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aria-controls="toc-Textual_evidence_for_the_Saxon_arrival-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Textual evidence for the Saxon arrival subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Textual_evidence_for_the_Saxon_arrival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gildas'_De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gildas'_De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gildas'_De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bede's_Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bede's_Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bede's_Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_concerning_the_early_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_concerning_the_early_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Evidence concerning the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evidence_concerning_the_early_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evidence concerning the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evidence_concerning_the_early_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tribal_Hideage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_Hideage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Tribal Hideage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tribal_Hideage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King-lists_and_the_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King-lists_and_the_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 King-lists and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King-lists_and_the_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Linguistic evidence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Linguistic_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Linguistic evidence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twenty-first-century_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-first-century_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Twenty-first-century research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-first-century_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elite_personal_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elite_personal_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Elite personal names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elite_personal_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Archaeological evidence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Archaeological evidence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Understanding_the_Roman_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Understanding_the_Roman_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Understanding the Roman legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Understanding_the_Roman_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Settler_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settler_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Settler evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Settler_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tribal_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tribal_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Tribal characteristics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tribal_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reuse_of_earlier_monuments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reuse_of_earlier_monuments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Reuse of earlier monuments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reuse_of_earlier_monuments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landscape_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landscape_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Landscape archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landscape_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_of_settlements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_of_settlements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Distribution of settlements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_of_settlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cemetery_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cemetery_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Cemetery evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cemetery_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Molecular evidence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Molecular_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Molecular evidence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Molecular_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_whole_genome_DNA_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_whole_genome_DNA_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ancient whole genome DNA studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_whole_genome_DNA_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_population_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_population_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Modern population studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_population_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isotope_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isotope_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Isotope analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isotope_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Y-chromosome_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Y-chromosome_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Y-chromosome evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Y-chromosome_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_and_acculturation_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_and_acculturation_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Migration and acculturation theories </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Migration_and_acculturation_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Migration and acculturation theories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Migration_and_acculturation_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estimating_continental_migrants'_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimating_continental_migrants'_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Estimating continental migrants' numbers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimating_continental_migrants'_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saxon_political_ascendancy_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saxon_political_ascendancy_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Saxon political ascendancy in Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saxon_political_ascendancy_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romano-Britons'_fate_in_the_south-east" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romano-Britons'_fate_in_the_south-east"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Romano-Britons' fate in the south-east </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romano-Britons'_fate_in_the_south-east-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_variation_in_settlement_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_variation_in_settlement_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Regional variation in settlement patterns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_variation_in_settlement_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspects_of_the_success_of_the_Anglo-Saxon_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspects_of_the_success_of_the_Anglo-Saxon_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Aspects of the success of the Anglo-Saxon settlement </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aspects_of_the_success_of_the_Anglo-Saxon_settlement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aspects of the success of the Anglo-Saxon settlement subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aspects_of_the_success_of_the_Anglo-Saxon_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anglo-Saxon_political_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-Saxon_political_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Anglo-Saxon political formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-Saxon_political_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rural_freedoms_and_kinship_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural_freedoms_and_kinship_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Rural freedoms and kinship groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural_freedoms_and_kinship_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Material culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Material_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_of_belief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_of_belief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Culture of belief </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture_of_belief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Archaeology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" > 24 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="الاستيطان الأنجلوسكسوني في بريطانيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاستيطان الأنجلوسكسوني في بريطانيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3_anglosaxona_de_la_Gran_Bretanya" title="Invasió anglosaxona de la Gran Bretanya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Invasió anglosaxona de la Gran Bretanya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelsaksisk_bos%C3%A6ttelse_i_Storbritannien" title="Angelsaksisk bosættelse i Storbritannien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Angelsaksisk bosættelse i Storbritannien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Αγγλοσαξονικός εποικισμός της Βρετανίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αγγλοσαξονικός εποικισμός της Βρετανίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3n_anglosajona_de_Gran_Breta%C3%B1a" title="Invasión anglosajona de Gran Bretaña – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invasión anglosajona de Gran Bretaña" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%88-%D8%B3%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="اسکان آنگلو-ساکسون‌ها در بریتانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسکان آنگلو-ساکسون‌ها در بریتانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonisation_de_la_Grande-Bretagne_par_les_Anglo-Saxons" title="Colonisation de la Grande-Bretagne par les Anglo-Saxons – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Colonisation de la Grande-Bretagne par les Anglo-Saxons" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%B5%EA%B8%80%EB%A1%9C%EC%83%89%EC%8A%A8%EC%9D%B8%EC%9D%98_%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%ED%83%80%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%95%EC%B0%A9" title="앵글로색슨인의 브리타니아 정착 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="앵글로색슨인의 브리타니아 정착" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%B8-%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Անգլո-սաքսոնական նվաճումներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անգլո-սաքսոնական նվաճումներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglosasko_naseljavanje_Britanije" title="Anglosasko naseljavanje Britanije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Anglosasko naseljavanje Britanije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonisasi_Britania_Raya_oleh_Anglo-Saxon" title="Kolonisasi Britania Raya oleh Anglo-Saxon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kolonisasi Britania Raya oleh Anglo-Saxon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasione_anglosassone_della_Britannia" title="Invasione anglosassone della Britannia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Invasione anglosassone della Britannia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#8FBC8F">This article is part of the series:</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#8FBC8F"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons#Culture" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon society and culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/150px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/225px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg/300px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="925" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">People</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Anglo-Saxon_society" title="Women in Anglo-Saxon society">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Language</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Material culture</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_in_Early_Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Burial in Early Anglo-Saxon England">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England">Coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_dress" title="Anglo-Saxon dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_glass" title="Anglo-Saxon glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_weaponry" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon weaponry">Weaponry</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Power and organization</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">Charters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Government in Anglo-Saxon England">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_monarchs_and_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Anglo-Saxon monarchs and kingdoms">Monarchs and kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fyrd" title="Fyrd">Military</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#8FBC8F"> Religion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Paganism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Anglo-Saxon_society" title="Template:Anglo-Saxon society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anglo-Saxon_society" title="Template talk:Anglo-Saxon society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anglo-Saxon_society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anglo-Saxon society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain. For later historical events in Anglo-Saxon England, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation)">Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anglo-Saxon_invasions_and_the_founding_of_England" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Anglo-Saxon_invasions" title="Template:Campaignbox Anglo-Saxon invasions"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Anglo-Saxon_invasions" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Anglo-Saxon invasions"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Anglo-Saxon_invasions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Anglo-Saxon invasions"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anglo-Saxon_invasions_and_the_founding_of_England" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Saxon invasions and the founding of England</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_conflict_in_Anglo-Saxon_Britain" title="Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groans_of_the_Britons" title="Groans of the Britons">Groans of the Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guoloph" title="Battle of Guoloph">Guoloph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aylesford" title="Battle of Aylesford">Aylesford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treason_of_the_Long_Knives" title="Treason of the Long Knives">Treason of the Long Knives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wippedesfleot" title="Battle of Wippedesfleot">Wippedesfleot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mercredesburne" title="Battle of Mercredesburne">Mercredesburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badon" title="Battle of Badon">Badon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beran_Byrig" title="Battle of Beran Byrig">Beranburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alclud_Ford" title="Battle of Alclud Ford">Alclud Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Argoed_Llwyfain" title="Battle of Argoed Llwyfain">Argoed Llwyfain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Deorham" title="Battle of Deorham">Deorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Woden%27s_Burg_(592)" title="Battle of Woden's Burg (592)">1st Wodensburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raith" title="Battle of Raith">Raith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Catraeth" title="Battle of Catraeth">Catraeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Degsastan" title="Battle of Degsastan">Degsastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Chester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cirencester" title="Battle of Cirencester">Cirencester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cefn_Digoll" title="Battle of Cefn Digoll">Cefn Digoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Exeter_(c._630)" title="Siege of Exeter (c. 630)">Caer-Uisc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hatfield_Chase" title="Battle of Hatfield Chase">Hatfield Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heavenfield" title="Battle of Heavenfield">Heavenfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maserfield" title="Battle of Maserfield">Maserfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Winwaed" title="Battle of the Winwaed">Winwaed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peonnum" title="Battle of Peonnum">Peonnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Two_Rivers" title="Battle of Two Rivers">Two Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trent" title="Battle of the Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dun_Nechtain" title="Battle of Dun Nechtain">Nechtansmere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Woden%27s_Burg_(715)" title="Battle of Woden's Burg (715)">2nd Wodensburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hehil" title="Battle of Hehil">Hehil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pencon" title="Battle of Pencon">Pencon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hereford" title="Battle of Hereford">Hereford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otford_(776)" title="Battle of Otford (776)">Otford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bensington" title="Battle of Bensington">Bensington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ellandun" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ellandun">Ellandun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hingston_Down" title="Battle of Hingston Down">Hingston Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan%27s_invasion_of_Scotland" title="Æthelstan's invasion of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh" title="Battle of Brunanburh">Brunanburh</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The settlement of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> by diverse <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> led to the development of a new Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a> and shared <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, which was most closely related to <a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. The first Germanic speakers to settle permanently are likely to have been soldiers recruited by the Roman administration, possibly already in the fourth century or earlier. In the early fifth century, after the <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">end of Roman rule in Britain</a> and the breakdown of the Roman economy, larger numbers arrived and their impact upon local culture and politics increased. Many questions remain about the scale, timing and nature of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> settlements, and also about what happened to the previous residents of what is now England. The available evidence includes not only the scant written record, which tells of a period of violence, but also the archaeological and genetic information. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/British_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="British Celtic">British Celtic</a> languages had very little impact on Old English vocabulary, and this suggests that a large number of Germanic-speakers became important relatively suddenly. On the basis of such evidence it has even been argued that large parts of what is now England were cleared of prior inhabitants. However, a view that gained support in the late 20th century suggests that the migration involved relatively few individuals, possibly centred on a warrior elite, who popularized a non-Roman identity after the downfall of Roman institutions. This hypothesis suggests a large-scale <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a> of natives to the incoming language and <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. In support of this, archaeologists have found that, despite evidence of violent disruption, settlement patterns and land use show many continuities with the Romano-British past, despite profound changes in material culture.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> A major genetic study in 2022 which used DNA samples from different periods and regions demonstrated that there was significant immigration from the area in or near what is now northwestern Germany, and also that these immigrants intermarried with local Britons. These studies indicate that in both the early medieval period and the modern period there were large regional variations, with the genetic impact of immigration highest in the east and declining towards the west. This evidence supports a theory of large-scale migration of both men and women, beginning in the Roman period and increasing in the early medieval period until the 8th century. This sits alongside evidence of rapid acculturation, with early medieval individuals of both local or migrant ancestry being buried near each other in the same new ways. One of the few written accounts of the period is by <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, who wrote in the early 6th century. His account influenced later works which became more elaborate and detailed, but which cannot be relied upon for this early period. He reported that a major conflict was triggered some generations before him, after a group of foreign <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> was invited by the <a href="/wiki/Romano-British" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-British">Romano-British</a> leadership to help defend against raids from the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scots</a>. After a long war, he reported that the Romano-British recovered control. Peace was restored, but Britain was now ruled by tyrants. It had internal conflicts instead of conflicts with foreigners, but because of foreigners it was still difficult for Britons to travel to some parts of England and Wales. He gives no other information about Saxons or other Germanic people before or after this specific conflict. No other local written records survive until much later. By the time of <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, more than a century after Gildas, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had come to dominate most of what is now modern England. Bede and other later Welsh and Anglo-Saxon authors apparently believed that the kingdoms of their time had always been distinctly Anglo-Saxon. However, many modern historians believe that the development of Anglo-Saxon culture and identity, and even its kingdoms, involved not only Germanic immigrants but also local British people and kingdoms. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Roman_Britain_and_the_Saxons">Late Roman Britain and the Saxons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Late Roman Britain and the Saxons">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule in Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/200px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/300px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg/400px-End.of.Roman.rule.in.Britain.383.410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2582" data-file-height="3220" /></a><figcaption>Britain, 383–410<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></figcaption></figure> Although it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe, the culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> In 400, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a> had long been part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The imperial government and military forces had been divided by internal conflicts several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine "III"</a>. However, there was an overall continuity and interconnectedness. Before 400, the Roman sources used the term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems on the coasts of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_shore" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon shore">Saxon shore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> The homeland of these Saxon raiders was not clearly described in surviving sources, but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Rhine" title="Lower Rhine">Lower Rhine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a> soldiers from these same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013218-6">[5]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Chronica_Gallica_of_452" title="Chronica Gallica of 452">Chronica Gallica of 452</a>, a chronicle written in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This was only a few years after Constantine "III" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. Although the rebellion was eventually quashed, the Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled their Roman officials during this period, and never again re-joined the Roman empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313-7">[6]</a> Writing in the mid-sixth century, <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> states that after the overthrow of Constantine "III" in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants".<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, but also the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a> of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Germanus_of_Auxerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Germanus of Auxerre">Saint Germanus of Auxerre</a> claims that he helped command a defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430 the archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454 <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, writing some generations later, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Aetius" title="Flavius Aetius">Aëtius</a> in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named "proud tyrant" subsequently invited Saxons to Britain to help defend it from the Picts and Scots. Gildas recounts how these Saxons, initially stationed in the east, claimed that the British were not providing sufficient monthly supplies, and eventually overran the whole country. "After a certain length of time the cruel robbers returned to their home." (Tempore igitur interveniente aliquanto, cum recessissent domum crudelissimi praedones.)<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> The British then united successfully under <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius_Aurelianus" title="Ambrosius Aurelianus">Ambrosius Aurelianus</a>, and struck back. Historian Nick Higham calls this the "War of the Saxon Federates". It ended after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badon" title="Battle of Badon">siege at 'Mons Badonicus'</a>. (The price of peace, Higham argues, was a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Higham,_Nick_1995-10">[9]</a>) Gildas did not report the year of this invitation. Possibly referring to some phase in these same events, the <a href="/wiki/Chronica_Gallica_of_452" title="Chronica Gallica of 452">Chronica Gallica of 452</a> records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule." However, Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that these soldiers arrived only in 449, and he named the "proud tyrant" as <a href="/wiki/Vortigern" title="Vortigern">Vortigern</a>. Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned. For example, he reports St Germanus coming to Britain after this conflict began, although he would have been dead by then.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313–15,_185–186,_246-11">[10]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a>, written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but was apparently based on the idea that it happened in 428, possibly based on the real date of the visit of Germanus in 429.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013194,_203-12">[11]</a> In fact, both textual and archaeological evidence indicates that a new "Anglo-Saxon" culture (one with parallels in northern Germany) had indeed become prominent in Britain by the 430s, well before the 450s as reported by Bede.<a href="#cite_note-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S.