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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slavery_and_abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_and_abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Slavery and abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_and_abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-emancipation_Brazil_(1888_–_early_1900s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-emancipation_Brazil_(1888_–_early_1900s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Post-emancipation Brazil (1888 – early 1900s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-emancipation_Brazil_(1888_–_early_1900s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eugenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eugenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Eugenics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eugenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_of_racial_whitening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_of_racial_whitening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Policy of racial whitening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_of_racial_whitening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shifting_views_on_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shifting_views_on_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Shifting views on race</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Shifting_views_on_race-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Shifting views on race subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Shifting_views_on_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1910–1920s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1910–1920s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>1910–1920s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1910–1920s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1930s_to_1980s:_Brazil_as_a_"racial_democracy"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930s_to_1980s:_Brazil_as_a_"racial_democracy""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>1930s to 1980s: Brazil as a "racial democracy"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1930s_to_1980s:_Brazil_as_a_"racial_democracy"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s_to_present:_Emergence_of_a_race-conscious_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s_to_present:_Emergence_of_a_race-conscious_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>1980s to present: Emergence of a race-conscious state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s_to_present:_Emergence_of_a_race-conscious_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persisting_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persisting_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Persisting inequality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persisting_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies_on_racialized_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies_on_racialized_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Studies on racialized violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies_on_racialized_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Skin color based discrimination in Brazil</div> <p> Racism has been present in Brazil since its <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">colonial period</a> and is pointed as one of the major and most widespread types of <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>, if not the most, in the country by several anthropologists, sociologists, jurists, historians and others.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The myth of a <a href="/wiki/Racial_democracy" title="Racial democracy">racial democracy</a>, a term originally coined by Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilberto_Freyre" title="Gilberto Freyre">Gilberto Freyre</a> in his 1933 work <i><a href="/wiki/Casa-Grande_%26_Senzala" title="Casa-Grande & Senzala">Casa-Grande & Senzala</a></i> (The Masters and the Slaves), is used by many people in the country to deny or downplay the existence and the broad extension of racism in Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racism has been made illegal under <a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_laws_in_Brazil#Penal_Code" title="Anti-discrimination laws in Brazil">Brazil's anti-discrimination laws</a>, which were passed in the 1950s after <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Dunham" title="Katherine Dunham">Katherine Dunham</a>, an African-American dancer touring Brazil, was barred from a hotel.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, race has been the subject of multiple intense debates over the years within the country. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_of_race_in_Brazil">Definition of race in Brazil</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition of race in Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_Brazil" title="Race and ethnicity in Brazil">Race and Ethnicity in Brazil</a></div> <p>Because the country has a long history of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a>, color lines in Brazil have long been blurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk2016_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, more and more people see themselves as Black and seek to reclaim their Blackness due to the <a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> movements.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_census" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazilian census">Brazilian census</a> organizes the population into five, albeit imperfect, racial groups. These are <i>branco</i> (white), <i>preto</i> (black), <i>pardo</i> (brown, or multi-racial), <i>amarelo</i> (yellow, or Asian), and <i>indígena</i> (indigenous). Because there was never a legal genetic definition for these categories, throughout history, each of these racial groups has been defined in different ways. Racial classification in Brazilian society is often inconsistent and influenced by a myriad of factors including: class, status, education, location and <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk2016_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a light-skinned multiracial person who held an important, well-paying position in society may be considered <i>branco</i> while someone else with the same <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenetic</a> make up who had darker skin or was of a lower class may be considered <i>pardo</i> or even <i>preto</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_and_abolition">Slavery and abolition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Slavery and abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a></div> <p>Soon after the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese</a> began to settle in Brazil