name">Alireza Aghamalizadeh</span><span class="citation-separator"> et al.</span></span> </span> <span class="citation-journal"> Physiol Behav<span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> <span class="date"> <time class="citation-year" datetime="2024">2024</time><span class="citation-separator">.</span> </span> </div> <div class="more-article-details-section with-display-settings"> <button class="more-article-details" id="toggle-article-details" data-alt-text="Hide details" ref="linksrc=toggle_article_details" aria-controls="full-article-details" aria-expanded="false" data-fetch-url="/38917929/long-authors/" data-id-prefix=""> <span class="title">Show details</span> </button> <div class="display-options" data-format-key="format" data-default-format-value="abstract" data-current-format-value="abstract" role="region"> <button class="trigger 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Aghamalizadeh">Alireza Aghamalizadeh</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran." href="#short-view-affiliation-1" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 1 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Mazloumi+A&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Adel Mazloumi">Adel Mazloumi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Data Science, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan. Electronic address: amazlomi@tums.ac.ir." href="#short-view-affiliation-2" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 2 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Nikabadi+A&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ahmad Nikabadi">Ahmad Nikabadi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Computer Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran." href="#short-view-affiliation-3" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 3 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Nahvi+A&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Ali Nahvi">Ali Nahvi</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran." href="#short-view-affiliation-4" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 4 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Khanehshenas+F&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Farin Khanehshenas">Farin Khanehshenas</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Department of Ergonomics, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran." href="#short-view-affiliation-5" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 5 </a></sup><span class="comma">, </span></span><span class="authors-list-item "><a class="full-name" href="/?term=Ebrahimian+S&cauthor_id=38917929" ref="linksrc=author_name_link" data-ga-category="search" data-ga-action="author_link" data-ga-label="Serajeddin Ebrahimian">Serajeddin Ebrahimian</a><sup class="affiliation-links"><span class="author-sup-separator"> </span><a class="affiliation-link" title="Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran; Department of Technical Physics, University of Eastern Finland, 70210 Kuopio, Finland." href="#short-view-affiliation-6" ref="linksrc=author_aff"> 6 </a></sup></span> </div> </div> <div class="affiliations"> <h3 class="title"> Affiliations </h3> <ul class="item-list"> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-1" id="short-view-affiliation-1" ><sup class="key">1</sup> Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-2" id="short-view-affiliation-2" ><sup class="key">2</sup> Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Data Science, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan. Electronic address: amazlomi@tums.ac.ir.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-3" id="short-view-affiliation-3" ><sup class="key">3</sup> Computer Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-4" id="short-view-affiliation-4" ><sup class="key">4</sup> Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-5" id="short-view-affiliation-5" ><sup class="key">5</sup> Department of Ergonomics, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.</li> <li data-affiliation-id="short-view-affiliation-6" id="short-view-affiliation-6" ><sup class="key">6</sup> Virtual Reality Laboratory, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran 19697-6449, Iran; Department of Technical Physics, University of Eastern Finland, 70210 Kuopio, Finland.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <ul class="identifiers" id="short-view-identifiers"> <li> <span class="identifier pubmed"> <span class="id-label"> PMID: </span> <strong class="current-id" title="PubMed ID">38917929</strong> </span> </li> <li> <span class="identifier doi"> <span class="id-label"> DOI: </span> <a class="id-link" target="_blank" rel="noopener" ref="linksrc=article_id_link&article_id=10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619&id_type=DOI" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619" data-ga-category="full_text" data-ga-action="DOI" > 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114619 </a> </span> </li> </ul> <div class="in-clipboard-label " hidden> Item in Clipboard </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="actions-buttons inline"><div class="inner-wrap"><button class="full-text-links-button full-text-links-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with full text links" ref="linksrc=full_text_links"> Full text links </button><button class="citation-button citation-dialog-trigger" aria-label="Open dialog with citation text in different styles" data-ga-category="save_share" data-ga-action="cite" data-ga-label="open" data-all-citations-url="/38917929/citations/" data-citation-style="nlm" data-pubmed-format-link="/38917929/export/"><span class="button-label">Cite</span></button><button class="more-actions-button more-actions-dialog-trigger" title="Open dialog with more actions to take" ref="linksrc=more_actions_btn"></button><div class="display-options" data-format-key="format" data-default-format-value="abstract" data-current-format-value="abstract" role="region"><button class="trigger usa-button" title="Change format" data-ga-category="display_options" data-ga-action="display_options_dialog"><span class="button-label">Display options</span></button><div class="dropdown" hidden><div class="title"> Display options </div><div class="content"><div class="format-container"><span class="option-label"> Format </span><select name="format" data-initial-value="abstract" aria-label="Display format" id="inline-actions-display-format"><option value="abstract">Abstract</option><option value="pubmed">PubMed</option><option value="pmid">PMID</option></select></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="abstract" id="abstract"> <h2 class="title"> Abstract </h2> <div class="abstract-content selected" id="eng-abstract"> <p> Driver drowsiness is a significant factor in road accidents. Thermal imaging has emerged as an effective tool for detecting drowsiness by enabling the analysis of facial thermal patterns. However, it is not clear which facial areas are most affected and correlate most strongly with drowsiness. This study examines the variations and importance of various facial areas and proposes an approach for detecting driver drowsiness. Twenty participants underwent tests in a driving simulator, and temperature changes in various facial regions were measured. The random forest method was employed to evaluate the importance of each facial region. The results revealed that temperature changes in the nasal area exhibited the highest value, while the eyes had the most correlated changes with drowsiness. Furthermore, drowsiness was classified with an accuracy of 88 % utilizing thermal variations in the facial region identified as the most important regions by the random forest feature importance model. These findings provide a comprehensive overview of facial thermal imaging for detecting driver drowsiness and introduce eye temperature as a novel and effective measure for investigating cognitive activities. </p> </div> <p> <strong class="sub-title"> Keywords: </strong> Driving behavior; Drowsiness detection; Human factors; Non-contact monitoring; Random forest. </p> </div> <p class="copyright" id="copyright"> Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc. </p> <p class="disclaimer" id="disclaimer"> <a href="/disclaimer/" target="_blank" data-ga-category="literature_resources" data-ga-action="disclaimer_link" data-ga-label="under_abstract">PubMed Disclaimer</a> </p> <div class="conflict-of-interest" id="conflict-of-interest"> <h2 class="title"> Conflict of interest statement </h2> <div class="statement"> <p xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:p1="http://pubmed.gov/pub-one">Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> </div> </div> <div class="similar-articles" id="similar"> <h2 class="title"> Similar articles </h2> <ul class="articles-list" id="similar-articles-list"> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"> <a class="docsum-title" href="/26728912/" ref="article_id=26728912&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=1" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="26728912" data-ga-label=""> Association of Subjective and Interpretive Drowsiness with Facial Dynamic Changes in Simulator Driving. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"> <span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Karchani M, Mazloumi A, NaslSaraji G, Akbarzadeh A, Niknezhad A, Ebrahimi MH, Raei M, Khandan M.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Karchani M, et al.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">J Res Health Sci. 2015 Fall;15(4):250-5.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation short-journal-citation">J Res Health Sci. 2015.</span> <span class="citation-part">PMID: <span class="docsum-pmid">26728912</span></span> </div> </div> </li> <li class="full-docsum"> <div class="docsum-content" style="display:inline;"> <a class="docsum-title" href="/34477030/" ref="article_id=34477030&linksrc=similar_articles_link&ordinalpos=2" data-ga-category="similar_article" data-ga-action="34477030" data-ga-label=""> Driver drowsiness detection using facial thermal imaging in a driving simulator. </a> <div class="docsum-citation full-citation"> <span class="docsum-authors full-authors">Tashakori M, Nahvi A, Ebrahimian Hadi Kiashari S.</span> <span class="docsum-authors short-authors">Tashakori M, et al.</span> <span class="docsum-journal-citation full-journal-citation">Proc Inst Mech Eng H. 2022 Jan;236(1):43-55. doi: 10.1177/09544119211044232. 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Driver drowsiness is associated with altered facial thermal patterns: Machine learning insights from a thermal imaging approach - PubMed