-13">[12]</a> Historians such as Halsall have also pointed out that a Germanic population may have already been present under Roman rule for many years before 430 without this being obvious in the archaeological record, because of the prestige which Roman material culture still had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013186,_246-14">[13]</a> In Bede's semi-mythical account the call to the "Angle or Saxon nation" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Anglorum sive Saxonum gens) was initially answered by three boats lead by two brothers, <a href="/wiki/Hengist_and_Horsa" title="Hengist and Horsa">Hengist and Horsa</a> ("Stallion and Horse"), and Hengist's son <a href="/wiki/Oisc" class="mw-redirect" title="Oisc">Oisc</a>. They had a region assigned to them in the eastern part of Britain.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> A bigger fleet followed, from the three most powerful tribes of Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and these were eventually followed by terrifying swarms. According to one well-known passage by Bede:<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> <ul><li>The Saxons came from what Bede called <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxony" title="Old Saxony">Old Saxony</a>, and settled in <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a>. (In the time of Bede, the term "Old Saxons" began to be used to distinguish the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> who were neighbours of the Franks in Europe, from the Saxons of Britain.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutland" title="Jutland">Jutland</a>, the peninsula containing part of what is now modern Denmark, was the homeland of the Jutes who settled in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>.</li> <li>The Angles (or English) were from "Anglia", a country which Bede understood to have been emptied by this migration, and which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes. Anglia is usually interpreted as being near the old <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleswig-Holstein Province">Schleswig-Holstein Province</a> (straddling the modern <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a>-<a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> border), and containing the modern <a href="/wiki/Angeln" title="Angeln">Angeln</a>.</li></ul> In another passage Bede clarified that the continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were more diverse, and they arrived over a long period. He named pagan peoples still living in Germany (Germania) in the eighth century "from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of the Britons": the <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rugini" title="Rugini">Rugini</a> (possibly from <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCgen" title="Rügen">Rügen</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Danes" title="Danes">Danes</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars</a> in this period, whose influence stretched north to Slavic-speaking areas in central Europe), the "old Saxons" (antiqui Saxones), and the "Boructuari" who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the <a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Lippe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lippe">Lippe</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The vision of the Anglo-Saxons exercising extensive political and military power which excluded Britons at such an early date remains contested. The most developed vision of a continuation in sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark,<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> who suggests that the sub-Roman elite survived in culture, politics and military power up to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 570.<a href="#cite_note-Higham,_Nick_2004-19">[18]</a> Bede, however, identifies three phases of settlement: an exploration phase, when mercenaries came to protect the resident population; a migration phase, which was substantial as implied by the statement that Anglia was deserted; and an establishment phase, in which Anglo-Saxons started to control areas, implied in Bede's statement about the origins of the tribes.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> The manner in which a land of Romano-British kingdoms in the time of Gildas transformed into a land of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the time of Bede a century or so later is uncertain. Bede's scholarly and patriotic attempt to explain this as a conquest remains very influential. In contrast, Gildas did not explain what happened to the Saxons after the initial wars. (Gildas, in discussing the spiritual life of Britain does however mention that because of the partition (divortium) of the country caused by barbarians, citizens (cives) were prevented from worshipping at the shrines of the martyrs in <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a>) He reported instead that Britain was being ruled by corrupt Romano-British tyrannies, that could no longer be relied upon for law and order. He explicitly noted that there was peace, and that there was only internal fighting instead of fighting with foreigners. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Textual_evidence_for_the_Saxon_arrival">Textual evidence for the Saxon arrival</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Textual evidence for the Saxon arrival">edit</a>]</div> There are very few historical records from Britain in the 5th or 6th centuries which can help historians to understand the settlements of the Anglo-Saxons. The Chronica Gallica was probably written in south-eastern Gaul and only contains snippets of information.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381–83-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–98-23">[22]</a> In this chronicle, the entry about raids upon Britain in 409 is introduced with a general comment about weakening Roman power, and the growing number of enemies. It is grouped with events in Gaul and Spain which suffered invasions during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood198419-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–398-26">[25]</a> Gildas lived only a few generations later in the 6th century after the end of Roman rule, and his <a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a> is therefore the most detailed and contemporary account available. However, it is a highly stylized critique of Romano-British politics, society and religion, which treats the Saxons as a punishment sent by God, and gives few details such as dates, and the sections might not have been intended to represent one single sequence of events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013189-27">[26]</a> Gildas described the Saxons as invited soldiers in the past and says nothing of migrations, or of any ongoing conflict or even Saxon presence in his time. Instead, for their understanding of Anglo-Saxon settlement historians have often relied upon <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> the English monk, a much later author and scholar (672/673–735), who in his <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People" title="Ecclesiastical History of the English People">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a>, tried to compute dates for events in early Anglo-Saxon history. Although primarily writing about church history, Bede is seen as Britain's first true historian, in that he cited his references and listed events according to dates rather than <a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal</a> lists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGransden197413–25-28">[27]</a> Because of this we know that he relied heavily on <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> for early events. It has been suggested that Bede based his dating of the arrival of Horsa and Hengist upon the report in Gildas that the invitation to the foederati happened after the Britons first implored Aëtius when he was in his 3rd consulship, which was in 446.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201359-29">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg/220px-1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg/330px-1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg/440px-1130_Anglo-Saxon_Crossing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1477" data-file-height="2238" /></a><figcaption>An 1130 depiction of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossing the sea to Britain equipped with war gear from the Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund</figcaption></figure> Another 6th century Roman source contemporary with Gildas is <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> who however lived and wrote in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, and expressed doubts about the stories he had heard about events in the west. He states that an island called <a href="/wiki/Brittia" title="Brittia">Brittia</a>, which was supposedly not Britain, was settled by three nations: the Angili, Frissones, and Brittones, each ruled by its own king. Each nation was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who planted them in unpopulated regions of their territory. He never mentions the Saxons or Jutes, and the continental relatives of the Angles are named as the <a href="/wiki/Warini" title="Warini">Warini</a>, who he believed had a kingdom stretching from the Danube to the Ocean. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Jones_(historian)" title="Michael Jones (historian)">Michael Jones</a>, a historian at Bates College in New England, says that "Procopius himself, however, betrays doubts about this specific passage, and subsequent details in the chapter undermine its credibility as a clue to sixth-century population in Britain."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gildas'_De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae">Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain.circa.540.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Britain.circa.540.jpg/220px-Britain.circa.540.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Britain.circa.540.jpg/330px-Britain.circa.540.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Britain.circa.540.jpg/440px-Britain.circa.540.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2046" data-file-height="2814" /></a><figcaption>Britain around the year 540. Anglo-Saxon kingdom's names are coloured red or brown. Britonnic kingdoms' names are coloured black.</figcaption></figure> The work of Gildas is based around a constant theme of blaming the Romano-British people for being the cause of their own distresses, with the Saxon conflict only being one example. Leading up to these events they had been rebellious within the Roman empire, supporting many usurpers who attempted to take control of the empire. These tyrants dominate the historical accounts of the fifth and sixth centuries and the work tells us much about the transition from magisterial to monarchical power in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> Gildas' remarks reflected his continuing concern regarding the vulnerability of his countrymen and their disregard and in-fighting: for example, "it was always true of this people (as it is now) that it was weak in beating off the weapons of the enemy, but strong in putting up with civil war and the burden of sin."<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Gildas used the correct late Roman term for the Saxons, <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a>, people who came to Britain under a well-used treaty system. This kind of treaty had been used elsewhere to bring people into the Roman Empire to move along the roads or rivers and work alongside the army.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Gildas called them Saxons, which was probably the common British term for the settlers. Gildas' use of the word patria (fatherland), when used in relation to the Saxons and Picts, implies that some Saxons could by then be regarded as native to Britannia.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bede's_Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum">Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg/200px-Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg/300px-Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Beda_Petersburgiensis_f3v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>Folio 3v from the Petersburg Bede. The Saint Petersburg Bede (Saint Petersburg, <a href="/wiki/Russian_National_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian National Library">National Library of Russia</a>, lat. Q. v. I. 18), a near-contemporary version of the <a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</a></figcaption></figure> Various sources, including Gildas, were used by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, written around 731. Bede's view of Britons is partly responsible for the picture of them as the downtrodden subjects of Anglo-Saxon oppression. This has been used by some linguists and archaeologists to produce invasion and settlement theories involving genocide, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">forced migration</a> and enslavement.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> The depiction of the Britons in the Historia Ecclesiastica is influenced by the writing of Gildas, who viewed the Saxons as a punishment from God against the British people. Windy McKinney notes that "Bede focused on this point and extended Gildas' vision by portraying the pagan Anglo-Saxons not as God's scourge against the reprobate Britons, but rather as the agents of Britain's redemption. Therefore, the ghastly scenario that Gildas feared is calmly explained away by Bede; any rough treatment was necessary, and ordained by God, because the Britons had lost God's favour, and incurred his wrath."<a href="#cite_note-McKinney,_Windy_A_2011-36">[35]</a> McKinney, who suggests that "Bede himself may not have been an ethnically 'pure' Angle," argues that his use of ethnic terms was "tied to the expression of tradition and religious ideas, to the loyalty of a people to authority, and subject to change as history continued to unfold. Therefore, it is a moot point whether all of those whom Bede encompassed under the term Angli were racially Germanic".<a href="#cite_note-McKinney,_Windy_A_2011-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence_concerning_the_early_Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms">Evidence concerning the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Evidence concerning the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms">edit</a>]</div> A traditional semi-mythical account of the origins of English kingdoms was supplied by Bede and the still later <a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a>. These accounts add many details to Gildas based upon unknown sources. These are however considered doubtful by modern scholars. Several other types of evidence are considered relevant. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_Hideage">Tribal Hideage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tribal Hideage">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Hidage" title="Tribal Hidage">Tribal Hideage</a> is a list of 35 tribes that was compiled in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a> some time between the seventh and ninth centuries. The inclusion of the '<a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a>-dwellers' suggests to Simon Keynes that the Tribal Hideage was compiled in the early 670s, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/King_Wulfhere" class="mw-redirect" title="King Wulfhere">King Wulfhere</a>, since Elmet seems to have reverted thereafter to Northumbrian control.<a href="#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1995-37">[36]</a> It includes a number of independent kingdoms and other smaller territories and assigns a number of <a href="/wiki/Hide_(unit)" title="Hide (unit)">hides</a> to each one. A hide was an amount of land sufficient to support a household. The list of tribes is headed by <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> and consists almost exclusively of peoples who lived south of the <a href="/wiki/Humber" title="Humber">Humber</a> estuary and territories that surrounded the Mercian kingdom, some of which have never been satisfactorily identified by scholars. The document is problematic, but extremely important for historians, as it provides a glimpse into the relationship between people, land, and the tribes and groups into which they had organised themselves. The individual units in the list developed from the settlement areas of tribal groups, some of which are as little as 300 hides. The names are difficult to locate: places such as East wixna and Sweord ora. What it reveals is that micro-identity of tribe and family is important from the start. The list is evidence for more complex settlement than the single political entity of the other historical sources.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King-lists_and_the_Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle">King-lists and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: King-lists and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">edit</a>]</div> In the eighth century, if not the seventh, Anglo-Saxon scholars began writing lists and genealogies of kings which purport to record their ancestry through the settlement period and beyond, prominently including the <a href="/wiki/Anglian_King-list" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglian King-list">Anglian King-list</a> and the <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_Genealogical_Regnal_List" title="West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List">West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List</a> (which may share a source with the Anglian list).<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-40">[39]</a> The Regnal List was in turn a source for the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>, the relevant sections of which were edited into their surviving form in the later ninth century. The Chronicle also includes various more detailed entries for the fifth and sixth centuries that ostensibly constitute historical evidence for a migration, Anglo-Saxon elites, and various significant historical events. However, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Barbara Yorke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Sims-Williams" title="Patrick Sims-Williams">Patrick Sims-Williams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Dumville" title="David Dumville">David Dumville</a>, among others, have demonstrated how a number of features of the Regnal List and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the fifth and sixth centuries clearly contradict the idea that they constitute a reliable record.<a href="#cite_note-:2-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> Some of the information there may contain a kernel of truth if the obvious fictions are rejected (such as the claim that <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> took its name from an invader, Port, who arrived in 501), such as the sequence of the events associated with <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lle_of_Sussex" title="Ælle of Sussex">Ælle of Sussex</a> (albeit not necessarily the dates).<a href="#cite_note-Laycock,_Stuart_2012-44">[43]</a> Yet there is little basis for sifting truth from invention. As <a href="/wiki/David_Dumville" title="David Dumville">Dumville</a> pointed out about the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, "medieval historiography has assumptions different from our own, particularly in terms of distinctions between fiction and non-fiction".<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_evidence">Linguistic evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Linguistic evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_river_names_of_celtic_etymology.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6e/British_river_names_of_celtic_etymology.jpg/220px-British_river_names_of_celtic_etymology.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6e/British_river_names_of_celtic_etymology.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="277" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Kenneth Jackson's</a> map showing British <a href="/wiki/Hydronymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydronymy">river names</a> of <a href="/wiki/List_of_river_name_etymologies" title="List of river name etymologies">Celtic etymology</a>, thought to be a good indicator of the spread of Old English. Area I, where Celtic names are rare and confined to large and medium-sized rivers, shows English-language dominance to c. 500–550; Area II to c. 600; Area III, where even many small streams have Brittonic names to c. 700. In Area IV, Brittonic remained the dominant language 'till at least the Norman Conquest' and river names are overwhelmingly Celtic.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language_decline_in_England" title="Celtic language decline in England">Celtic language decline in England</a></div> Explaining linguistic change, and particularly the rise of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, is crucial in any account of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. According to <a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham</a>, the adoption of the language—as well as the material culture and traditions—of an Anglo-Saxon elite, "by large numbers of the local people seeking to improve their status within the social structure, and undertaking for this purpose rigorous acculturation", is the key to understanding the transition from Romano-British to Anglo-Saxon. The progressive nature of this language acquisition, and the 'retrospective reworking' of kinship ties to the dominant group led, ultimately, to the "myths which tied the entire society to immigration as an explanation of their origins in Britain".<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> The consensus in the first decades of the twenty-first century was that the spread of English can be explained by a minority of Germanic-speaking immigrants becoming politically and socially dominant, in a context where <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> had lost its usefulness and prestige due to the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Roman economy</a> and administration. In Higham's assessment, "language was a key indicator of ethnicity in early England. In circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use or possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value".<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence">Evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png/320px-Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png/480px-Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png/640px-Brittonic_and_Old_English_place_names_in_the_pre-1974_counties_of_Northumbria_Durham_Selkirkshire_Roxburghshire_Berwickshire_Peeblesshire_and_the_Lothians.png 2x" data-file-width="898" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Map of place-names between the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/River_Tees" title="River Tees">River Tees</a>: in green, names likely containing Brittonic elements; in red and orange, names likely containing the Old English elements -ham and -ingaham respectively. Brittonic names lie mostly to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Lammermuir_Hills" title="Lammermuir Hills">Lammermuir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moorfoot_Hills" title="Moorfoot Hills">Moorfoot Hills</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></figcaption></figure> All linguistic evidence from Roman Britain suggests that most inhabitants spoke <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">British Celtic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a>. However, by the eighth century, when extensive evidence for the post-Roman language situation is next available, it is clear that the dominant language in what is now eastern and southern England was Old English, whose <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="West Germanic">West Germanic</a> predecessors were spoken in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> Old English then continued spreading westwards and northwards in the ensuing centuries. This development is strikingly different from, for example, post-Roman Gaul, Iberia, or North Africa, where Germanic-speaking invaders gradually switched to local languages.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hills_C.M._2013-53">[52]</a> Old English shows little obvious influence from Celtic or spoken Latin: there are for example vanishingly few <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Brittonic_origin" title="List of English words of Brittonic origin">English words of Brittonic origin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matthew_Townend_2012_pp._75-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Moreover, except in <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornwall</a>, the vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Toponymy_of_England" title="Toponymy of England">place-names in England</a> are easily etymologised as Old English (or <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a>, due to later Viking influence), demonstrating the dominance of English across post-Roman England.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Intensive research in recent decades on <a href="/wiki/Celtic_toponymy" title="Celtic toponymy">Celtic toponymy</a> has shown that more names in England and southern Scotland have Brittonic, or occasionally Latin, etymologies than was once thought,<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> but even so, it is clear that Brittonic and Latin place-names in the eastern half of England are extremely rare, and although they are noticeably more common in the western half, they are still a tiny minority─2% in <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>, for example.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate">Debate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Debate">edit</a>]</div> Into the later twentieth century, scholars' usual explanation for the lack of Celtic influence on English, supported by uncritical readings of the accounts of Gildas and Bede, was that Old English became dominant primarily because Germanic-speaking invaders killed, chased away, and/or enslaved the previous inhabitants of the areas that they settled. In recent decades, a few specialists have continued to support this interpretation,<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Schrijver" title="Peter Schrijver">Peter Schrijver</a> has said that 'to a large extent, it is linguistics that is responsible for thinking in terms of drastic scenarios' about demographic change in late Roman Britain.<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> But the consensus among experts in the first decades of the twenty-first century, influenced by research in <a href="/wiki/Contact_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact linguistics">contact linguistics</a>, is that political dominance by a fairly small number of Old English-speakers could have driven large numbers of Britons to adopt Old English while leaving little detectable trace of this language-shift.<a href="#cite_note-Matthew_Townend_2012_pp._75-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> The collapse of Britain's Roman economy and administrative structures seems to have left Britons living in a technologically similar society to their Anglo-Saxon neighbours, making it unlikely that Anglo-Saxons would need to borrow words for unfamiliar concepts.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> If Old English became the most prestigious language in a particular region, speakers of other languages may have found it advantageous to become bilingual and, over a few generations, stop speaking the less prestigious languages (in this case British Celtic and/or British Latin). A person or household might change language so as to serve an elite, or because it provided some advantage economically or legally.<a href="#cite_note-:3-67">[66]</a> This account, which demands only small numbers of politically dominant Germanic-speaking migrants to Britain, has become 'the standard explanation' for the gradual death of Celtic and spoken Latin in post-Roman Britain.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pryor,_Francis_2005-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> Likewise, scholars have posited various mechanisms other than massive demographic change by which pre-migration Celtic place-names could have been lost. Scholars have stressed that Welsh and Cornish <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_place_names_in_Britain" title="List of Roman place names in Britain">place-names from the Roman period</a> seem no more likely to survive than English ones: 'clearly name loss was a Romano-British phenomenon, not just one associated with Anglo-Saxon incomers'.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> Other explanations for the replacement of Roman period place-names include adaptation of Celtic names such that they now seem to come from Old English;<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> a more gradual loss of Celtic names than was once assumed;<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[81]</a> and new names being coined (in the newly dominant English language) because instability of settlements and land-tenure.<a href="#cite_note-:0-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-first-century_research">Twenty-first-century research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Twenty-first-century research">edit</a>]</div> Extensive research is ongoing on whether British Celtic did exert subtle <a href="/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English" title="Brittonicisms in English">substrate influence</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> of Old English<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-67">[66]</a> (as well as on whether British Latin-speakers influenced the Brittonic languages, perhaps as they fled westwards from Anglo-Saxon domination into highland areas of Britain).