in the year 1500, they began to enslave the indigenous population in order to sustain their growing sugar economy. However, European induced wars and disease quickly began to deplete the indigenous populations and Portuguese colonizers soon looked to Africa to satisfy their labor demands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200624_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200624-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the slave trade in 1850, the Brazilian colony had imported an estimated four million slaves from Africa, the largest number of any other country in the Americas and seven times more than what was imported to the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slavery brought with it dehumanization of Africans and a multitude of negative stereotypes that set the stage for a racial hierarchy in Brazil where blacks and those of African descent would become the subservient class to whites. </p><p>Along with being the largest importer of Africans during the slave trade, Brazil was also the last country in the Americas to eradicate slavery. Calls for the end of slavery in Brazil began in the early 19th century. In 1825, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada" class="mw-redirect" title="José Bonifácio de Andrada">José Bonifácio Andrada e Silva</a>, who was a prominent figure in leading Brazil to independence from Portugal, was in high favor of gradual emancipation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain also contributed to the push for abolition in Brazil, by abolishing the slave trade. This was a significant move due to the fact that the British was Brazil's main trade partner. A small amount of legislation also helped lead up to the official abolition of slavery in 1888. First, in 1871 the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Branco_Law" title="Rio Branco Law">Law of the Free Womb</a> declared that all the children of slaves that were born after the law was passed were to be freed; followed by the 1885 Sexagenarian Law, which freed slaves over sixty years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lei_%C3%81urea_(Golden_Law).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Lei_%C3%81urea_%28Golden_Law%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8499" data-file-height="11161" /></a><figcaption>The Golden Law. <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_National_Archives" title="Brazilian National Archives">National Archives of Brazil.</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A large contributor to the lengthy abolition process in Brazil was in part due to the dynamics of the royal family. By the 1870s, the last emperor, Pedro II had only one surviving child, the princess Isabel.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to her gender and her marriage to a foreigner, Isabel had trouble gaining support, despite having twice served as regent during her father's reign. During her brief time as regent, she took small measures to abolish slavery. Due to the obstacles she faced, she had to appoint an entirely new cabinet in order to completely abolish slavery. She succeeded, and the abolition of slavery was referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Golden Law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-emancipation_Brazil_(1888_–_early_1900s)"><span id="Post-emancipation_Brazil_.281888_.E2.80.93_early_1900s.29"></span>Post-emancipation Brazil (1888 – early 1900s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-emancipation Brazil (1888 – early 1900s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The abolition of slavery in Brazil meant the end of legal <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> between blacks and whites. However, racism did not die with the abolition of slavery. The racial hierarchies put in place by slavery stood strong after abolition. There was no period of "<a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction (United States)">reconstruction</a>" such as that which was instituted in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, newly freed black Brazilians were left to create a life for themselves out of nothing—no land, money, or education. This disadvantaged state left the country with massive amounts of inequality between whites and non-whites. Because of this, the conversation about race in Brazil became closely intertwined with conversations about poverty and class. </p><p>Though there were no laws directly targeting those of African descent on the basis of race, there were laws that were put in place that created inequality between whites and blacks. For example, when Brazil first became a republic in 1889, voting was restricted to only literate men, which barred the majority of the black population from voting since there were large inequities in education after the abolition of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to this, there was a redefining of crime that criminalized many aspects of African culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eugenics">Eugenics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Eugenics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, fear began to spread among the elite classes about how Brazil's early history of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a> would affect its development.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This fear, in combination with the growing popularity of using <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> to explain racial differences, led to the growth of different forms of pseudoscientific racism and, particularly, <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> in Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European critics had long criticized Brazil's racially diverse society for its lack of "<a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">racial purity</a>". Eugenics of the time suggested that blacks were inferior, and mulattoes were "degenerate," putting Brazil's large black and mixed populations in question.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, it was thought that tropical climates, like Brazil's, hindered a country's development.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One French eugenicist, Count <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a>, attacked Brazil saying that racial mixing in the country had affected every stratosphere of class making the entire country "lazy, ugly and infertile."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200626_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200626-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These thoughts began to spark fear among Brazil's elite who sought to use ideas of eugenics to better the country's economic standing. One anthropologist who adopted eugenic thought, Raimundo Nina Rodrigues, began to become concerned with the racial mixing occurring in Brazil. He conducted a 'study' on people of African origin in Brazil and found that the ethnic group was "unequivocally inferior."