<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> These arguments have not yet, however, become consensus views. Thus a 2012 synthesis concludes that 'the evidence for Celtic influence on Old English is somewhat sparse, which only means that it remains elusive, not that it did not exist'.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> Debate continues within a framework assuming that many Brittonic-speakers shifted to English, for example over whether at least some Germanic-speaking peasant-class immigrants must have been involved to bring about the <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language-shift</a>; what legal or social structures (such as enslavement or <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>-like customs) might have promoted the high status of English; and precisely how slowly Brittonic (and British Latin) disappeared in different regions. An idiosyncratic view that has won extensive popular attention is <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Oppenheimer" title="Stephen Oppenheimer">Stephen Oppenheimer</a>'s suggestion that the lack of Celtic influence on English is because the ancestor of English was already widely spoken in Britain by the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> before the end of the Roman period.<a href="#cite_note-oppenheimer-92">[91]</a> However, Oppenheimer's ideas have not been found helpful in explaining the known facts: there is no evidence for a well established Germanic language in Britain before the fifth century, and Oppenheimer's idea contradicts the extensive evidence for the use of Celtic and Latin.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hills_C.M._2013-53">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elite_personal_names">Elite personal names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Elite personal names">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceawlin_name.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Ceawlin_name.gif" decoding="async" width="105" height="42" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="105" data-file-height="42" /></a><figcaption>The name of the <a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceawlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceawlin">Ceawlin</a>, rendered 'ceaulin', as it appears in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a> (C-text)</figcaption></figure> While many studies admit that a substantial survival of native British people from lower social strata is probable, with these people becoming anglicised over time due to the action of "elite dominance" mechanisms, there is also evidence for the survival of British elites and their anglicisation. An Anglo-Saxon elite could be formed in two ways: from an incoming chieftain and his war band from northern <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> taking over an area of Britain, or through a native British chieftain and his war band adopting Anglo-Saxon culture and language.<a href="#cite_note-Myres,_J.N.L._1989_pp._146-94">[93]</a> The incidence of British Celtic personal names in the royal genealogies of a number of "Anglo-Saxon" dynasties is very suggestive of the latter process. The <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> royal line was traditionally founded by a man named <a href="/wiki/Cerdic_of_Wessex" title="Cerdic of Wessex">Cerdic</a>, an undoubtedly Celtic name identical to Ceretic, the name given to two British kings, and ultimately derived from the <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Brittonic</a> *Caraticos.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Myres,_J.N.L._1989_pp._146-94">[93]</a> A number of Cerdic's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the '<a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a>' <a href="/wiki/Ceawlin_of_Wessex" title="Ceawlin of Wessex">Ceawlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> The last occurrence of a British name in this dynasty was that of King <a href="/wiki/Caedwalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Caedwalla">Caedwalla</a>, who died as late as 689.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> The British name Caedbaed is found in the pedigree of the kings of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a>, which argues for the survival of British elites in this area also.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> In the Mercian royal pedigree, the name of King <a href="/wiki/Penda" class="mw-redirect" title="Penda">Penda</a> and the names of other kings have more obvious Brittonic than Germanic etymologies, though they do not correspond to known Welsh personal names.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> Bede, in his major work, charts the careers of four upper-class brothers in the English Church; he refers to them as being <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbrian</a>, and therefore "English".<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> However, the names of Saint <a href="/wiki/Chad_of_Mercia" title="Chad of Mercia">Chad of Mercia</a> (a prominent bishop) and his brothers <a href="/wiki/Cedd" title="Cedd">Cedd</a> (also a bishop), <a href="/wiki/Cynibil" title="Cynibil">Cynibil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caelin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caelin">Caelin</a> (a variant spelling of Ceawlin) are British rather than Anglo-Saxon.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> A good case can be made for southern Britain (especially Wessex, Kent, Essex and parts of Southern East Anglia), at least, having been taken over by dynasties having some Germanic ancestry or connections, but also having origins in, or intermarrying with, native British elites.<a href="#cite_note-Myres,_J.N.L._1989_pp._146-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Archaeological evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snape_urn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Snape_urn.jpg/190px-Snape_urn.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c7/Snape_urn.jpg/285px-Snape_urn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c7/Snape_urn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>An Anglo-Frisian funerary urn excavated from the Snape ship burial in East Anglia. Item is located in Aldeburgh Moot Hall Museum</figcaption></figure> Archaeologists seeking to understand evidence for migration and/or acculturation must first get to grips with early Anglo-Saxon archaeology as an "Archaeology of Identity". Guarding against considering one aspect of archaeology in isolation, this concept ensures that different topics are considered together, that previously were considered separately, including gender, age, ethnicity, religion, and status.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> The task of interpretation has been hampered by the lack of works of archaeological synthesis for the Anglo-Saxon period in general, and the early period in particular. This is changing, with new works of synthesis and chronology, in particular the work of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Hills" title="Catherine Hills">Catherine Hills</a> and Sam Lucy on the evidence of <a href="/wiki/Spong_Hill" title="Spong Hill">Spong Hill</a>, which has opened up the possible synthesis with continental material culture and has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than AD 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before this historically set date.<a href="#cite_note-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S.-13">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Understanding_the_Roman_legacy">Understanding the Roman legacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Understanding the Roman legacy">edit</a>]</div> Archaeological evidence for the emergence of both a native British identity and the appearance of a Germanic culture in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries must consider first the period at the end of Roman rule. The collapse of Roman material culture some time in the early 5th century left a gap in the archaeological record that was quite rapidly filled by the intrusive Anglo-Saxon material culture, while the native culture became archaeologically close to invisible—although recent hoards and metal-detector finds show that coin use and imports did not stop abruptly at AD 410.<a href="#cite_note-109">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> The archaeology of the Roman military systems within Britain is well known but is not well understood: for example, whether the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a> was defensive or to facilitate the passage of goods. Andrew Pearson suggests that the "Saxon Shore Forts" and other coastal installations played a more significant economic and logistical role than is often appreciated, and that the tradition of Saxon and other continental piracy, based on the name of these forts, is probably a myth.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> The archaeology of late Roman (and sub-Roman) Britain has been mainly focused on the elite rather than the peasant and slave: their villas, houses, mosaics, furniture, fittings, and silver plates.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> This group had a strict code on how their wealth was to be displayed, and this provides a rich material culture, from which "Britons" are identified. There was a large gap between richest and poorest; the trappings of the latter have been the focus of less archaeological study. However the archaeology of the peasant from the 4th and 5th centuries is dominated by "ladder" field systems or enclosures, associated with extended families, and in the South and East of England, the extensive use of timber-built buildings and farmsteads shows a lower level of engagement with Roman building methods than is shown by the houses of the numerically much smaller elite.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Settler_evidence">Settler evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Settler evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG/220px-Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG/330px-Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG/440px-Mucking_DSCF9230.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Romano-British or Anglo-Saxon belt fittings in the <a href="/wiki/Quoit_Brooch_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Quoit Brooch Style">Quoit Brooch Style</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Mucking_excavation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucking excavation">Mucking Anglo-Saxon cemetery</a>, early 5th century, using a mainly Roman style for very early Anglo-Saxon clients</figcaption></figure> Confirmation of the use of Anglo-Saxons as <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a> or federate troops has been seen as coming from burials of Anglo-Saxons wearing military equipment of a type issued to late Roman forces, which have been found both in late Roman contexts, such as the Roman cemeteries of <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>, and in purely 'Anglo-Saxon' rural cemeteries like <a href="/wiki/Mucking_excavation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucking excavation">Mucking</a> (Essex),<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> though this was at a settlement used by the Romano-British. The distribution of the earliest Anglo-Saxon sites and place names in close proximity to Roman settlements and roads has been interpreted as showing that initial Anglo-Saxon settlements were being controlled by the Romano-British.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Hills" title="Catherine Hills">Catherine Hills</a> suggests it is not necessary to see all the early settlers as federate troops, and that this interpretation has been used rather too readily by some archaeologists.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> A variety of relationships could have existed between Romano-British and incoming Anglo-Saxons. The broader archaeological picture suggests that no one model will explain all the Anglo-Saxon settlements in Britain and that there was considerable regional variation.<a href="#cite_note-Yorke,_Barbara_2002-117">[115]</a> Settlement density varied within southern and eastern England. <a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a> has more large Anglo-Saxon cemeteries than the neighbouring East Anglian county of <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>; eastern Yorkshire (the nucleus of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a>) far more than the rest of Northumbria.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> The settlers were not all of the same type. Some were indeed warriors who were buried equipped with their weapons, but we should not assume that all of these were invited guests who were to guard Romano-British communities. Possibly some, like the later <a href="/wiki/Viking_settlement_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking settlement of Britain">Viking settlers</a>, may have begun as piratical raiders who later seized land and made permanent settlements. Other settlers seem to have been much humbler people who had few if any weapons and suffered from malnutrition. These were characterised by <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Chadwick_Hawkes" title="Sonia Chadwick Hawkes">Sonia Chadwick Hawkes</a> as Germanic 'boat people', refugees from crowded settlements on the North Sea which deteriorating climatic conditions would have made untenable.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_characteristics">Tribal characteristics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tribal characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg/190px-Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg/285px-Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg/380px-Claw_beaker_from_Ringmere_Farm_BM_2005.12-5.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3974" /></a><figcaption>Frankish glass 'claw beaker' 5th–6th century, excavated in Kent</figcaption></figure> Catherine Hills points out that it is too easy to consider Anglo-Saxon archaeology solely as a study of <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a> and to fail to consider that identity is "less related to an overall Anglo-Saxon ethnicity and more to membership of family or tribe, Christian or pagan, elite or peasant".<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> "Anglo-Saxons" or "Britons" were no more homogeneous than nationalities are today, and they would have exhibited diverse characteristics: male/female, old/young, rich/poor, farmer/warrior—or even <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>' patria (fellow citizens), cives (indigenous people) and hostes (enemies)—as well as a diversity associated with language. Beyond these, in the early Anglo-Saxon period, identity was local: although people would have known their neighbours, it may have been important to indicate tribal loyalty with details of clothing and especially fasteners.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> It is sometimes hard in thinking about the period to avoid importing anachronistic 19th-century ideas of nationalism: in fact it is unlikely that people would have thought of themselves as Anglo-Saxon – instead they were part of a tribe or region, descendants of a patron or followers of a leader. It is this identity that archaeological evidence seeks to understand and determine, considering how it might support separate identity groups, or identities that were inter-connected.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Part of a well-furnished pagan-period mixed, inhumation-cremation, cemetery at <a href="/wiki/Alwalton" title="Alwalton">Alwalton</a> near Peterborough was excavated in 1999. Twenty-eight urned and two unurned cremations dating from between the 5th and 6th centuries, and 34 inhumations, dating from between the late 5th and early 7th centuries, were uncovered. Both cremations and inhumations were provided with pyre or grave goods, and some of the burials were richly furnished. The excavation found evidence for a mixture of practices and symbolic clothing; these reflected local differences that appeared to be associated with tribal or family loyalty. This use of clothing in particular was very symbolic, and distinct differences within groups in the cemetery could be found.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> Some recent scholarship has argued, however, that current approaches to the sociology of ethnicity render it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to demonstrate ethnic identity via purely archaeological means, and has thereby rejected the basis for using furnished inhumation or such clothing practices as the use of <a href="/wiki/Peplos" title="Peplos">peplos</a> dress, or particular artistic styles found on artefacts such as those found at Alwalton, for evidence of pagan beliefs, or cultural memories of tribal or ethnic affiliation.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reuse_of_earlier_monuments">Reuse of earlier monuments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reuse of earlier monuments">edit</a>]</div> The evidence for monument reuse in the early Anglo-Saxon period reveals a number of significant aspects of the practice. Ancient monuments were one of the most important factors determining the placing of the dead in the early Anglo-Saxon landscape. Anglo-Saxon secondary activity on prehistoric and Roman sites was traditionally explained in practical terms. These explanations, in the view of <a href="/wiki/Howard_Williams_(archaeologist)" title="Howard Williams (archaeologist)">Howard Williams</a>, failed to account for the numbers and types of monuments and graves (from villas to barrows) reused.<a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Howard_1997-126">[124]</a> Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Barrow_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrow burial">barrow burials</a> started in the late 6th century and continued into the early 8th century. Prehistoric barrows, in particular, have been seen as physical expressions of land claims and links to the ancestors, and John Shephard has extended this interpretation to Anglo-Saxon tumuli.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Eva Thäte has emphasised the continental origins of monument reuse in post-Roman England,<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> Howard Williams has suggested that the main purpose of this custom was to give sense to a landscape that the immigrants did not find empty.<a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Howard_1997-126">[124]</a> In the 7th and 8th centuries, monument reuse became so widespread that it strongly suggests the deliberate location of burials of the elite next to visible monuments of the pre-Saxon past, but with 'ordinary' burial grounds of this phase also frequently being located next to prehistoric barrows. The relative increase of this kind of spatial association from the 5th/6th centuries to the 7th/8th centuries is conspicuous. Williams' analysis of two well-documented samples shows an increase from 32% to 50% of Anglo-Saxon burial sites in the Upper Thames region, and from 47% to 71% of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries excavated since 1945. Härke suggests that one of the contexts for the increasing reuse of monuments may be "the adoption by the natives of the material culture of the dominant immigrants".<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landscape_archaeology">Landscape archaeology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Landscape archaeology">edit</a>]</div> The Anglo-Saxons did not settle in an abandoned landscape on which they imposed new types of settlement and farming, as was once believed. By the late 4th century the English rural landscape was largely cleared and generally occupied by dispersed farms and hamlets, each surrounded by its own fields but often sharing other resources in common (called "infield-outfield cultivation").<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Such fields, whether of prehistoric or Roman origin, fall into two very general types, found both separately and together: irregular layouts, in which one field after another had been added to an arable hub over many centuries; and regular rectilinear layouts, often roughly following the local topography, that had resulted from the large-scale division of considerable areas of land. Such stability was reversed within a few decades of the 5th century, as early "Anglo-Saxon" farmers, affected both by the collapse of Roman Britain and a climatic deterioration which reached its peak probably around 500, concentrated on subsistence, converting to pasture large areas of previously ploughed land. However, there is little evidence of abandoned arable land. Evidence across southern and central England increasingly shows the persistence of prehistoric and Roman field layouts into and, in some cases throughout, the Anglo-Saxon period, whether or not such fields were continuously ploughed. Landscapes at <a href="/wiki/Yarnton" title="Yarnton">Yarnton</a>, Oxfordshire, and <a href="/wiki/Mucking_(archaeological_site)" title="Mucking (archaeological site)">Mucking</a>, Essex, remained unchanged throughout the 5th century, while at Barton Court, Oxfordshire, the 'grid of ditched paddocks or closes' of a Roman villa estate formed a general framework for the Anglo-Saxon settlement there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamerow2002123–124-131">[129]</a> Similar evidence has been found at <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Courtenay" title="Sutton Courtenay">Sutton Courtenay</a>, Berkshire.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> The Romano-British fields at Church Down in <a href="/wiki/Chalton,_Hampshire" title="Chalton, Hampshire">Chalton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherington" title="Catherington">Catherington</a>, both in Hampshire, <a href="/wiki/Bow_Brickhill" title="Bow Brickhill">Bow Brickhill</a>, Buckinghamshire, and <a href="/wiki/Havering" class="mw-redirect" title="Havering">Havering</a>, Essex, were all ploughed as late as the 7th century.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Susan_Oosthuizen" title="Susan Oosthuizen">Susan Oosthuizen</a> has taken this further and establishes evidence that aspects of the "collective organisation of arable cultivation appear to find an echo in fields of pre-historic and Roman Britain":<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> in particular, the open field systems, shared between a number of cultivators but cropped individually; the link between arable holdings and rights to common pasture land; in structures of governance and the duty to pay some of the surplus to the local overlord, whether in rent or duty. Together these reveal that kinship ties and social relations were continuous across the 5th and 6th centuries, with no evidence of the uniformity or destruction, imposed by lords, the savage action of invaders or system collapse. This has implications on how later developments are considered, such as the developments in the 7th and 8th centuries. Landscape studies draw upon a variety of topographical, archaeological and written sources. There are major problems in trying to relate Anglo-Saxon charter boundaries to those of Roman estates for which there are no written records, and by the end of the Anglo-Saxon period there had been major changes to the organisation of the landscape which can obscure earlier arrangements.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Interpretation is also hindered by uncertainty about late Roman administrative arrangements. Nevertheless, studies carried out throughout the country, in "British" as well as "Anglo-Saxon" areas, have found examples of continuity of territorial boundaries where, for instance, Roman villa estate boundaries seem to have been identical with those of medieval estates, as delineated in early charters, though settlement sites within the defined territory might shift.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> What we see in these examples is probably continuity of the estate or territory as a unit of administration rather than one of exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Although the upper level of Roman administration based on towns seems to have disappeared during the 5th century, a subsidiary system based on subdivisions of the countryside may have continued.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> The basis of the internal organisation of both the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and those of their Celtic neighbours was a large rural territory which contained a number of subsidiary settlements dependent upon a central residence which the Anglo-Saxons called a villa in Latin and a tūn in Old English. These developments suggest that the basic infrastructure of the early Anglo-Saxon local administration (or the settlement of early kings or earls) was inherited from late Roman or <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distribution_of_settlements">Distribution of settlements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Distribution of settlements">edit</a>]</div> There are a number of difficulties in recognising early Anglo-Saxon settlements as migrant settlers. This in part is because most early rural Anglo-Saxon sites have yielded few finds other than pottery and bone. The use of aerial photography does not yield easily identifiable settlements, partly due to the dispersed nature of many of these settlements.<a href="#cite_note-Hamerow,_Helena_2011._p119-124-141">[139]</a> The distribution of known settlements also remains elusive with few settlements found in the West Midlands or North-West. Even in Kent, an area of rich early Anglo-Saxon archaeology, the number of excavated settlements is fewer than expected. However, in contrast the counties of Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire are relatively rich in early settlements. These have revealed a tendency for early Anglo-Saxon settlements to be on the light soils associated with river terraces.<a href="#cite_note-Hamerow,_Helena_2011._p119-124-141">[139]</a> Many of the inland settlements are on rivers that had been major navigation routes during the Roman era.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> These sites, such as <a href="/wiki/Dorchester_on_Thames" title="Dorchester on Thames">Dorchester on Thames</a> on the upper <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">Thames</a>, were readily accessible by the shallow-draught, <a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">clinker-built</a> boats used by the Anglo-Saxons. The same is true of the settlements along the rivers <a href="/wiki/River_Ouse,_Yorkshire" title="River Ouse, Yorkshire">Ouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_Trent" title="River Trent">Trent</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_Witham" title="River Witham">Witham</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_Nene" title="River Nene">Nene</a> and along the marshy lower Thames. Less well known due to a dearth of physical evidence but attested by surviving place names, there were <a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutish</a> settlements on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> and the nearby southern coast of <a href="/wiki/Hampshire" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>. A number of Anglo-Saxon settlements are located near or at Roman-era towns, but the question of simultaneous town occupation by the Romano-Britons and a nearby Anglo-Saxon settlement (i.e., suggesting a relationship) is not confirmed. At <a href="/wiki/Venta_Icenorum" title="Venta Icenorum">Roman Caistor-by-Norwich</a>, for example, recent analysis suggests that the cemetery post-dates the town's virtual abandonment.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cemetery_evidence">Cemetery evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cemetery evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg/230px-Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg/345px-Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg/460px-Britain.5th.cen.AS.cemeteries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2982" data-file-height="3302" /></a><figcaption>Early cemeteries of possible Settler origin</figcaption></figure> The earliest cemeteries that can be classified as Anglo-Saxon are found in widely separate regions and are dated to the early 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> The exception is in <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, where the density of cemeteries and artefacts suggest either an exceptionally heavy Anglo-Saxon settlement, or continued settlement beginning at an early date, or both. By the late 5th century there were additional Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, some of them adjacent to earlier ones, but with a large expansion in other areas, and now including the southern coast of <a href="/wiki/Sussex" title="Sussex">Sussex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> Up to the year 2000, roughly 10,000 early 'Anglo-Saxon' cremations and inhumations had been found, exhibiting a large degree of diversity in styles and types of mortuary ritual.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> This is consistent with evidence for many micro cultures and local practice. Cemetery evidence is still dominated by the material culture: finds of clothes, jewellery, weapons, pots, and personal items; but physical and molecular evidence from skeletons, bones, and teeth are increasingly important. Considering the early cemeteries of Kent, most relevant finds come from furnished graves with distinctive links to the Continent. However, there are some unique items, these include pots and urns and especially brooches,<a href="#cite_note-Suzuki,_Seiichi_2000-148">[146]</a> an important element of female dress that functioned as a fastener, rather like a modern safety pin. The style of brooches (called <a href="/wiki/Quoit_(brooch)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quoit (brooch)">Quoits</a>), is unique to southern England in the fifth century AD, with the greatest concentration of such items occurring in Kent. <a href="/wiki/Seiichi_Suzuki_(philologist)" title="Seiichi Suzuki (philologist)">Seiichi Suzuki</a> defines the style through an analysis of its design organisation, and, by comparing it with near-contemporary styles in Britain and on the continent, identifying those features which make it unique. He suggests that the quoit brooch style was made and remade as part of the process of construction of new group identities during the political uncertainties of the time, and sets the development of the style in the context of the socio-cultural dynamics of an emergent post-Roman society. The brooch shows that culture was not just transposed from the continent, but from an early phase a new "Anglo-Saxon" culture was being developed.<a href="#cite_note-Suzuki,_Seiichi_2000-148">[146]</a> Women's fashions (native costumes not thought to have been trade goods), have been used to distinguish and identify settlers,<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> supplemented by other finds that can be related to specific regions of the Continent. A large number of <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> artefacts have been found in Kent, and these are largely interpreted to be a reflection of trade and commerce rather than early migration. <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke</a> (Wessex in the Early Middle Ages, 1995), for example, only allows that some Frankish settlement is possible.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> Frankish sea raiding was recorded as early as 260<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> and became common for the next century, but their raids on Britain ended c. 367<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> as Frankish interest turned southward and was thereafter focused on the control and occupation of northern <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>. The presence of artefacts that are identifiably North Germanic along the coastal areas between the <a href="/wiki/Humber_Estuary" class="mw-redirect" title="Humber Estuary">Humber Estuary</a> and East Anglia indicates that Scandinavians migrated to Britain.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown151-156">[154]</a> However, this does not suggest that they arrived at the same time as the Angles: they may have arrived almost a century later,<a href="#cite_note-Brown151-156">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> and their status and influence upon arrival is uncertain. In particular, regarding a significant Swedish influence in association with the <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> ship and a Swedish origin for the East Anglian <a href="/wiki/Wuffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuffing">Wuffinga</a> dynasty, both possibilities are now considered uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> The process of mixing and assimilation of immigrant and native populations is virtually impossible to elucidate with material culture, but the skeletal evidence may shed some light on it. The 7th/8th-century average stature of male individuals in Anglo-Saxon cemeteries dropped by 15 mm (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>5⁄8 in) compared with the 5th/6th-century average.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> This development is most marked in Wessex where the average dropped by 24 mm (1 in).<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> This drop is not easily explained by environmental changes; there is no evidence for a change in diet in the 7th/8th centuries, nor is there any evidence of a further influx of immigrants at this time. Given the lower average stature of Britons, the most likely explanation would be a gradual Saxonisation or Anglicisation of the material culture of native enclaves, an increasing assimilation of native populations into Anglo-Saxon communities, and increasing intermarriage between immigrants and natives within Anglo-Saxon populations. Skeletal material from the Late Roman and Early Anglo-Saxon period from Hampshire was directly compared. It was concluded that the physical type represented in urban Roman burials, was not annihilated nor did it die-out, but it continued to be well represented in subsequent burials of Anglo-Saxon date.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> At Stretton-on-Fosse II (<a href="/wiki/Warwickshire" title="Warwickshire">Warwickshire</a>), located on the western fringes of the early Anglo-Saxon settlement area, the proportion of male adults with weapons is 82%, well above the average in southern England. Cemetery II, the Anglo-Saxon burial site, is immediately adjacent to two Romano-British cemeteries, Stretton-on-Fosse I and III, the latter only 60 metres (200 feet) away from Anglo-Saxon burials. Continuity of the native female population at this site has been inferred from the continuity of textile techniques (unusual in the transition from the Romano-British to the Anglo-Saxon periods), and by the continuity of epigenetic traits from the Roman to the Anglo-Saxon burials. At the same time, the skeletal evidence demonstrates the appearance in the post-Roman period of a new physical type of males who are more slender and taller than the men in the adjacent Romano-British cemeteries.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> Taken together, the observations suggest the influx of a group of males, probably most or all of them Germanic, who took control of the local community and married native women. It is not easy to confirm such cases of 'warband' settlement in the absence of detailed skeletal, and other complementary, information, but assuming that such cases are indicated by very high proportions of weapon burials, this type of settlement was much less frequent than the kin group model.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham</a> outlines the main questions: <blockquote>"It is fairly clear that most Anglo-Saxon cemeteries are unrepresentative of the whole population, and particularly the whole age range. This was, therefore, a community which made decisions about the disposal of the dead based upon various factors, but at those we can barely guess. Was the inclusion of some but not all individuals subject to political control, or cultural screening? Was this a mark of ethnicity or did it represent a particular kinship, real or constructed, or the adherents of a particular cult? Was it status specific, with the rural proletariat – who would have been the vast majority of the population – perhaps excluded? So are many of these cemeteries associated with specific, high-status households and weighted particularly towards adult members? We do not know, but the commitment of particular parts of the community to an imported and in some senses 'Germanic', cremation ritual does seem to have been considerable, and is something which requires explanation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigham2004-163">[161]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molecular_evidence">Molecular evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Molecular evidence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">Genetic history of the British Isles</a> and <a href="/wiki/People_of_the_British_Isles" title="People of the British Isles">People of the British Isles</a></div> Researchers have employed various forms of molecular evidence to investigate the relative importance of immigration, the acculturation of natives and inter-marriage in the creation of Anglo-Saxon England. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_whole_genome_DNA_studies">Ancient whole genome DNA studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ancient whole genome DNA studies">edit</a>]</div> A 2022 study focusing specifically on the question of the Anglo-Saxon settlement sampled 460 individuals from England, Ireland, the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark, dated between approximately 200 and 1300 CE, and compared these with other modern and ancient sample sets. The authors estimate that between 25% and 47% of present-day English DNA derives from Anglo-Saxon migrants, with significant regional variations ― lower in the west, and highest in Sussex, the East Midlands and East Anglia.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> The study concluded that in eastern England, large-scale immigration, including both men and women, occurred in the post-Roman era. Some early medieval individuals from central and eastern England derived 75%-100% of their ancestry from a population matching early medieval people from the area stretching from northern Netherlands through northern Germany to Denmark. Such people were living together and mixing with individuals with 100% local ancestry, who were genetically similar to modern and medieval Irish, Welsh and Scottish people. Duncan Sayer, one of the authors of the study, commented: "What [this data] says is, yes, there is mass migration. You can't argue with that any more. So what we could do is start to talk about what that migration actually is and who the people are and how they interact and how they build communities."<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> A 2020 study, which used DNA from hundreds of Viking-era burials in various regions across Europe, found that modern English samples showed a 38% genetic contribution on average from a native British "North Atlantic" population and a 37% contribution from a Danish-like population. The researchers estimated that up to 6% of the latter signature could have been derived from Danish Vikings, with the rest being attributed to the Anglo-Saxons.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> A 2018 study, focused on the genetics of Ireland, combined the ancient data from both of earlier studies and compared it to a large number of modern samples from across Britain and Ireland. This study found that modern southern, central and eastern English populations were of "a predominantly Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry", while those from northern and southwestern England had a greater degree of indigenous origin.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> In 2016, through the investigation of burials in <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a> using <a href="/wiki/Ancient_DNA" title="Ancient DNA">ancient DNA</a> techniques, researchers found evidence of intermarriage in the earliest phase of Anglo-Saxon settlement. The highest status grave of the burials investigated, as evidenced by the associated goods, was that of a female of local, British, origins; two other women were of Anglo-Saxon origin, and another showed signs of mixed ancestry. People of native, immigrant, and mixed ancestry were buried in the same cemetery, with grave goods from the same material culture, without any discernible distinction. The authors remark that their results run contrary to previous theories that have postulated strict reproductive segregation between natives and incomers. By studying rare <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> and employing <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a>, it was claimed that the continental and insular origins of the ancient remains could be discriminated, and it was calculated that a range of 25–40% of the ancestry of modern Britons is attributable to continental 'Anglo-Saxon' origins. The breakdown of the estimates given in this work into the modern populations of Britain determined that the population of eastern England is consistent with 38% Anglo-Saxon ancestry on average, with a large spread from 25 to 50%, and the Welsh and Scottish samples are consistent with 30% Anglo-Saxon ancestry on average, again with a large spread. The study also found that there is a small but significant difference between the mean values in the three modern British sample groups, with East English samples sharing slightly more alleles with the Dutch, and Scottish samples looking more like the Iron Age (Celtic) samples.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> Another 2016 study analyzed nine <a href="/wiki/Ancient_genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient genomes">ancient genomes</a> of individuals from northern Britain, with seven from a Roman-era cemetery in York, and the others from earlier <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron-Age</a> and later Anglo-Saxon burials. Six of the Roman genomes showed affinity with modern British Celtic populations, such as the Welsh, but were significantly different from eastern English samples. They also were similar to the earlier Iron-Age genome, suggesting population continuity, but differed from the later Anglo-Saxon genome, which was found to be similar to the samples from East Anglia, as well as other Anglo-Saxon era burials in Cambridgeshire (see above).<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> This pattern was found to support a profound impact of migrations in the Anglo-Saxon period. The authors commented that the English population showed variation, with samples from the east and south showing greater similarity with the Anglo-Saxon burials and those in the north and west being closer to the Roman and Iron Age burials.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_population_studies">Modern population studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern population studies">edit</a>]</div> A major study in 2015 by Leslie et al. on "The fine scale genetic structure of the British population" revealed regional patterns of genetic differentiation, with genetic clusters reflecting historical demographic events and sometimes corresponding to the geographic boundaries of historical polities. Based on two separate analyses, the study found clear evidence in modern England of the Anglo-Saxon migration and identified the regions not carrying genetic material from these migrations. The authors argued that the proportion of "Saxon" ancestry in Central/Southern England was probably in the range 10%–40%. Additionally, in the "non-Saxon" parts of the UK they found various genetic subgroups rather than a homogenous "Celtic" population.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isotope_analysis">Isotope analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Isotope analysis">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis" title="Isotope analysis">Isotope analysis</a> has begun to be employed to help answer the uncertainties regarding Anglo-Saxon migration; this can indicate whether an individual had always lived near his burial location. However, such studies cannot clearly distinguish ancestry. Thus, a descendant of migrants born in Britain would appear indistinguishable from somebody of native British origin.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> data in a 5th–7th-century cemetery in <a href="/wiki/West_Heslerton" title="West Heslerton">West Heslerton</a> implied the presence of two groups: one of "local" and one of "nonlocal" origin. Although the study suggested that they could not define the limits of local variation and identify immigrants with confidence, they could give a useful account of the issues.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Oxygen and strontium isotope data in an early Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Wally Corner, <a href="/wiki/Berinsfield" title="Berinsfield">Berinsfield</a> in the Upper Thames Valley, Oxfordshire, found only 5.3% of the sample originating from continental Europe, supporting the hypothesis of acculturation. Furthermore, they found that there was no change in this pattern over time, except amongst some females.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> Another isotope test, conducted in 2018 from skeletons found near <a href="/wiki/Eastbourne" title="Eastbourne">Eastbourne</a> in Sussex, concluded that neither the traditional invasion model nor the elite acculturation model was applicable. The study found a large number of migrants, both male and female, who seemed to be less wealthy than the natives. There was evidence of continued migration throughout the early Anglo-Saxon period.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> Another isotopic method has been employed to investigate whether protein sources in human diets in the early Anglo-Saxon varied with geographic location, or with respect to age or sex. This would provide evidence for social advantage. The results suggest that protein sources varied little according to geographic location and that terrestrial foods dominated at all locations.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Y-chromosome_evidence">Y-chromosome evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Y-chromosome evidence">edit</a>]</div> Many of the earliest attempts to examine the ancestry of British people using molecular evidence looked at Y chromosome DNA. Inheritance of sex-specific elements of the human <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> allows the study of separate female-only and male-only lineages, using <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Y-chromosome_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-chromosome DNA">Y-chromosome DNA</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Mitochondrial DNA ("mtDNA") and Y-chromosome DNA differ from the DNA of <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> nuclear <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> in that they are not formed from the combination of both parents' genes. Rather, males inherit the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y-chromosome</a> directly from their fathers, and both sexes inherit mtDNA directly from their mothers. Consequently, they preserve a genetic record from person to descendant that is altered only through mutation. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Weal.png/320px-Weal.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Weal.png/480px-Weal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Weal.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>Map of Y-chromosome distribution from data derived from "Y chromosome evidence for Anglo-Saxon mass migration" by Weale et al. (2002)</figcaption></figure> An examination of Y-chromosome variation, sampled in an east–west <a href="/wiki/Transect" title="Transect">transect</a> across England and Wales, was compared with similar samples taken in <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a> (<a href="/wiki/East_Frisia" title="East Frisia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Frisia" title="West Frisia">West Fresia</a>). It was selected for the study due to it being regarded as a source of Anglo-Saxon migrants, and because of the similarities between <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a>. Samples from Norway were also selected, as this is a source of the later <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasion_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasion of Britain">Viking migrations</a>. It found that in England, in small population samples, 50% to 100% of paternal genetic inheritance was derived from people originating in the Germanic coastlands of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> Other research, also published in 2003 taken from a larger sample population and from more UK populations suggested that in southernmost England including Kent, continental (North German and Danish) paternal genetic input ranged between 25% and 45%, with a mean of 37%. East Anglia, the East Midlands, and Yorkshire all had over 50%. Across the latter much Viking settlement is attested. The study could not distinguish between North German and Danish populations, thus the relative proportions of genetic input derived from the Anglo-Saxon settlements and later Danish Viking colonisation could not be ascertained.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> The mean value of Germanic genetic input in this study was calculated at 54 per cent.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> A paper by Thomas <a href="/wiki/Et_al." class="mw-redirect" title="Et al.">et al.</a> developed an "apartheid-like social structure" theory to explain how a small proportion of settlers could have made a larger contribution to the modern gene pool.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Mark_G._2006-181">[179]</a> This view has been criticized by JE Pattison, who suggested that the Y-chromosome evidence could still support the idea of a small settlement of people without the apartheid-like structures.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> It has been proposed, too, that the genetic similarities between people on either side of the North Sea may reflect a cumulative process of population movement, possibly beginning well before the historically attested formation of the Anglo-Saxons or the invasions of the Vikings.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> The 'apartheid theory' has received a considerable body of critical comment, especially the genetic studies from which it derives its rationale. Problems with the design of Weale's study and the level of historical naïveté evidenced by some population genetics studies have been particularly highlighted.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Oppenheimer" title="Stephen Oppenheimer">Stephen Oppenheimer</a> reviewed the Weale and Capelli studies and suggested that correlations of gene frequency mean nothing without a knowledge of the genetic prehistory of the regions in question. His criticism of these studies is that they generated models based on the historical evidence of Gildas and Procopius, and then selected methodologies to test against these populations. Weale's transect spotlights that Belgium is further west in the genetic map than North Walsham, Asbourne and Friesland. In Oppenheimer's view, this is evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> and other continental people – and hence continental genetic markers indistinguishable from those ascribed to Anglo-Saxons – arrived earlier and were already strong in the 5th century in particular regions or areas.<a href="#cite_note-oppenheimer-92">[91]</a> Oppenheimer, basing his research on the Weale and Capelli studies, maintains that none of the invasions following the Romans have had a significant impact on the gene pool of the British Isles, and that the inhabitants from prehistoric times belong to an <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> genetic grouping. He says that most people in the British Isles are genetically similar to the <a href="/wiki/Basque_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque people">Basque people</a> of northern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and southwestern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, from 90% in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> to 66% in <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oppenheimer-92">[91]</a> Oppenheimer suggests that the division between the West and the East of England is not due to the Anglo-Saxon invasion but originates with two main routes of genetic flow – one up the Atlantic coast, the other from neighbouring areas of Continental Europe – which occurred just after the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oppenheimer-92">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Sykes" title="Bryan Sykes">Bryan Sykes</a>, a former geneticist at Oxford University, came to fairly similar conclusions as Oppenheimer. More recent work has challenged the theories of Oppenheimer and Sykes. <a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">David Reich</a>'s Harvard laboratory found that the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker People</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Rhine" title="Lower Rhine">Lower Rhine</a> had little genetic relation to the Iberians or other southern Europeans. The Beaker Complex to Britain was associated with a replacement of ~90% of Britain's gene pool within a few hundred years, continuing the east-to-west expansion that had brought <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">Steppe-related ancestry</a> into central and northern Europe 400 years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Modern autosomal genetic clustering is testament to this fact, as the British and Irish cluster genetically very closely with other North European populations, rather than Iberians, Galicians, Basques or those from the south of France.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> Further, more recent research (see below) has broadly supported the idea that genetic differences between the English and the Welsh have origins in the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons rather than prehistoric migration events. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a>]</div> Some scholars have questioned whether it is legitimate to conflate ethnic and cultural identity with patterns highlighted by molecular evidence at all.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> A 2018 editorial for <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> argued<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> that simplistic use of this category of data risks resembling the '<a href="/wiki/Culture-historical_archaeology" title="Culture-historical archaeology">Culture-History</a>' model of archaeological scholarship deployed in the early twentieth century, but which many present-day archaeologists consider to be problematic: for example the question of whether "Germanic" peoples can be considered to have shared any form of cultural or ethnic unity outside of their construction in Roman ethnography is far from settled, with some scholars expressing doubt that "Germanic" peoples had any strong sense of cultural affinity outside of speaking languages in the same language family.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Migration_and_acculturation_theories">Migration and acculturation theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Migration and acculturation theories">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg/230px-Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg/345px-Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg/460px-Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1703" /></a><figcaption>Possible routes of Anglo-Saxon migration in the 5th/6th centuries</figcaption></figure> Various scholars have used a synthesis of evidence to present models to suggest an answer to the questions that surround the Anglo-Saxon settlement. These questions include how many migrants there were, when the Anglo-Saxons gained political ascendency, and what happened to the Romano-British people in the areas they took over. The later Anglo-Saxons were a mix of invaders, migrants and acculturated indigenous people. The ratios and relationships between these formative elements at the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement are the subject of enquiry. The traditional interpretation of the settlement of Britain has been subject to profound reappraisal, with scholars embracing the evidence for both migration and acculturation. Heinrich Härke explains the nature of this agreement: <blockquote>It is now widely accepted that the Anglo-Saxons were not just transplanted Germanic invaders and settlers from the Continent, but the outcome of insular interactions and changes. But we are still lacking explicit models that suggest how this ethnogenetic process might have worked in concrete terms.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estimating_continental_migrants'_numbers">Estimating continental migrants' numbers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Estimating continental migrants' numbers">edit</a>]</div> Scholars have not reached a consensus on the number of migrants who entered Britain in this period. Härke argues that the figure is around 100,000 to 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> Bryan Ward-Perkins also argues for up to 200,000 incomers.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> Catherine Hills suggests the number is nearer to 20,000.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHills200311-20-199">[197]</a> A computer simulation showed that a migration of 250,000 people from mainland Europe could have been accomplished in 38 years.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> Recent genetic and isotope studies have suggested that the migration, which included both men and women, continued over several centuries,<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a> possibly allowing for significantly more new arrivals than has been previously thought. By around 500, communities of Anglo-Saxons were established in southern and eastern Britain.