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200626_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200626-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He advocated for separate criminal laws by race and that blacks be subject to separate laws because they were not free to choose crime because of their diminished capacities. However, Rodrigues himself was mixed race and expressed confusion about the status of mixed race individuals in the racial hierarchy. To counter this, he proposed the creation of several categories to express the spectrum of mixed people going from superior to ordinary, to degenerate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200627_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200627-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In the end, eugenics in Brazil never took on as strong as it did in Europe or North America. Some attribute the pseudoscience's limited success to the fact that Brazil already had a very large mixed-race population. Nina Rodrigues' confusion about how racial superiority works outside of a racial binary demonstrates this thought. Even at the time slavery was abolished in 1888, 6 percent of all marriages were interracial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200624_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200624-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that, at some level, racial barriers had already been broken down, making it difficult to institute hardline eugenics policies like <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> or racial <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">sterilization</a>. Others argue that the large presence of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Brazil" title="Catholic Church in Brazil">Catholicism</a> in Brazil may have saved the country from harsher racial policies.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p><i>"The broad influence of Catholicism in Brazil and the rest of Latin America constrained eugenicists' interventions in discussions on marriage restrictions and human reproduction. In the eyes of Catholic intellectuals, these were matters of a moral and religious nature and as such not open to political or medical intervention; this kept them from making any more radical proposals such as eugenic sterilization."</i><sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (From: Sebastião de Souza, Vanderlei (December 2016). "Brazilian Eugenics and Its International Connections: an Analysis Based on the Controversies between Renato Kehl and Edgard Roquette-Pinto, 1920–1930")</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Policy_of_racial_whitening">Policy of racial whitening</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Policy of racial whitening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racial_whitening" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial whitening">Racial whitening</a></div> <p>Racial whitening, or "whitening" (branqueamento), is an ideology that was widely accepted in Brazil between 1889 and 1914,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the solution to the "Negro problem".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amidst discussions of eugenics and the country's demographics hindering its development, the first Brazilian Republic decided to institute a policy of "whitening" wherein it would try to dilute the black population and drive out all signs of African culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was done by incentives encouraging immigrants from Europe to come and skew demographics along with suppression of African and Indigenous culture all in an effort to erase the presence of blacks from Brazil. The policy lasted until 1910 and because of it the percentage of whites in Brazil jumped from 34 percent in 1870 to 64 percent in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200632_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200632-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The idea of racial whitening has become such a prevalent idea that Spanish artist <a href="/wiki/Modesto_Brocos" title="Modesto Brocos">Modesto Brocos</a> painted <i>A Redenção de Cam</i> (Cam's Redemption). The work addressed the controversial racial policy based on eugenics and depicted the phenomenon of gradual whitening of the population over generations.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shifting_views_on_race">Shifting views on race</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Shifting views on race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1910–1920s"><span id="1910.E2.80.931920s"></span>1910–1920s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1910–1920s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The end of European immigration in 1910 meant the resurfacing of fears among Brazil elite about the "blackening" of the Brazilian population.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suggestions about increasing immigration of Afro- North Americans sparked contentious debates inside and outside of the eugenics community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200627_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200627-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such person who was troubled by this idea was eugenicist Renato Khel. Khel was influenced by aggressive eugenics policies that were being used in Germany and advocated for similar policies in Brazil, such as the sterilization of degenerates and criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200632_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200632-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the majority of the Brazilian population, including those within the eugenics community, were beginning to see miscegenation as a path to racial harmony. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s_to_1980s:_Brazil_as_a_"racial_democracy""><span id="1930s_to_1980s:_Brazil_as_a_.22racial_democracy.22"></span>1930s to 1980s: Brazil as a "racial democracy"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1930s to 1980s: Brazil as a "racial democracy""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racial_democracy" title="Racial democracy">Racial Democracy</a></div> <p>As Brazilian society drew farther and farther away from ideas of racial purity, <a href="/wiki/Gilberto_Freyre" title="Gilberto Freyre">Gilberto Freye</a> popularized the idea of Brazil as a racial democracy in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Casa-Grande_%26_Senzala" title="Casa-Grande & Senzala">The Masters and the Slaves</a></i>. Freye's book transformed the idea of miscegenation into a positive part of Brazilian culture and national identity and it became widely accepted that Brazil's history of intermixing between races had rendered the country a post-racial society, as it would come to be hailed for many years to come.