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a> Härke and Michael Wood estimate that the British population in the area that eventually became Anglo-Saxon England was around one million by the start of the fifth century;<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> however, what happened to the Britons has been debated. The traditional explanation for their archaeological and linguistic invisibility<a href="#cite_note-Coates,_Richard_2004-204">[202]</a> is that the Anglo-Saxons either killed them or drove them to the mountainous fringes of Britain, a view broadly supported by the few available sources from the period. However, there is evidence of continuity in the systems of landscape and local governance,<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> decreasing the likelihood of such a cataclysmic event, at least in parts of England. Thus, scholars have suggested other, less violent explanations by which the culture of the Anglo-Saxons, whose core area of large-scale settlement was likely restricted to what is now <a href="/wiki/Home_Counties" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Counties">southeastern England</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-209">[207]</a> could have come to be ubiquitous across lowland Britain. Härke has posited a scenario in which the Anglo-Saxons, in expanding westward, outbred the Britons, eventually reaching a point where their descendants made up a larger share of the population of what was to become England.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> It has also been proposed that the Britons were disproportionately affected by plagues arriving through Roman trade links, which, combined with a large emigration to <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> could have substantially decreased their numbers.<a href="#cite_note-auto-209">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/28/Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg/240px-Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="590" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/28/Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg/360px-Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/28/Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg/480px-Tribal_Hidage_Spelman.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="1733" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Hidage" title="Tribal Hidage">Tribal Hidage</a>, from an edition of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Spelman" title="Henry Spelman">Henry Spelman</a>'s Glossarium Archaiologicum</figcaption></figure> Even so, there is general agreement that the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mercia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Mercia">Mercia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbria</a> housed significant numbers of Britons.<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> Härke states that "it is widely accepted that in the north of England, the native population survived to a greater extent than in the south," and that in Bernicia, "a small group of immigrants may have replaced the native British elite and took over the kingdom as a going concern."<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> Evidence for the natives in Wessex, meanwhile, can be seen in the late seventh century <a href="/wiki/Ine_of_Wessex" title="Ine of Wessex">laws of King Ine</a>, which gave them fewer rights and a lower status than the Saxons.<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> This might have provided an incentive for Britons in the kingdom to adopt Anglo-Saxon culture. Higham points out that "in circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use and possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value."<a href="#cite_note-Higham,_Nicholas_J._2013-215">[213]</a> There is evidence for a British influence on the emerging Anglo-Saxon elite classes. The Wessex royal line was traditionally founded by a man named <a href="/wiki/Cerdic_of_Wessex" title="Cerdic of Wessex">Cerdic</a>, an undoubtedly Celtic name cognate to <a href="/wiki/Ceretic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Ceretic (disambiguation)">Ceretic</a> (the name of two British kings, ultimately derived from *Corotīcos). This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton and that his dynasty became anglicised over time.<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Myres,_J.N.L._1989_pp._146-94">[93]</a> A number of Cerdic's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the '<a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a>' <a href="/wiki/Ceawlin_of_Wessex" title="Ceawlin of Wessex">Ceawlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> The last man in this dynasty to have a Brittonic name was King <a href="/wiki/Caedwalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Caedwalla">Caedwalla</a>, who died as late as 689.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> In Mercia, too, several kings bear seemingly Celtic names, most notably <a href="/wiki/Penda" class="mw-redirect" title="Penda">Penda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> As far east as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a>, the Celtic name Caedbaed appears in the list of kings.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> Recent genetic studies, based on data collected from skeletons found in Iron Age, Roman and Anglo-Saxon era burials, have concluded that the ancestry of the modern English population contains large contributions from both Anglo-Saxon migrants and Romano-British natives.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> Knowing the number of migrants who came from the continent provides a context from which scholars can build an interpretation framework and understanding of the events of the 5th and 6th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._M._Hedges" title="Robert E. M. Hedges">Robert Hedges</a> in discussing this point observes that "archaeological evidence only addresses these issues indirectly."<a href="#cite_note-Hedges,_Robert_2011._pp_81-83-224">[222]</a> The traditional methodology used by archaeology to estimate the number of migrants starts with a figure for the population in Roman Britannia in the 3rd and 4th centuries. This is usually estimated at between 2 and 4 million.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> From this figure, Heinrich Härke and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wood_(historian)" title="Michael Wood (historian)">Michael Wood</a> have argued that taking into account declines associated with political collapses, the population of what was to become Anglo-Saxon England had fallen to 1 million by the fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Within 200 years of their first arrival, the settlement density has been established as an Anglo-Saxon village every 2–5 kilometres (1.2–3.1 miles), in the areas where evidence has been gathered.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> Given that these settlements are typically of around 50 people, this implies an Anglo-Saxon population in southern and eastern England of 250,000. The number of migrants therefore depends on the population increase variable. If the population rose by 1 per cent per year (slightly less than the present world population growth rate), this would suggest a migrant figure of 30,000. However, if the population rose by 2 per cent per year (similar to India in the last 20 years), the migrant figure would be closer to 5,000.<a href="#cite_note-Hedges,_Robert_2011._pp_81-83-224">[222]</a> The excavations at <a href="/wiki/Spong_Hill" title="Spong Hill">Spong Hill</a> revealed over 2,000 cremations and inhumations in what is a very large early cemetery. However, when the period of use is taken into account (over 200 years) and its size, it is presumed to be a major cemetery for the entire area and not just one village; such findings point to a smaller rather than larger number of original immigrants, possibly around 20,000.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> Härke concluded that "most of the biological and cultural evidence points to a minority immigration on the scale of 10 to 20% of the native population. The immigration itself was not a single 'invasion', but rather a series of intrusions and immigrations over a considerable period, differing from region to region, and changing over time even within regions. The total immigrant population may have numbered somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 over about a century, but the geographical variations in numbers, and in social and ethnic composition, should have led to a variety of settlement processes."<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> However, there is a discrepancy between, on the one hand, some archaeological and historical ideas about the scale of the Anglo-Saxon immigration, and on the other, estimates of the genetic contribution of the Anglo-Saxon immigrants to the modern English gene pool (<a href="#Molecular_evidence">see "Molecular evidence" above</a>). Härke, Mark Thomas, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stumpf" title="Michael Stumpf">Michael Stumpf</a> created a statistical study of those who held the "migrant" Y chromosomes and those that did not, and examined the effect of differential reproductive success between those groups, coupled with limited intermarriage between the groups, on the spread of the genetic variant to discover whether the levels of migration needed to meet a 50% contribution to the modern gene pool had been attained. Their findings demonstrated that a genetic pool can rise from less than 5% to more than 50% in as little as 200 years with the addition of a slight increase in reproduction advantage of 1.8 (meaning a ratio 51.8 to 50) and restricting the amount of female (migrant genes) and male (indigenous genes) inter-breeding to at most 10%.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Mark_G._2006-181">[179]</a> Generally, however, the problems associated with seeking estimates for the population before AD 1089 were set out by Thomas, Stumpf, and Härke, who write that "incidental reports of numbers of immigrants are notoriously unreliable, and absolute numbers of immigrants before the Norman period can only be calculated as a proportion of the estimated overall population."<a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Mark_G._2008-229">[227]</a> Recent isotope and genetic evidence<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> has suggested that migration continued over several centuries, possibly allowing for significantly more new arrivals than has been previously thought. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saxon_political_ascendancy_in_Britain">Saxon political ascendancy in Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Saxon political ascendancy in Britain">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg/230px-Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg/345px-Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg/460px-Saxon.emigration.5th.cen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2301" data-file-height="2140" /></a><figcaption>Probable areas for Saxon settler communities</figcaption></figure> A re-evaluation of the traditional picture of decay and dissolution in post-Roman Britain has occurred, with <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">sub-Roman Britain</a> being thought to have been more a part of the Late Antique world of western Europe than was customary a half century ago.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> As part of this re-evaluation some suggest that sub-Roman Britain, in its entirety, retained a significant political, economic and military momentum across the fifth century and even the bulk of the sixth. This in large part stems from attempts to develop visions of British success against the incoming Anglo-Saxons, as suggested by the Chronicles which were written in the ninth and mid-tenth century. However, recent scholarship has contested the extent to which either can be credited with any level of historicity regarding the decades around AD 500.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> The representation of long-lasting British triumphs against the Saxons appears in large parts of the Chronicles, but stems ultimately from Gildas's brief and elusive reference to a British victory at <a href="/wiki/Mons_Badonicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mons Badonicus">Mons Badonicus</a> – Mount Badon (<a href="#Historical_evidence">see historical evidence above</a>). <a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham</a> suggests that the war between Britons and Saxons seems to have ended in some sort of compromise, which conceded a very considerable sphere of influence within Britain to the incomers. Kenneth Dark, on the other hand, has argued for a continuation of British political, cultural and military power well into the latter part of the sixth century, even in the eastern part of the country. Dark's argument rests on the very uneven distribution of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries and the proposition that large gaps in that distribution necessarily represent strong British polities which excluded Anglo-Saxon settlers by force.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> Cremation cemeteries in eastern Britain north of the Thames begin during the second quarter of the fifth century,<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> backed up by new archaeological phases before 450 (<a href="#Archaeological_evidence">see Archaeological evidence above</a>). The chronology of this "adventus" of cremations is supported by the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Chronicle_of_452" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic Chronicle of 452">Gallic Chronicle of 452</a>, which states that wide parts of Britain fell under Saxon rule in 441. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romano-Britons'_fate_in_the_south-east">Romano-Britons' fate in the south-east</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Romano-Britons' fate in the south-east">edit</a>]</div> Multiple theories have been proposed as to the reason behind the invisibility of the Romano-Britons in the archaeological and historical records of the Anglo-Saxon period. One theory, first set out by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Augustus_Freeman" title="Edward Augustus Freeman">Edward Augustus Freeman</a>, suggests that the Anglo-Saxons and the Britons were competing cultures, and that through invasion, extermination, slavery, and forced resettlement the Anglo-Saxons defeated the Britons and consequently their culture and language prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> This view has influenced much of the scholarly and popular perceptions of the process of anglicisation in Britain. It remains the starting point and 'default position', to which other hypotheses are compared in modern reviews of the evidence.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> Widespread extermination and displacement of the native peoples of Britain is still considered a viable possibility by a number of scholars.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2007-239">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-240">[238]</a> Such a view is broadly supported by the linguistic and toponymic evidence, as well as the few primary sources from the time. Another theory has challenged this view and proposes that the Anglo-Saxon migration was an elite takeover, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Conquest of England">Norman Conquest</a>, rather than a large-scale migration, and that the bulk of the population was composed of Britons who adopted the culture of the conquerors. <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Ward-Perkins" title="Bryan Ward-Perkins">Bryan Ward-Perkins</a> argues that while "culturally, the later Anglo-Saxons and English did emerge as remarkably un-British, ... their genetic, biological make-up is none the less likely to have been substantially, indeed predominantly, British".<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> Within this theory, two processes leading to Anglo-Saxonisation have been proposed. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world, where a politically and socially powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority. This process is usually termed 'elite dominance'.<a href="#cite_note-Ward-Perkins,_Bryan_2000-242">[240]</a> The second process is explained through incentives, such as the <a href="/wiki/Wergild" class="mw-redirect" title="Wergild">wergild</a> outlined in the law code of <a href="/wiki/Ine_of_Wessex" title="Ine of Wessex">Ine of Wessex</a>. The wergild of an Englishman was set at a value twice that of a Briton of similar wealth. However, some Britons could be very prosperous and own five <a href="/wiki/Hide_of_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Hide of land">hides of land</a>, which gave <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegn</a>-like status, with a wergild of 600 shillings.<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> Ine set down requirements to prove guilt or innocence, both for his English subjects and for his British subjects, who were termed 'foreigners/wealas' ('Welshmen').<a href="#cite_note-attenborough52-244">[242]</a> The difference in status between the Anglo-Saxons and Britons could have produced an incentive for a Briton to become Anglo-Saxon or at least English speaking.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Mark_G._2006-181">[179]</a> While most scholars currently accept a degree of population continuity from the Roman period, this view has not gone without criticism. Stefan Burmeister notes that "to all appearances, the settlement was carried out by small, agriculturally-oriented kinship groups. This process corresponds most closely with a classic settler model. The absence of early evidence of a socially demarcated elite underscores the supposition that such an elite did not play a substantial role. Rich burials such as are well-known from Denmark have no counterparts in England until the 6th century."<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Coates" title="Richard Coates">Richard Coates</a> points out that linguistically, "the case of the Britons in England appears consistent with the withdrawal of speakers of the previously dominant language, rather than the assimilation of the dominant classes by the incomers."<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> Several theories have been proposed by which numbers of native Britons could have been lowered without resorting to violent means. There is linguistic and historical evidence for a significant movement of Brittonic-speakers to <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a>, which became known as <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> Meanwhile, it has been speculated that plagues arriving through Roman trade links could have disproportionately affected the Britons.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_variation_in_settlement_patterns">Regional variation in settlement patterns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Regional variation in settlement patterns">edit</a>]</div> In recent years, scholars have sought to combine elements of the mass migration and elite dominance models, emphasizing that no single explanation can be used to account for cultural change across the entirety of England. Heinrich Härke writes that "the Anglo-Saxon migration [was] a process rather than an event, with implications for variations of the process over time, resulting in chronological and geographical diversity of immigrant groups, their origins, composition, sizes and settlement areas in Britain. These variations are, to a certain extent, reported in the written sources."<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> According to Toby Martin, "Regional variation may well provide the key to resolution, with something more akin to mass migration in the south-east, gradually spreading into elite dominance in the north and west."<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> This view has support in the toponymic evidence. In the southeastern counties of England, Brittonic place names are nearly nonexistent, but moving north and west, they gradually increase in frequency.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a> has been identified by a number of scholars, including Härke, Martin, Catherine Hills, and Kenneth Dark, as a region in which a large-scale continental migration occurred,<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Toby_F._Martin_pp._174-175-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hills2015-255">[253]</a> possibly following a period of depopulation in the fourth century.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a> has also been cited by Hills and Martin as a key centre of early settlement from the continent.<a href="#cite_note-Toby_F._Martin_pp._174-175-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hills2015-255">[253]</a> Alexander Mirrington argues that in Essex, the cultural change seen in the archaeological record is so complete that "a migration of a large number of people is the most logical and least extreme solution."<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> In Kent, according to <a href="/wiki/Susan_Harrington" title="Susan Harrington">Sue Harrington</a> and Stuart Brookes, "the weight of archaeological evidence and that from literary sources favours migrations" as the main reason for cultural change.<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> Immigration into the area that was to become Wessex occurred from both the south coast and the Upper Thames valley. The earlier, southern settlements may have been more prosaic than descriptions in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle imply. Jillian Hawkins suggests that powerful Romano-British trading ports around the <a href="/wiki/Solent" class="mw-redirect" title="Solent">Solent</a> were able to direct significant numbers of Germanic settlers inland into areas such as the <a href="/wiki/Meonwara" title="Meonwara">Meon valley</a>, where they formed their own communities.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> In areas that were settled from the Thames, different processes may have been at play, with the Germanic immigrants holding a greater degree of power. Bruce Eagles argues that the later population of areas such as Wiltshire would have included large numbers of Britons who had adopted the culture of the socially dominant Saxons, while also noting that "it seems reasonable to consider that there must have been sufficient numbers of widely dispersed immigrants to bring about this situation in a relatively short space of time."<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> In the northern kingdom of Bernicia, however, Härke states that "a small group of immigrants may have replaced the native British elite and took over the kingdom as a going concern."<a href="#cite_note-Härke,_Heinrich_2011-129">[127]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a> agrees, commenting that in this region "there was a noticeable Celtic contribution to art, culture and possibly socio-military organization. It appears that the immigrants took over the institutions of the local population here."<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox concluded that the immigration that did occur in this region was centred on the river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons moving to the less fertile hill country and becoming acculturated over a longer period.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aspects_of_the_success_of_the_Anglo-Saxon_settlement">Aspects of the success of the Anglo-Saxon settlement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Aspects of the success of the Anglo-Saxon settlement">edit</a>]</div> The reasons for the success of Anglo-Saxon settlements remain uncertain. <a href="/wiki/Helena_Hamerow" title="Helena Hamerow">Helena Hamerow</a> has made an observation that in Anglo-Saxon society "local and extended kin groups remained ... the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period". "Local and extended kin groups" is one of a number of possible reasons for success, along with societal advantages, freedom and the relationship to an elite, that allowed the Anglo-Saxons' culture and language to flourish in the fifth and sixth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglo-Saxon_political_formation">Anglo-Saxon political formation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Anglo-Saxon political formation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Nick_Higham_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Higham (historian)">Higham</a> is convinced that the success of the Anglo-Saxon elite in gaining an early compromise shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badon" title="Battle of Badon">Battle of Badon</a> is a key to the success of the culture. This produced a political ascendancy across the south and east of Britain, which in turn required some structure to be successful.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a> concept is taken as evidence for a presence of a number of early Anglo-Saxon elite families and a clear unitary oversight. Whether the majority of these leaders were early settlers, descendant from settlers, or especially after the exploration stage they were Roman-British leaders who adopted Anglo-Saxon culture is unclear. The balance of opinion is that most were migrants, although it should not be assumed they were all Germanic. There is agreement that these were small in number and proportion, yet large enough in power and influence to ensure "Anglo-Saxon" acculturation in the lowlands of Britain.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> Most historians believe these elites were those named by Bede, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and others, although there is discussion regarding their <a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">floruit</a> dates. Importantly, whatever their origin or when they flourished, they established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin ties. As <a href="/wiki/Helen_Geake" title="Helen Geake">Helen Geake</a> jokingly points out "they all just happened to be related back to <a href="/wiki/Woden" class="mw-redirect" title="Woden">Woden</a>".<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tribal_Hidage" title="Tribal Hidage">Tribal Hidage</a> is evidence of the existence of numerous smaller provinces, meaning that southern and eastern Britain may have lost any macro-political cohesion in the fifth and sixth centuries and fragmented into many small autonomous units, though late Roman administrative organisation of the countryside may have helped dictate their boundaries. By the end of the sixth century the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, with the majority of the larger kingdoms based on the south or east coasts.<a href="#cite_note-Davies,_Wendy_2011-267">[265]</a> They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have their foundation the former Roman civitas and this has been argued as particularly likely for the provinces of Kent, Lindsey, Deira and Bernicia, all of whose names derive from Romano-British tribal or district names.<a href="#cite_note-Laycock,_Stuart_2012-44">[43]</a> The southern and east coasts were, of course, the areas settled first and in greatest numbers by the settlers and so presumably were the earliest to pass from Romano-British to Anglo-Saxon control. Once established they had the advantage of easy communication with continental territories in Europe via the North Sea or the Channel. The east and south coast provinces may never have fragmented to the extent of some areas inland and by the end of the sixth century they were already beginning to expand by annexing smaller neighbours. <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Barbara Yorke</a> suggests that such aggressiveness must have encouraged areas which did not already possess military protection in the form of kings and their armies to acquire their own war-leaders or protection alliances.<a href="#cite_note-Yorke,_Barbara_2002-117">[115]</a> By the time of the Tribal Hidage there were also two large 'inland' kingdoms, those of the Mercians and West Saxons, whose spectacular growth we can trace in par in our sources for the seventh century, but it is not clear how far this expansion had proceeded by the end of the sixth century.<a href="#cite_note-Davies,_Wendy_2011-267">[265]</a> What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda list of the elite is the ability to extract tribute and overawe and/or protect communities, which may well have been relatively short-lived in any one instance, but ostensibly "Anglo-Saxon" dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites, with very few interruptions from other "British" warlords.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> The success of this elite was felt beyond their geography, to include neighbouring British territories in the centre and west of what later became England, and even the far west of the island. Again, Bede was very clear that English imperium could on occasion encompass British and English kingships alike,<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> and that Britons and Angles marched to war together in the early seventh century, under both British and English kings.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> It is Bede who provides the most vivid picture of a late sixth- and early seventh-century Anglian warlord in action, in the person of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Æthelfrith of Northumbria">Æthelfrith of Northumbria</a>, King of <a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a> (a kingdom with a non-English name), who rapidly built up a personal 'empire' by military victories over the Britons of the North, the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Scots of Dalriada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Angles of Deira</a> and the Britons of north-eastern Wales, only ultimately to experience disaster at the hands of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A6dwald_of_East_Anglia" title="Rædwald of East Anglia">Rædwald of East Anglia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural_freedoms_and_kinship_groups">Rural freedoms and kinship groups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Rural freedoms and kinship groups">edit</a>]</div> Where arable cultivation continued in early Anglo-Saxon England, there seems to have been considerable continuity with the Roman period in both field layout and arable practices, although we do not know whether there were also changes to patterns of tenure or the regulation of cultivation. The greatest perceptible alterations in land usage between about AD 400 and 600 are therefore in the proportions of the land of each community that lay under grass or the plough, rather than in changes to the layout or management of arable fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOosthuizen2016179–227-272">[270]</a> The Anglo-Saxons settled in small groups covering a handful of widely dispersed local communities.