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly, the idea of racial democracy became central dogma to the <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_Brazil" title="Military dictatorship in Brazil">military governments of 1964–1985</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200640_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200640-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it was in power, the military preferred to think of race as a non-issue and pushed the idea of a unified identity among all Brazilians in order to quell resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200641_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200641-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During military rule, racial democracy became a consensus among almost all Brazilians. The idea became so popular that the mentioning of race would become taboo and bringing up issues of race was deemed as racist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200641_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200641-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some argue that the long consensus of Brazil as a racial democracy was what prevented the country from dealing with issues of race. In her article "From 'Racial Democracy' to Affirmative Action" <a href="/wiki/Mala_Htun" title="Mala Htun">Mala Htun</a> argues that the unwillingness of the Brazilian government to define race prevented Afro-Brazilian rights organizations from forming and limited the group's political power.<sup id="cite_ref-Htun2004_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Htun2004-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She also argues that refusing to acknowledge race created inaction that allowed for racism to continue.<sup id="cite_ref-Htun2004_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Htun2004-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s_to_present:_Emergence_of_a_race-conscious_state">1980s to present: Emergence of a race-conscious state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1980s to present: Emergence of a race-conscious state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The common narrative of Brazil as a racial democracy persisted until the 1990s. In 1985, <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_Brazil" title="Military dictatorship in Brazil">military rule</a> officially ended and the year marked the beginning of re-democratization. The public greatly influenced the writing of the 1988 constitution and black rights organization successfully petitioned for the inclusion of an anti-racist clause that would make racism a punishable offense. In the 1990s, with the reintroduction of democratic systems, the use of NGOs and international organizations brought color consciousness and issues of persisting racial inequality to the forefront of national discussions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles200652_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles200652-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the 2001 <a href="/wiki/World_Conference_against_Racism_2001" title="World Conference against Racism 2001">Durban conference</a> (World Conference on Racism) attracted large amounts of attention to existing racial inequality.<sup id="cite_ref-Htun2004_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Htun2004-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue stayed on the front page of national newspapers for months and even prompted comments from the president. In 2003, President Luiz Lula made race a central issue of his presidency and the government began to initiate affirmative action programs.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="box-Undue_weight_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>. Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:STRUCTURE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:STRUCTURE">create a more balanced presentation</a>. Discuss and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution" title="Wikipedia:Dispute resolution">resolve</a> this issue before removing this message. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2018</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persisting_inequality">Persisting inequality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Persisting inequality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Brazilians still think that race impacts life in their country. A research article published in 2011 indicated that 63.7% of <a href="/wiki/Brazilians" title="Brazilians">Brazilians</a> believe that <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">race</a> interferes with the <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>, 59% believe it makes a difference at work, and 68.3% in questions related to police justice. According to Ivanir dos Santos (the former Justice Ministry's specialist on race affairs), "There is a hierarchy of skin color: where blacks, mixed race and dark skinned people are expected to know their place in society."<sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although 54% of the population is black or has black ancestry, they represented only 24% of the 513 chosen representatives the legislature as of 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many decades, discussions of inequality in Brazil largely ignored the disproportionate correlation between race and class. Under the racial democracy thesis, it was assumed that any disparity in wealth between white and non-white Brazilians was due to the legacy of slavery and broader issues of inequality and lack of economic mobility in the country. The general consensus was that the problem would fix itself given enough time. This hypothesis was examined in 1982 by sociologist José Pastore in his book <i>Social Mobility in Brazil</i>. In his book, Pastore examines the 1973 household survey and compares the income and occupations of father-son pairs. Based on his findings, he concluded that the level of economic mobility in Brazil should have been enough to overcome inequality left from slavery had opportunities been available equally.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racial inequality is seen primarily through lower levels of education and income for non-whites than whites.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk2016_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic inequality is most dramatically seen in the near absence of non-whites from the upper levels of Brazil's income bracket. According to sociologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Telles" title="Edward Telles">Edward Telles</a>, whites are five times more likely to be earning in the highest income bracket (more than $2,000/month).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETelles2006110_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETelles2006110-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, The salary of Whites in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> are, on average, 46% over the salary of Blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, racial discrimination in education is a well documented phenomenon in Brazil. Ellis Monk, Professor of sociology at Harvard University, found that one unit of darkness in a student's skin corresponds to a 26 percent lower chance of the student receiving more education as compared to lighter-skinned students.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk2016_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, a study on racial bias in teacher evaluations in Brazil found that Brazilian math teachers gave better grading assessments of white students than equally proficient and equivalently well-behaved black students.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Quality of Life Indicators vs. Race</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#87CEFA; color:white">Indicators </th> <th style="background:#87CEFA; color:white">White Brazilian </th> <th style="background:#87CEFA; color:white">Black & Multiracial Brazilian </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Illiteracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiteracy">Illiteracy</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>3.4% </td> <td>7.4% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">University degree</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>15.0% </td> <td>4.7% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">Life expectancy</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>76 </td> <td>73 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>6.8% </td> <td>11.3% </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">Average annual income</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>R$37,188 </td> <td>R$21,168 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Homicide_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Homicide rate">Homicide deaths</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>29% </td> <td>65.5% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Studies_on_racialized_violence">Studies on racialized violence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Studies on racialized violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the ongoing questions surrounding race in Brazil, there have been various studies of violence in the country and whether race was a contributing or main factor in these crimes. One particular study looked at a series of <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicides</a> that occurred in Brazil, spanning from 2000 to 2009. The statistics were obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_Medical_Data_System" title="Mortality Medical Data System">Mortality Information System</a>, which looked at <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">race</a>/<a href="/wiki/Skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin color">skin color</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> as explanatory variables for potential causes of racialized killings. In the discussion section, the authors suggested that anti-gun legislation in Brazil has yielded different outcomes among Brazil's population due to race or color. The risk of death by homicide in the white population declined during the period studied. In the black population, the risk of being victimized based on race increased regardless of gender, even after gun control measures took place over the studied period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the overall homicide rate registered in Brazil has been rising, the number of homicides per 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Afro-Brazilians" title="Afro-Brazilians">Preto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pardo_Brazilians" title="Pardo Brazilians">Pardo Brazilians</a> also increased from 32.42 in 2006 to 43.15 in 2017, whereas the number of homicides per 100,000 for <a href="/wiki/White_Brazilians" title="White Brazilians">white</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asian_Brazilians" title="Asian Brazilians">Asian Brazilians</a> has decreased from 17.12 in 2006 to 15.97 recorded in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study determined that in 2008, 111.2% more blacks died proportionally than whites in Brazil. The disparity is especially pronounced among young adults between 15 and 24 years of age. Among whites, the number of murders fell from 6,592 to 4,582 between 2002 and 2008, a difference of 30%. Meanwhile, the murders of young black men rose from 11,308 to 12,749—an increase of 13%. In 2008, 127.6% more young black men died proportionately than whites. Ten years earlier, this difference was 39%. In the state of <a href="/wiki/Para%C3%ADba" title="Paraíba">Paraíba</a> in 2008, 1083% more blacks died than whites. In the state of <a href="/wiki/Alagoas" title="Alagoas">Alagoas</a>, 974.8% more blacks died than whites. In 11 states, this ratio exceeds 200%.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Brazil" title="Human rights in Brazil">Human rights in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-abolition_in_Brazil" title="Post-abolition in Brazil">Post-abolition in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_Brazil" title="Race and ethnicity in Brazil">Race and ethnicity in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_democracy" title="Racial democracy">Racial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_whitening" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial whitening">Racial whitening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_apartheid_in_Brazil" title="Social apartheid in Brazil">Social apartheid in Brazil</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ag%C3%AAncia+Brasil&rft.atitle=Desemprego+%C3%A9+maior+entre+mulheres+e+negros%2C+diz+IBGE&rft.date=2023-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fagenciabrasil.ebc.com.br%2Feconomia%2Fnoticia%2F2023-05%2Fdesemprego-e-maior-entre-mulheres-e-negros-diz-ibge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/radioagencia-nacional/geral/audio/2022-11/ibge-renda-media-de-trabalhador-branco-e-757-maior-que-de-pretos">"IBGE: renda média de trabalhador branco é 75,7% maior que de pretos"</a>. <i>Agência Brasil</i> (in Brazilian Portuguese). 11 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ag%C3%AAncia+Brasil&rft.atitle=IBGE%3A+renda+m%C3%A9dia+de+trabalhador+branco+%C3%A9+75%2C7%25+maior+que+de+pretos&rft.date=2022-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fagenciabrasil.ebc.com.br%2Fradioagencia-nacional%2Fgeral%2Faudio%2F2022-11%2Fibge-renda-media-de-trabalhador-branco-e-757-maior-que-de-pretos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opopular.com.br/economia/brancos-recebem-cerca-de-70-a-mais-do-que-pretos-e-pardos-por-hora-de-trabalho-1.2559096">"Brancos recebem cerca de 70% a mais do que pretos e pardos por hora de trabalho"</a>. <i>O Popular</i> (in Brazilian Portuguese). 