<a href="#cite_note-Wickham_2009_157-273">[271]</a> These farms were for the most part mobile. This mobility, which was typical across much of Northern Europe took two forms: the gradual shifting of the settlement within its boundaries or the complete relocation of the settlement. These shifting settlements (called Wandersiedlungen or "wandering settlements") were a common feature since the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. Why farms became abandoned and then relocated is much debated. However it is suggested that this might be related to the death of a patron of the family or the desire to move to better farmlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamerow2002105-274">[272]</a> These farms are often falsely supposed to be "peasant farms". However, a <a href="/wiki/Churl" title="Churl">ceorl</a>, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo-Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms-owning male with access to law, support of a kindred and the <a href="/wiki/Wergild" class="mw-redirect" title="Wergild">wergild</a>, situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one <a href="/wiki/Hide_(unit)" title="Hide (unit)">hide</a> of land. It is the ceorl that we should associate with the standard 8–10 metres (26–33 feet) x 4–5 metres (13–16 feet) post-hole building of the early Anglo-Saxon period, grouped with others of the same kin group. Each such household head had a number of less-free dependants and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> The success of the rural world in the 5th and 6th centuries, according to the landscape archaeology, was due to three factors: the continuity with the past, with no evidence of up-rooting in the landscape; farmers' freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord, who provided only slight lordly input; and the common outfield arable land (of an outfield-infield system) that provided the ability to build kinship and group cultural ties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Material_culture">Material culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Material culture">edit</a>]</div> The origins of the timber building tradition seen in early Anglo-Saxon England have generated much debate which has mirrored a wider debate about the cultural affinities of Anglo-Saxon material culture. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png/241px-Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png" decoding="async" width="241" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png/362px-Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png/482px-Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png 2x" data-file-width="3396" data-file-height="2418" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon hall at Wychurst, Kent, c. 1000 AD</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Rahtz" title="Philip Rahtz">Philip Rahtz</a> asserted that buildings seen in <a href="/wiki/West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village" title="West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village">West Stow</a> and Mucking had late Roman origins.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> Archaeologist Philip Dixon noted the striking similarity between Anglo-Saxon timber halls and Romano-British rural houses. The Anglo-Saxons did not import the 'long-house', the traditional dwelling of the continental Germanic peoples, to Britain. Instead they upheld a local vernacular British building tradition dating back to the late first century. This has been interpreted as evidence of the endurance of kinship and household structures from the Roman into the Anglo-Saxon period.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> However, this has been considered too neat an explanation for all the evidence. Anne and Gary Marshall summarise the situation: <blockquote>"One of the main problems in Anglo-Saxon archaeology has been to account for the apparent uniqueness of the English timber structures of the period. These structures seem to bear little resemblance either to earlier Romano-British or to continental models. In essence, the problem is that the hybrid Anglo-Saxon style seems to appear full-blown with no examples of development from the two potentially ancestral traditions ... The consensus of the published work was that the Anglo-Saxon building style was predominantly home-grown."<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a></blockquote> In the <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> burial, perhaps that of the East Anglian king <a href="/wiki/Raedwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Raedwald">Raedwald</a>, a long and complex iron chain, used for suspending a cauldron from the beams of a hall, was found. It was the product of a continuous British smithing tradition dating to pre-Roman times. This was, however, a high-status object.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Ward-Perkins" title="Bryan Ward-Perkins">Bryan Ward-Perkins</a> the answer to the relative lack of native influence on everyday objects is found in the success of the Anglo-Saxon culture and highlights the micro-diversity and larger cohesion that produced a dynamic force in comparison to the Brittonic culture.<a href="#cite_note-Ward-Perkins,_Bryan_2000-242">[240]</a> From beads and quoits to clothes and houses, there is something unique happening in the early Anglo-Saxon period. The material culture evidence shows that people adopted and adapted styles based on set roles and styles. John Hines, commenting on the diversity of nearly a thousand glass beads and many different clothes clasps from <a href="/wiki/Lakenheath" title="Lakenheath">Lakenheath</a>, states that these reveal a "society where people relied on others to fulfill a role" and "what they had around them was making a statement", not one about the individual, but about "identity between small groups not within small groups".<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_D._Richards" title="Julian D. Richards">Julian Richards</a> commenting on this and other evidence suggests: <blockquote>"[The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain] was more complex than a mass invasion bringing fully formed lifestyles and beliefs. The early Anglo-Saxon, just like today's migrants, were probably riding different cultural identities. They brought from their homelands the traditions of their ancestors. But they would have been trying to work out not only who they were, but who they wanted to be ... and forge an identity for those who followed."<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> </blockquote> Looking beyond simplistic 'homeland' scenarios, and explaining the observations that 'Anglo-Saxon' houses and other aspects of material culture do not find exact matches in the 'Germanic homelands' in Europe, Halsall explains the changes within the context of a larger 'North Sea interaction zone', including lowland England, Northern Gaul and northern Germany. These areas experienced marked social and cultural changes in the wake of Roman collapse—experienced not only within the former Roman provinces (Gaul, Britain) but also in <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Barbaricum" class="extiw" title="wikt:Barbaricum">Barbaricum</a> itself. All three areas experienced changes in social structure, settlement patterns and ways of expressing identities, as well as tensions which created push and pull factors for migrations in, perhaps, multiple directions.<a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture_of_belief">Culture of belief</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Culture of belief">edit</a>]</div> The study of pagan religious practice in the early Anglo-Saxon period is difficult. Most of the texts that may contain relevant information are not contemporary, but written later by Christian writers who tended to have a hostile attitude to pre-Christian beliefs, and who may have distorted their portrayal of them. Much of the information used to reconstruct Anglo-Saxon paganism comes from later Scandinavian and Icelandic texts and there is a debate about how relevant these are. The study of pagan Anglo-Saxon beliefs has often been approached with reference to Roman or even Greek typologies and categories. Archaeologists therefore use such terms as gods, myths, temples, sanctuaries, priests, magic and cults. Charlotte Behr argues that this provides a worldview of Anglo-Saxon practice culture which is unhelpful.<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Peter Brown</a> employed a new method of looking at the belief systems of the fifth to seventh centuries, by arguing for a model of religion which was typified by a pick and choose approach. The period was exceptional because there was no orthodoxy or institutions to control or hinder the people. This freedom of culture is seen also in the Roman-British community and is very evident in the complaints of <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> One Anglo-Saxon cultural practice that is better understood are the burial customs, due in part to archaeological excavations at various sites including <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spong_Hill" title="Spong Hill">Spong Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_saxon_tomb_in_Prittlewell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal saxon tomb in Prittlewell">Prittlewell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snape_boat_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Snape boat grave">Snape</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walkington_Wold_Burials" class="mw-redirect" title="Walkington Wold Burials">Walkington Wold</a>, and the existence of around 1,200 furnished inhumation and cremation cemeteries, which were once assumed to be pagan but whose religious affiliation is now substantially debated in scholarship. There was no set form of burial, with <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> being preferred in the north and <a href="/wiki/Inhumation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inhumation">inhumation</a> in the south, although both forms were found throughout England, sometimes in the same cemeteries. When cremation did take place, the ashes were usually placed within an urn and then buried, sometimes along with <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hutton_1991._p._274-286">[284]</a> According to archaeologist Dave Wilson, "the usual orientation for an inhumation in a pagan Anglo-Saxon cemetery was west–east, with the head to the west, although there were often deviations from this."<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> Indicative of possible religious belief, grave goods were common amongst inhumation burials as well as cremations; free Anglo-Saxon men were buried with at least one weapon in the pagan tradition, often a <a href="/wiki/Seax" title="Seax">seax</a>, but sometimes also with a <a href="/wiki/Migration_period_spear" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period spear">spear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Migration_period_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Migration period sword">sword</a>, or shield, or a combination of these.<a href="#cite_note-Hutton_1991._p._274-286">[284]</a> There are also a number of recorded cases of parts of animals being buried within such graves. Most common amongst these were body parts belonging to either <a href="/wiki/Goats" class="mw-redirect" title="Goats">goats</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a>, although parts of <a href="/wiki/Oxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxen">oxen</a> were also relatively common, and there are also isolated cases of <a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose">goose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab_apple" class="mw-redirect" title="Crab apple">crab apples</a>, duck eggs, and <a href="/wiki/Hazelnuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazelnuts">hazelnuts</a> being buried in graves. It is widely thought therefore that such items constituted a food source for the deceased.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> In some cases, animal skulls, particularly oxen but also pig, were buried in human graves, a practice that was also found earlier in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hutton_1991._p._274-286">[284]</a> Despite this earlier confidence in the ability to use burial customs to understand cultures of belief, mortuary archaeologists have now challenged the notion that burial with grave-goods either in post-Roman Britain,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013228–229-289">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> or further afield in early medieval Europe,<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> need have anything at all to do with paganism or other forms of belief in the afterlife. <a href="/wiki/Howard_Williams_(archaeologist)" title="Howard Williams (archaeologist)">Howard Williams</a>, summarising general trends in the scholarship, has pointed out <blockquote>The emergence of furnished cremation and inhumation graves is thus no longer regarded as reflecting a single and coherent 'Anglo-Saxon paganism'; nor need the decline in accompanied burial relate directly or exclusively to Christian conversion. Indeed, the very term 'pagan Anglo-Saxon burial' compounds the conceptually naïve assumption that there existed a one-to-one correlation between ethnic affiliation, religious beliefs and ritual practice that archaeologists have been so keen to move beyond.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a></blockquote> There is also evidence for the continuation of Christianity in south and east Britain. The Christian shrine at <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a> and its martyr cult survived throughout the period (<a href="#Gildas'_De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae">see Gildas above</a>). There are references in Anglo-Saxon poetry, including <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a>, that show some interaction between pagan and Christian practices and values. While there is little scholarly focus on this subject, there is enough evidence from Gildas and elsewhere that it is safe to assume some continuing – perhaps more free – form of Christianity survived. Richard Whinder states "(The Church's pre-Augustine) characteristics place it in continuity with the rest of the Christian Church in Europe at that time and, indeed, in continuity with the Catholic faith ... today."<a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> Anglo-Saxon paganism was not based on faith, but on rituals intended to bring benefits to individuals and the community. As kingship developed, it probably came into conflict with the entrenched priestly class. Conversion to Christianity provided kings with priests who were under their protection and thus under their influence, and Christianisation seems to have been mainly sponsored by kings.<a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-width="297" data-file-height="355" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Portal:Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/32px-Flag_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/48px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg/64px-Flag_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:England" title="Portal:England">England portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/28px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/48px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/64px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Scotland portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_conflict_in_Anglo-Saxon_Britain" title="Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain">Timeline of conflict in Anglo-Saxon Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History of England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> – Period in late antiquity in Great Britain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British culture</a> – Pre-Saxon England</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Modern immigration to the United Kingdom">Modern immigration to the United Kingdom</a> – Immigration to the United Kingdom since the independence of Ireland in 1922</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 60em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Based on Jones & Mattingly's Atlas of Roman Britain (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-067-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-067-0">978-1-84217-067-0</a>, 1990, reprinted 2007); Mattingly's Imperial Possession (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014822-0">978-0-14-014822-0</a>, 2006); Higham's Rome, Britain, and the Anglo-Saxons (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85264-022-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85264-022-4">978-1-85264-022-4</a>, 1992); Frere's Britannia (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7102-1215-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7102-1215-3">978-0-7102-1215-3</a>, 1987); and Snyder's An Age of Tyrants (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22260-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22260-6">978-0-631-22260-6</a>) — the sources are cited in the image legend — Locations of towns (fortified and unfortified) are given on p. 156, with tribal civitates and coloniae specified on p. 154, of Atlas of Roman Britain. Specification of the Romanised regions of Britain are also from the Atlas, p. 151. The "Departure Dates" are found in the cited sources, and are generally known. The Pictish, Saxon, and Scoti raids are found in the cited sources, as is the date of the Irish settlements in Wales. Frere suggests (p. 355) that it was the Irish who sacked Wroxeter c. 383. The locations of the Irish settlements is from the locations of inscription stones given in File:Britain.Deisi.Laigin.jpg as of 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit">[update]</a>-10-11, which cites its sources of information. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Helen Cool investigates late assemblages, in her paper, from the period between the end of the Roman occupation and the Anglo-Saxon period. It lists all assemblages, that were known, at the time of publication of the paper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECool200047–65-107">[106]</a> Simon Esmonde Cleary attempts to characterise and analyse the change in the nature of the archaeological record in England in the mid-first millennium AD. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECleary199357–63-108">[107]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHighamRyan2013">Higham & Ryan 2013</a>:104–105 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> In the abstract for: Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 1–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrinkwater2023" class="citation cs2">Drinkwater, John F. (2023), "The 'Saxon Shore' Reconsidered", Britannia, 54: 275–303, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068113X23000193">10.1017/S0068113X23000193</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=The+%27Saxon+Shore%27+Reconsidered&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=275-303&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0068113X23000193&rft.aulast=Drinkwater&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpringer2004" class="citation cs2">Springer, Matthias (2004), Die Sachsen</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Sachsen&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Springer&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013218-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013218_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewing1962" class="citation book cs1">Dewing, H B (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303224542/https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf">Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation</a> (PDF). Harvard University Press. pp. 252–255. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Procopius%3A+History+of+the+Wars+Books+VII+and+VIII+with+an+English+Translation&rft.pages=252-255&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Dewing&rft.aufirst=H+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feclass.uoa.gr%2Fmodules%2Fdocument%2Ffile.php%2FSLAVSTUD182%2FProcopius%2520Wars%2520Books%2520VII.36-VIII.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGildas1899" class="citation cs2">Gildas (1899), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gtu_32400006703627/page/60/mode/2up">The Ruin of Britain</a>, David nutt, pp. 60–61</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ruin+of+Britain&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=David+nutt&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Gildas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgtu_32400006703627%2Fpage%2F60%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Higham,_Nick_1995-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Higham,_Nick_1995_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigham1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham, Nicholas</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jv68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA2">An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4424-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4424-3"><bdi>978-0-7190-4424-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+English+Empire%3A+Bede+and+the+Early+Anglo-Saxon+Kings&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4424-3&rft.aulast=Higham&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djv68AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313–15,_185–186,_246-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313–15,_185–186,_246_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, pp. 13–15, 185–186, 246. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013194,_203-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013194,_203_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, pp. 194, 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S.-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S._13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S._13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHills,_C.Lucy,_S.2013" class="citation book cs1">Hills, C.; Lucy, S. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/publications/publication-images/table%20of%20contents/spong-hill-toc">Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis</a>. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902937-62-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-902937-62-5"><bdi>978-1-902937-62-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spong+Hill+IX%3A+Chronology+and+Synthesis&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=McDonald+Institute+for+Archaeological+Research&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-902937-62-5&rft.au=Hills%2C+C.&rft.au=Lucy%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk%2Fpublications%2Fpublication-images%2Ftable%2520of%2520contents%2Fspong-hill-toc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013186,_246-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013186,_246_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, pp. 186, 246. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk I, Ch 15 and Bk II, Ch 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles1843a">Giles 1843a</a>:72–73, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk I, Ch 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiles1843b">Giles 1843b</a>:188–189, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk V, Ch 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Dark, K., Civitas to Kingdom: British Political Continuity 300–80 (London, Leicester University Press, 1994) </li> <li id="cite_note-Higham,_Nick_2004-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Higham,_Nick_2004_19-0">^</a> Higham, Nick. "From sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages." History Compass 2.1 (2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Brugmann, B. I. R. T. E. "Migration and endogenous change." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 30–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> De Excidio I, 5, Winterbottom, Gildas, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381–83-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381–83_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, pp. 81–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–98-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–98_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesCasey1988">Jones & Casey 1988</a>, pp. 367–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201381_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood198419-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood198419_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood1984">Wood 1984</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–398-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesCasey1988367–398_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesCasey1988">Jones & Casey 1988</a>, pp. 367–398. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013189-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013189_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGransden197413–25-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGransden197413–25_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGransden1974">Gransden 1974</a>, pp. 13–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201359-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201359_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1998" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Michael E. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hBNr765THaIC&q=%5B%5BProcopius%5D%5D%20states%20that%20Britain%20was%20settled%20by%20three%20nations%3A&pg=PA54">The End of Roman Britain</a>. Cornell University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8530-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8530-5"><bdi>978-0-8014-8530-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Roman+Britain&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8530-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhBNr765THaIC%26q%3D%255B%255BProcopius%255D%255D%2520states%2520that%2520Britain%2520was%2520settled%2520by%2520three%2520nations%253A%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSnyder1998">Snyder 1998</a>, Age of Tyrants. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> De Excidio XXI, 1, Winterbottom, Gildas, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Heather, Peter J., and P. J. Heather. Goths and Romans, 332–489. Clarendon Press, 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Daniell, Christopher. "The geographical perspective of Gildas." Britannia 25 (1994): 213–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> See Coates 2007 for such a view </li> <li id="cite_note-McKinney,_Windy_A_2011-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney,_Windy_A_2011_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinney,_Windy_A_2011_36-1">b</a> McKinney, Windy A. "Creating a gens Anglorum: Social and Ethnic Identity in Anglo-Saxon England through the Lens of Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica." (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1995-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Keynes,_Simon_1995_37-0">^</a> Keynes, Simon. "England, 700–900." The New Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1995): 18–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Davies, Wendy & Hayo Vierck – The Contexts of the Tribal Hidage: Social Aggregates and Settlement Patterns, Frühmittelalterliche Studien 8, 1974 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> David N. Dumville, 'The Anglian Collection of Royal Genealogies and Regnal Lists', Anglo-Saxon England, 5 (1976), 23–50 </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_40-1">b</a> David N. Dumville, 'The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the Chronology of Early Wessex', Peritia, 4 (1985), 21–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Barbara Yorke, 'Fact or Fiction? The Written Evidence for the Fifth and Sixth Centuries AD', Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 6 (1993), 45–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Barbara Yorke, Wessex in the Early Middle Ages (London: Leicester University Press, 1995), pp. 32–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Patrick Sims-Williams, 'The Settlement of England in Bede and the Chronicle', Anglo-Saxon England, 12 (1983), 1–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-Laycock,_Stuart_2012-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Laycock,_Stuart_2012_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laycock,_Stuart_2012_44-1">b</a> Laycock, Stuart. Britannia – The Failed State: Tribal Conflict and the End of Roman Britain. History Press, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Kooper, Erik, ed. The Medieval Chronicle II: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Medieval Chronicle, Driebergen/Utrecht 16–21 July 1999. Vol. 144. Rodopi, 2002. p167 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Kenneth Hurlstone Jackson, Language and History in Early Britain: A Chronological Survey of the Brittonic Languages, First to Twelfth Century A.D., Edinburgh University Publications, Language and Literature, 4 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1953), p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Higham, N. 1992. Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons. Guildford: Seaby p 229–230 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Higham, Nicholas J., and Martin J. Ryan. The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press, 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Map by <a href="/wiki/Alaric_Hall" title="Alaric Hall">Alaric Hall</a>, first published here <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/placenames/frames.htm">[1]</a> as part of Bethany Fox, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html">The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland</a>', The Heroic Age, 10 (2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Cf. 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Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford University Press, 2012.p166 </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Higham Nicholas J. "From Tribal Chieftains to Christian Kings." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Yorke, Barbara. "The vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon overlordship." Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History. BAR British Series 92 (1981): 171–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Britain AD: King Arthur's Britain, Programme 2 – Three part Channel 4 series. 2004 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies,_Wendy_2011-267">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies,_Wendy_2011_267-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies,_Wendy_2011_267-1">b</a> Davies, Wendy, and Hayo Vierck. "The contexts of Tribal Hidage: social aggregates and settlement patterns." Issues 44 (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, II, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> As in his remarks on Edwin's imperium: Historia Ecclesiastica, II, 5, 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> As in his remarks concerning Cædwallon and Penda, Historia Ecclesiastica, II, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, I, 34; II, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOosthuizen2016179–227-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOosthuizen2016179–227_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOosthuizen2016">Oosthuizen 2016</a>, pp. 179–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wickham_2009_157-273"><a href="#cite_ref-Wickham_2009_157_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWickham2009">Wickham 2009</a>:157, The Inheritance of Rome. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamerow2002105-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamerow2002105_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamerow2002">Hamerow 2002</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Higham, Nicholas J. An English Empire: Bede, the Britons, and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Vol 2 p244 </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Rahtz, Philip. "Buildings and rural settlement." The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England 44 (1976): p 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> Hodges, R. (1989) The Anglo-Saxon Achievement Duckworth, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2130-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2130-1">978-0-7156-2130-1</a>, pp. 34–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Dixon, Philip. "How Saxon is the Saxon house?" Structural reconstruction. Oxford (1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Marshall, Anne, and Garry Marshall. "A survey and analysis of the buildings of Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon England." Medieval Archaeology 35 (1991): 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Bruce-Mitford 1983, 511–553. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> John Hines: "Stories from the Dark Earth: Meet the Ancestors Revisited" Episode 4 BBC 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Julian Richards: "Stories from the Dark Earth: Meet the Ancestors Revisited" Episode 4 BBC 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2011">Halsall (2011</a>, p. 35) </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> Behr, Charlotte. Review "Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited, edited by Martin Carver, Alex Sanmark & Sarah Semple, 2010. 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Oxford, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hutton_1991._p._274-286">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hutton_1991._p._274_286-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hutton_1991._p._274_286-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hutton_1991._p._274_286-2">c</a> <a href="#Hut91">Hutton 1991</a>. p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <a href="#Wil92">Wilson 1992</a>. p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <a href="#Wil92">Wilson 1992</a>. pp. 98–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013228–229-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013228–229_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalsall2013">Halsall 2013</a>, pp. 228–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> D.M. Hadley, "Burial, Belief and Identity in Later Anglo-Saxon England," in Reflections: 50 Years of Medieval Archaeology, 1957–2007, ed. Roberta Gilchrist and Andrew Reynolds (London: Routledge, 2009) </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarland2019" class="citation journal cs1">Harland, James M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2019.60">"Memories of Migration? The 'Anglo-Saxon' Burial Costume of the 5th Century AD"</a>. Antiquity. 93 (370): 954–969, here 959–963. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2019.60">10.15184/aqy.2019.60</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Memories+of+Migration%3F+The+%27Anglo-Saxon%27+Burial+Costume+of+the+5th+Century+AD&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=370&rft.pages=954-969%2C+here+959-963&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2019.60&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.15184%252Faqy.2019.60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> B.K. Young, "Merovingian Funeral Rites and the Evolution of Christianity: A Study in the Historical Interpretation of Archaeological Material (diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> Bailey K. Young, 'Paganisme, christianisme et rites funéraires mérovingiens', Archéologie Médiévale 7 (1977), pp. 5–81 </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> G. Halsall, 'La Christianisation de la région de Metz à travers les sources archéologiques (5ème–7ème siècle): problèmes et possibilités', in M. Polfer ed., L'Évangélisation des régions entre Meuse et Moselle et la Fondation de l'Abbaye d'Echternach (Ve–IXe siècle), (Luxembourg, 2000), pp. 123–46 </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> G. Halsall, "Examining the Christianization of the Region of Metz from Archaeological Sources", Cemeteries and Society in Merovingian Gaul (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 261–284 </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> Howard Williams, "At the Funeral," in Signals of Belief in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Paganism Revisited, edited by Martin Carver, Alex Sanmark and Sarah Semple (London: Oxbow Books, 2010), 67–82, 67 </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> Whinder, R, Christianity in Britain before St Augustine Catholic History Society 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> Higham and Ryan (2013), pp. 152-153 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guy_Halsall" title="Guy Halsall">Halsall, Guy</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldsofarthurfa0000hals/mode/2up">Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870084-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870084-5"><bdi>978-0-19-870084-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+of+Arthur%3A+Facts+%26+Fictions+of+the+Dark+Ages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870084-5&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldsofarthurfa0000hals%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerowHintonCrawford2011" class="citation cs2">Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. (2011), The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921214-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Anglo-Saxon+Archaeology.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921214-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGransden1974" class="citation cs2">Gransden, Antonia (1974), Historical Writing in England c 550 – c1307, London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44203-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44203-6"><bdi>978-0-203-44203-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Writing+in+England+c+550+%E2%80%93+c1307&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-203-44203-6&rft.aulast=Gransden&rft.aufirst=Antonia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHighamRyan2013" class="citation cs2">Higham, Nicholas J.; Ryan, Martin J. (2013), The Anglo-Saxon World, Yale University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12534-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12534-4"><bdi>978-0-300-12534-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+World&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12534-4&rft.aulast=Higham&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Martin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHills2003" class="citation cs2">Hills, Catherine (2003), Origins of the English, London: Duckworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-3191-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-3191-1"><bdi>978-0-7156-3191-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+English&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7156-3191-1&rft.aulast=Hills&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes1995" class="citation cs2">Keynes, Simon (1995), "England, 700–900", The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 2, pp. 18–42</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=England%2C+700%E2%80%93900&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History&rft.pages=18-42&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation cs2">Koch, John T. (2006), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara+and+Oxford&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryor2005" class="citation cs2">Pryor, Francis (2005), Britain AD: A Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons, London: Harper Perennial (published 2001), p. 320, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718187-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718187-2"><bdi>978-0-00-718187-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+AD%3A+A+Quest+for+Arthur%2C+England+and+the+Anglo-Saxons&rft.place=London&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-00-718187-2&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryor2004" class="citation cs2">Pryor, Francis (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.channel4.com/programmes/britain-ad-king-arthurs-britain">Britain AD: King Arthur's Britain</a>, Channnel 4</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+AD%3A+King+Arthur%27s+Britain&rft.pub=Channnel+4&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.channel4.com%2Fprogrammes%2Fbritain-ad-king-arthurs-britain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Archaeology">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBehr2010" class="citation journal cs1">Behr, Charlotte (2010). "Review of Signals of Belief in Early England". Anglo-Saxon England. 21 (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.atitle=Review+of+Signals+of+Belief+in+Early+England&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillett1990" class="citation cs2">Millett, Martin (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nRNlQgAACAAJ">The Romanization of Britain: An Essay in Archaeological Interpretation</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36084-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36084-5"><bdi>978-0-521-36084-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romanization+of+Britain%3A+An+Essay+in+Archaeological+Interpretation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36084-5&rft.aulast=Millett&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnRNlQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce-Mitford1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Bruce-Mitford" title="Rupert Bruce-Mitford">Bruce-Mitford, Rupert</a> (1983). The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial, Volume 3: Late Roman and Byzantine silver, hanging-bowls, drinking vessels, cauldrons and other containers, textiles, the lyre, pottery bottle and other items. Vol. II. London: British Museum Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-0530-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-0530-7"><bdi>978-0-7141-0530-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sutton+Hoo+Ship-Burial%2C+Volume+3%3A+Late+Roman+and+Byzantine+silver%2C+hanging-bowls%2C+drinking+vessels%2C+cauldrons+and+other+containers%2C+textiles%2C+the+lyre%2C+pottery+bottle+and+other+items&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Publications&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-0530-7&rft.aulast=Bruce-Mitford&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrugmann2011" class="citation cs2">Brugmann, Birte (2011), Migration and endogenous change: The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921214-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migration+and+endogenous+change%3A+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Anglo-Saxon+Archaeology.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921214-9&rft.aulast=Brugmann&rft.aufirst=Birte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleary1993" class="citation cs2">Cleary, Simon Esmonde (1993), "Approaches to the differences between late Romano-British and early Anglo-Saxon archaeology", Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 6</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-Saxon+Studies+in+Archaeology+and+History+6&rft.atitle=Approaches+to+the+differences+between+late+Romano-British+and+early+Anglo-Saxon+archaeology&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Cleary&rft.aufirst=Simon+Esmonde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCool2000" class="citation cs2">Cool, HEM (2000), Wilmott, T; Wilson, P (eds.), "The parts left over: material culture into the 5th century", The Late Roman Transition in the North (299), BAR</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Late+Roman+Transition+in+the+North&rft.atitle=The+parts+left+over%3A+material+culture+into+the+5th+century&rft.issue=299&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Cool&rft.aufirst=HEM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon1982" class="citation cs2">Dixon, Philip (1982), How Saxon is the Saxon house, in Structural Reconstruction. Approaches to the interpretation of the excavated remains of buildings, British Archaeological Reports British Series 110, Oxford</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Saxon+is+the+Saxon+house&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=in+Structural+Reconstruction.+Approaches+to+the+interpretation+of+the+excavated+remains+of+buildings%2C+British+Archaeological+Reports+British+Series+110&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall,_AnneMarshall,_Garry1991" class="citation cs2">Marshall, Anne; Marshall, Garry (1991), A survey and analysis of the buildings of Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon England." Medieval Archaeology 35</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+survey+and+analysis+of+the+buildings+of+Early+and+Middle+Anglo-Saxon+England.%22+Medieval+Archaeology+35&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2011" class="citation cs2">Halsall, Guy (2011), "Archaeology and Migration: Rethinking the debate", in Rica Annaert; Tinne Jacobs; Ingrid In 't Ven; Steffi Coppens (eds.), The very beginning of Europe? Cultural and Social Dimensions of Early-Medieval Migration and Colonisation (5th–8th century), Flanders Heritage Agency, pp. 29–40, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-7523-034-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-7523-034-5"><bdi>978-90-7523-034-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+Migration%3A+Rethinking+the+debate&rft.btitle=The+very+beginning+of+Europe%3F+Cultural+and+Social+Dimensions+of+Early-Medieval+Migration+and+Colonisation+%285th%E2%80%938th+century%29&rft.pages=29-40&rft.pub=Flanders+Heritage+Agency&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-7523-034-5&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalsall2006" class="citation cs2">Halsall, Guy (2006), "Movers and Shakers: Barbarians and the Fall of Rome", in Noble, Thomas (ed.), From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, Psychology Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32742-8"><bdi>978-0-415-32742-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Movers+and+Shakers%3A+Barbarians+and+the+Fall+of+Rome&rft.btitle=From+Roman+Provinces+to+Medieval+Kingdoms&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32742-8&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerow1993" class="citation cs2">Hamerow, Helena (1993), Buildings and rural settlement, in The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England 44</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buildings+and+rural+settlement&rft.series=in+The+Archaeology+of+Anglo-Saxon+England+44&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Hamerow&rft.aufirst=Helena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerow2002" class="citation cs2">Hamerow, Helena (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r9W7nHtm4K0C">Early Medieval Settlements: The Archaeology of Rural Communities in Northwest Europe, 400–900</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924697-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924697-7"><bdi>978-0-19-924697-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Settlements%3A+The+Archaeology+of+Rural+Communities+in+Northwest+Europe%2C+400%E2%80%93900&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924697-7&rft.aulast=Hamerow&rft.aufirst=Helena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr9W7nHtm4K0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerowHintonCrawford2011" class="citation cs2">Hamerow, Helena.; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally., eds. (2011), The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9"><bdi>978-0-19-921214-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Anglo-Saxon+Archaeology.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921214-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerow,_Helena2012" class="citation cs2">Hamerow, Helena (5 July 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x7o7lUC_qtYC">Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920325-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920325-3"><bdi>978-0-19-920325-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rural+Settlements+and+Society+in+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-07-05&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920325-3&rft.au=Hamerow%2C+Helena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx7o7lUC_qtYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigham2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/N._J._Higham" title="N. J. Higham">Higham, Nick</a> (2004), "From sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages", History Compass, 2: **, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2004.00085.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=From+sub-Roman+Britain+to+Anglo-Saxon+England%3A+Debating+the+Insular+Dark+Ages&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%2A%2A&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2004.00085.x&rft.aulast=Higham&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodges,_Richard1989" class="citation cs2">Hodges, Richard (1 January 1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VDpnAAAAMAAJ">The Anglo-Saxon Achievement: Archaeology & the Beginnings of English Society</a>, Duckworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2130-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7156-2130-1"><bdi>978-0-7156-2130-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+Achievement%3A+Archaeology+%26+the+Beginnings+of+English+Society&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1989-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7156-2130-1&rft.au=Hodges%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVDpnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes,_S._S.Millard,_A._R.Lucy,_S._J.Chenery,_C._A.2014" class="citation cs2">Hughes, S. S.; Millard, A. R.; Lucy, S. J.; Chenery, C. A.; Evans, J. A.; Nowell, G.; Pearson, D. G. (2014), "Anglo-Saxon origins investigated by isotopic analysis of burials from Berinsfield, Oxfordshire, UK.", Journal of Archaeological Science, in Journal of Archaeological Science, 42, 42: 81–92, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JArSc..42...81H">2014JArSc..42...81H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.10.025">10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.025</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Anglo-Saxon+origins+investigated+by+isotopic+analysis+of+burials+from+Berinsfield%2C+Oxfordshire%2C+UK.&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=81-92&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.10.025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JArSc..42...81H&rft.au=Hughes%2C+S.+S.&rft.au=Millard%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Lucy%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Chenery%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Evans%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Nowell%2C+G.&rft.au=Pearson%2C+D.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJantina,_Helena_Looijenga1997" class="citation cs2">Jantina, Helena Looijenga (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=brAVAgAACAAJ">Runes around the North Sea and on the continent AD 150 – 700</a>, Groningen University: SSG Uitg., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6781-014-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6781-014-2"><bdi>978-90-6781-014-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Runes+around+the+North+Sea+and+on+the+continent+AD+150+%E2%80%93+700&rft.place=Groningen+University&rft.pub=SSG+Uitg.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-6781-014-2&rft.au=Jantina%2C+Helena+Looijenga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbrAVAgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOosthuizen2016" class="citation cs2">Oosthuizen, Susan (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/255020">"Recognizing and Moving on from a Failed Paradigm: The Case of Agricultural Landscapes in Anglo-Saxon England c. AD 400–800"</a>, Journal of Archaeological Research 24, 24 (2): 179–227, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-015-9088-x">10.1007/s10814-015-9088-x</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43956802">43956802</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254605550">254605550</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research+24&rft.atitle=Recognizing+and+Moving+on+from+a+Failed+Paradigm%3A+The+Case+of+Agricultural+Landscapes+in+Anglo-Saxon+England+c.+AD+400%E2%80%93800&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-227&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254605550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43956802%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-015-9088-x&rft.aulast=Oosthuizen&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fhandle%2F1810%2F255020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahtz1976" class="citation cs2">Rahtz, Philip (1976), Excavations at Mucking, Volume 2: The Anglo-Saxon Settlement, in Archaeological Report-Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission For England 21</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Excavations+at+Mucking%2C+Volume+2%3A+The+Anglo-Saxon+Settlement&rft.series=in+Archaeological+Report-Historic+Buildings+and+Monuments+Commission+For+England+21&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Rahtz&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyres,_John1989" class="citation cs2">Myres, John (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S1EdW6i3iTcC">The English Settlements</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282235-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-282235-2"><bdi>978-0-19-282235-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+English+Settlements&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-282235-2&rft.au=Myres%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS1EdW6i3iTcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzuki2000" class="citation cs2">Suzuki, Seiichi (2000), The quoit brooch style and Anglo-Saxon settlement: a casting and recasting of cultural identity symbols., Woodbridge, Eng. & Rochester N.Y.: Boydell & Brewer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-749-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-749-8"><bdi>978-0-85115-749-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+quoit+brooch+style+and+Anglo-Saxon+settlement%3A+a+casting+and+recasting+of+cultural+identity+symbols.&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Eng.+%26+Rochester+N.Y.&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-749-8&rft.aulast=Suzuki&rft.aufirst=Seiichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_H.2002" class="citation cs2">Williams, H. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4FCoMQEACAAJ">Remains of Pagan Saxondom</a>, in Sam Lucy; Andrew J. Reynolds, eds., Burial in Early Medieval England and Wales, Society for Medieval Archaeology, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902653-65-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-902653-65-5"><bdi>978-1-902653-65-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remains+of+Pagan+Saxondom&rft.series=in+Sam+Lucy%3B+Andrew+J.+Reynolds%2C+eds.%2C+Burial+in+Early+Medieval+England+and+Wales&rft.pub=Society+for+Medieval+Archaeology&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-902653-65-5&rft.au=Williams%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4FCoMQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazelmans2009" class="citation cs2">Bazelmans, Jos (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321">"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians"</a>, in Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (eds.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, pp. 321–337, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-078-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-078-9"><bdi>978-90-8964-078-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+early-medieval+use+of+ethnic+names+from+classical+antiquity%3A+The+case+of+the+Frisians&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Constructs+in+Antiquity%3A+The+Role+of+Power+and+Tradition&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=321-337&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-8964-078-9&rft.aulast=Bazelmans&rft.aufirst=Jos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfM_cmuhmSbIC%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede1990" class="citation cs2">Bede (1990), Farmer, D.H. (ed.), Bede:Ecclesiastical History of the English People, translated by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Sherley-Price" title="Leo Sherley-Price">Sherley-Price, Leo</a>; Latham, R.E., London: Penguin, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044565-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044565-7"><bdi>978-0-14-044565-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bede%3AEcclesiastical+History+of+the+English+People&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044565-7&rft.au=Bede&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2001" class="citation cs2">Brown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol A., eds. (2001), Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, Leicester: Leicester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7765-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7765-1"><bdi>978-0-8264-7765-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mercia%3A+An+Anglo-Saxon+Kingdom+in+Europe&rft.place=Leicester&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-7765-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2003" class="citation cs2">Charles-Edwards, Thomas, ed. (2003), After Rome, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924982-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924982-4"><bdi>978-0-19-924982-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Rome&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924982-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDornier1977" class="citation cs2">Dornier, Ann, ed. 