11 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=O+Popular&rft.atitle=Brancos+recebem+cerca+de+70%25+a+mais+do+que+pretos+e+pardos+por+hora+de+trabalho&rft.date=2022-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopopular.com.br%2Feconomia%2Fbrancos-recebem-cerca-de-70-a-mais-do-que-pretos-e-pardos-por-hora-de-trabalho-1.2559096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/colunas/54059/mais+de+65%25+dos+assassinados+no+brasil+sao+negros.shtml">http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/colunas/54059/mais+de+65%25+dos+assassinados+no+brasil+sao+negros.shtml</a> Homicide rate in Brazil (2009) <span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span>]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoares_Filho2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Soares Filho, Adauto Martins (August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS0034-89102011005000045">"Vitimização por homicídios segundo características de raça no Brasil"</a> [Victimización por homicidios según características de raza en Brasil]. <i>Revista de Saúde Pública</i> (in Portuguese). <b>45</b> (4): 745–755. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS0034-89102011005000045">10.1590/S0034-89102011005000045</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21739076">21739076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Sa%C3%BAde+P%C3%BAblica&rft.atitle=Vitimiza%C3%A7%C3%A3o+por+homic%C3%ADdios+segundo+caracter%C3%ADsticas+de+ra%C3%A7a+no+Brasil&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=745-755&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2FS0034-89102011005000045&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21739076&rft.aulast=Soares+Filho&rft.aufirst=Adauto+Martins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252FS0034-89102011005000045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/867757/homicide-rate-brazil-ethnicity/">"Homicide rate in Brazil by ethnicity"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homicide+rate+in+Brazil+by+ethnicity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statista.com%2Fstatistics%2F867757%2Fhomicide-rate-brazil-ethnicity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/impresso,1-branco-e-morto-no-pais-para-cada-2-negros,683821,0.htm">For every death of a white person in Brazil, 2 black people die <span class="languageicon">(in Portuguese)</span></a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelles2006" class="citation book cs1">Telles, Edward E. (2006). <i>Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12792-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12792-7"><bdi>978-0-691-12792-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+in+Another+America%3A+The+Significance+of+Skin+Color+in+Brazil&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12792-7&rft.aulast=Telles&rft.aufirst=Edward+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+Brazil" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hendric Kraay, <i><a href="/wiki/Race,_State,_and_Armed_Forces_in_Independence-Era_Brazil" title="Race, State, and Armed Forces in Independence-Era Brazil">Race, State, and Armed Forces in Independence-Era Brazil: Bahia 1790s to 1840s</a>.</i> Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001.</li> <li>Elizabeth Hordge-Freeman. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Color_of_Love:_Racial_Features,_Stigma,_and_Socialization_in_Black_Brazilian_Families" class="mw-redirect" title="The Color of Love: Racial Features, Stigma, and Socialization in Black Brazilian Families">The Color of Love: Racial Features, Stigma, and Socialization in Black Brazilian Families</a></i>. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2015.</li> <li>Edward Telles. <i><a href="/wiki/Pigmentocracies" title="Pigmentocracies">Pigmentocracies: Ethnicity, Race, & Color in Latin America</a></i>. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1783-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-1783-1">978-1-4696-1783-1</a></li> <li>France Winddance Twine. <i><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_a_Racial_Democracy" title="Racism in a Racial Democracy">Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil</a></i>. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813523651" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813523651">978-0813523651</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Brazil&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lostsambablog.com/2013/06/13/racism-in-brazil/">Insight into Brazilian Racism</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism_in_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Racism in the Americas</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign<br />states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Colombia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Colombia (page does not exist)">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Cuba" title="Racism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Racism in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Haiti (page does not exist)">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Paraguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Paraguay (page does not exist)">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Peru" title="Racism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Suriname&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Suriname (page does not exist)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Racism in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Venezuela" title="Racism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Territory" title="Territory">territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Racism in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a></b></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Central_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Central America (page does not exist)">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism_in_South_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:South_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:South America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">Racism in South America </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Colombia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Colombia (page does not exist)">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Paraguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Paraguay (page does not exist)">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Peru" title="Racism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Suriname&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Suriname (page does not exist)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Venezuela" title="Racism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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