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(2000), The Earliest English Kings (Revised ed.), London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24211-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24211-0"><bdi>978-0-415-24211-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earliest+English+Kings&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24211-0&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=D.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaingLaing1990" class="citation cs2">Laing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800, New York: St. Martin's Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04767-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04767-2"><bdi>978-0-312-04767-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+c.+200%E2%80%93800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-312-04767-2&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft.au=Laing%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrail1988" class="citation cs2">McGrail, Seàn, ed. (1988), Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 1–16, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906780-93-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906780-93-0"><bdi>978-0-906780-93-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maritime+Celts%2C+Frisians+and+Saxons&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=Council+for+British+Archaeology&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-906780-93-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Mattingly_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Mattingly (author)">Mattingly, David</a> (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialpossessi0000matt">An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire</a>, London: Penguin Books (published 2007), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-014822-0"><bdi>978-0-14-014822-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Imperial+Possession%3A+Britain+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-14-014822-0&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialpossessi0000matt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1985" class="citation cs2">Morris, John (1985) [1965], "Dark Age Dates", in Jarrett, Michael; Dobson, Brian (eds.), Britain and Rome</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dark+Age+Dates&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Rome&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryor2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Pryor" title="Francis Pryor">Pryor, Francis</a> (2004), Britain AD, London: Harper Perennial (published 2005), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718187-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-718187-2"><bdi>978-0-00-718187-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+AD&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-00-718187-2&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso1998" class="citation cs2">Russo, Daniel G. (1998), Town Origins and Development in Early England, c. 400–950 A.D., Greenwood Publishing Group, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30079-0"><bdi>978-0-313-30079-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Town+Origins+and+Development+in+Early+England%2C+c.+400%E2%80%93950+A.D.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30079-0&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=Daniel+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Snyder_(historian)" title="Christopher Snyder (historian)">Snyder, Christopher A.</a> (1998), An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01780-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01780-8"><bdi>978-0-271-01780-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Age+of+Tyrants%3A+Britain+and+the+Britons+A.D.+400%E2%80%93600&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-271-01780-8&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Snyder_(historian)" title="Christopher Snyder (historian)">Snyder, Christopher A.</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britons00snyd">The Britons</a>, Malden: Blackwell Publishing (published 2005), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22260-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22260-6"><bdi>978-0-631-22260-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Britons&rft.place=Malden&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22260-6&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritons00snyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wickham" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Wickham">Wickham, Chris</a> (2005), Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800, Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2006), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921296-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921296-5"><bdi>978-0-19-921296-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Framing+the+Early+Middle+Ages%3A+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean%2C+400%E2%80%93800&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921296-5&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickham2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wickham" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Wickham">Wickham, Chris</a> (2009), "Kings Without States: Britain and Ireland, 400–800", The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000, London: Penguin Books (published 2010), pp. 150–169, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1"><bdi>978-0-14-311742-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kings+Without+States%3A+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+400%E2%80%93800&rft.btitle=The+Inheritance+of+Rome%3A+Illuminating+the+Dark+Ages%2C+400%E2%80%931000&rft.place=London&rft.pages=150-169&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-311742-1&rft.aulast=Wickham&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1984" class="citation cs2">Wood, Ian (1984), "The end of Roman Britain: Continental evidence and parallels", in Lapidge, M. (ed.), Gildas: New Approaches, Woodbridge: Boydell, p. 19</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+end+of+Roman+Britain%3A+Continental+evidence+and+parallels&rft.btitle=Gildas%3A+New+Approaches&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1988" class="citation cs2">Wood, Ian (1988), "The Channel from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD", in McGrail, Seàn (ed.), Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 93–99, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-906780-93-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-906780-93-0"><bdi>978-0-906780-93-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Channel+from+the+4th+to+the+7th+centuries+AD&rft.btitle=Maritime+Celts%2C+Frisians+and+Saxons&rft.place=London&rft.pages=93-99&rft.pub=Council+for+British+Archaeology&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-906780-93-0&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (1990), Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England, B. A. Seaby, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16639-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16639-3"><bdi>978-0-415-16639-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kings+and+Kingdoms+of+Early+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pub=B.+A.+Seaby&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16639-3&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (1995), Wessex in the Early Middle Ages, London: Leicester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1856-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1856-1"><bdi>978-0-7185-1856-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wessex+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7185-1856-1&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (2006), Robbins, Keith (ed.), The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c.600–800, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77292-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77292-2"><bdi>978-0-582-77292-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conversion+of+Britain%3A+Religion%2C+Politics+and+Society+in+Britain+c.600%E2%80%93800&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-582-77292-2&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaluckyj2001" class="citation cs2">Zaluckyj, Sarah, ed. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merciaanglosaxon0000zalu">Mercia: The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Central England</a>, Little Logaston: Logaston, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-873827-62-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-873827-62-8"><bdi>978-1-873827-62-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mercia%3A+The+Anglo-Saxon+Kingdom+of+Central+England&rft.place=Little+Logaston&rft.pub=Logaston&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-873827-62-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerciaanglosaxon0000zalu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Saxon+settlement+of+Britain" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Gretzinger, J., Sayer, D., Justeau, P. et al. "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool". In: Nature (21 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05247-2">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05247-2</a></li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Template:Middle 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica" title="Medieval Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Middle_Ages" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">400–800</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Albania in the Middle Ages">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Armenia" title="Medieval Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(Middle_Ages)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Middle Ages)">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li>Greece (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman</a>)</li> <li>Hungary (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931301)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)">High Medieval Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Late Medieval Kingdom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Serbia in the Middle Ages">Serbia</a></li> <li>Anatolia (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Rûm">Rum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Anatolia">Ottoman</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Kingdom of Galicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Kingdom of Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Kingdom of Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></li> <li>Portugal (<a href="/wiki/County_of_Portugal" title="County of Portugal">County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary Kingdom of Norway">Hereditary Kingdom of Norway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li>Croatia (<a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Pannonian_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Pannonian Croatia">Pannonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina (<a href="/wiki/Banate_of_Bosnia" title="Banate of Bosnia">Banate of Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Kingdom of Bosnia</a>)</li> <li>Ukraine (<a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rus'">Kingdom of Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a>)</li> <li>Russia (<a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a>)</li> <li>Serbia (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Serbia" title="Grand Principality of Serbia">Grand Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Serbia" title="Moravian Serbia">Lordship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Despotate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="England_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:England_topics" title="Template:England topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:England_topics" title="Template talk:England topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:England_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:England topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="England_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_England" title="History of education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_England" title="History of local government in England">Local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_England" title="Maritime history of England">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_England" title="Military history of England">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_society" title="English society">English society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloegyr" title="Lloegyr">Lloegyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxons" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Anglo-Saxons">History of Anglo-Saxons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Heptarchy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Settlement of Britain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Modern">Late Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regency_era" title="Regency era">Regency era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">Postwar Britain (1945–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1979%E2%80%93present)" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)">Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prior Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex" title="Kingdom of Essex">Kingdom of Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">Kingdom of East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mercia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Mercia">Kingdom of Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sussex" title="Kingdom of Sussex">Kingdom of Sussex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_England" title="Counties of England">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_England" title="Districts of England">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_England" title="List of gardens in England">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_England" title="List of islands of England">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_parishes_in_England" title="List of civil parishes in England">Parishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_England" title="List of places in England">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_England" title="Regions of England">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_England" title="List of towns in England">Towns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England" title="Economy of England">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_independence" title="English independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afternoon_tea" class="mw-redirect" title="Afternoon tea">Afternoon tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglophile" title="Anglophile">Anglophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_art" title="English art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England" title="List of castles in England">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_country_clothing" title="British country clothing">Country clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_England" title="Education in England">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_folklore" title="English folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte" title="Fête">Fête</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_landscape_garden" title="English landscape garden">Landscape garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_national_identity" title="English national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of English inventions and discoveries">Innovations and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_England" title="Middle England">Middle England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_England" title="List of museums in England">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_people" title="List of English people">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education_in_England" title="Science education in England">Science education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunday_roast" title="Sunday roast">Sunday Roast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_England" title="Sport in England">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_England" title="Cricket in England">Cricket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/England_cricket_team" title="England cricket team">national team</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_England" title="Football in England">Football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Football_Association" title="The Football Association">The Football Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_national_football_team" title="England national football team">national team</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_league_in_England" title="Rugby league in England">Rugby league</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Football_League" title="Rugby Football League">Rugby Football League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team" title="England national rugby league team">national team</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_in_England" title="Rugby union in England">Rugby union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Football_Union" title="Rugby Football Union">Rugby Football Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team" title="England national rugby union team">national team</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Championships,_Wimbledon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_England" title="National anthem of England">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_arms_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal arms of England">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_flags" title="List of English flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_heraldry" title="English heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">Oak tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_standards_of_England" title="Royal standards of England">Royal standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_supporters_of_England" title="Royal supporters of England">Royal supporters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">Saint George</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day_in_England" title="Saint George's Day in England">Saint George's Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose">Tudor rose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_England" title="Outline of England">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:England" title="Category:England">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:England" title="Portal:England">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scotland_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scotland_topics" title="Template:Scotland topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scotland_topics" title="Template talk:Scotland topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scotland_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scotland topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scotland_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Scotland" title="Outline of Scotland">Outline of Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Scottish_history" title="Timeline of Scottish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Roman times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidian_Revolution" title="Davidian Revolution">Davidian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Colonisation of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Glorious Revolution in Scotland">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Union" title="Treaty of Union">Treaty of Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">1707 Acts of Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_Clearances" title="Lowland Clearances">Lowland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Scotland" title="Industrial Revolution in Scotland">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_modern_era" title="Scotland in the modern era">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Scotland" title="Geography of Scotland">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Scottish_border" title="Anglo-Scottish border">Anglo-Scottish border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Belt" title="Central Belt">Central Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Scotland" title="Climate of Scotland">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Scotland" title="Conservation in Scotland">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Scotland" title="Fauna of Scotland">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Scotland" title="Flora of Scotland">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Scotland" title="Geology of Scotland">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Scotland" title="List of islands of Scotland">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lochs_of_Scotland" title="List of lochs of Scotland">Lochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Lowlands" title="Scottish Lowlands">Lowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountains_and_hills_of_Scotland" title="Mountains and hills of Scotland">Mountains and hills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_mountains_in_Scotland" title="List of highest mountains in Scotland">Highest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Scotland" title="Protected areas of Scotland">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Scotland" title="List of waterfalls in Scotland">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Scotland" title="List of valleys of Scotland">Glens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Scotland" title="List of ecoregions in Scotland">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biosphere_reserves_in_Scotland" title="List of biosphere reserves in Scotland">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Scotland" title="Environment of Scotland">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Scotland" title="Municipalities of Scotland">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Munro_mountains" title="List of Munro mountains">Munro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Scotland">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Scotland" title="Politics of Scotland">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Government" title="Scottish Government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_governments" title="List of Scottish governments">List of governments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_Scotland" title="International relations of Scotland">International relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Scotland" title="Elections in Scotland">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_Scotland" title="Electoral system of Scotland">Electoral system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="First Minister of Scotland">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeper_of_the_Great_Seal_of_Scotland" title="Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland">Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_First_Minister_of_Scotland" title="Deputy First Minister of Scotland">Deputy First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland" title="Great Seal of Scotland">Great Seal of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Scotland">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Scotland" title="LGBT rights in Scotland">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Scotland" title="Local government in Scotland">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Scotland" title="History of local government in Scotland">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_of_Scotland" title="Cities of Scotland">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Scotland" title="Armed forces in Scotland">Armed forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Scotland" title="Military history of Scotland">Military history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" title="List of Scottish monarchs">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_MPs_for_constituencies_in_Scotland" title="Lists of MPs for constituencies in Scotland">Members of Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Scottish_Parliament" title="Member of the Scottish Parliament">Member of the Scottish Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Scotland" title="List of political parties in Scotland">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_Office" title="Scotland Office">Scotland Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Scotland" title="Secretary of State for Scotland">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Scotland" title="Unionism in Scotland">Unionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocate_General_for_Scotland" title="Advocate General for Scotland">Advocate General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_Scotland" title="Courts of Scotland">Courts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_in_Scotland" title="List of courts in Scotland">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Courts_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Courts of Scotland">Supreme Courts of Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Court_of_Session" title="Court of Session">Court of Session</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justiciary" title="High Court of Justiciary">High Court of Justiciary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Accountant_of_Court" title="Office of the Accountant of Court">Office of the Accountant of Court</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Office_and_Procurator_Fiscal_Service" title="Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service">Crown Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Advocate" title="Lord Advocate">Lord Advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Court_of_Session" title="Lord President of the Court of Session">Lord President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procurator_fiscal" title="Procurator fiscal">Procurator fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_for_Scotland" title="Solicitor General for Scotland">Solicitor General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriff_principal" title="Sheriff principal">Sheriff principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Justice" title="College of Justice">College of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_property_law" title="Scots property law">Scots property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udal_law" title="Udal law">Udal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_population_of_Scotland" title="Prison population of Scotland">Prison population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Scotland" title="Police Scotland">Police Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Scotland" title="Economy of Scotland">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Scotland" title="Agriculture in Scotland">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Scotland" title="Bank of Scotland">Bank of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charities_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Charities in Scotland">Charities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Scotland" title="List of companies of Scotland">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Scotland" title="Fishing industry in Scotland">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Scotland" title="Forestry in Scotland">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_Tweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Harris Tweed">Harris Tweed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Scotland" title="Housing in Scotland">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Scotland" title="Media of Scotland">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_industry_in_Scotland" title="Oil industry in Scotland">Oil industry</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Scotland" title="List of power stations in Scotland">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Bank_of_Scotland" title="Royal Bank of Scotland">Royal Bank of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Scotland" title="Tourism in Scotland">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Scotland" title="Transport in Scotland">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Glen" title="Silicon Glen">Silicon Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_Scotland" title="Unemployment in Scotland">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_Scotland" title="International relations of Scotland">International trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Scotland" title="Category:Society of Scotland">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Scotland" title="Architecture of Scotland">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_art" title="Scottish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Clans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_cuisine" title="Scottish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Scotland" title="Education in Scotland">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_for_Excellence" title="Curriculum for Excellence">Curriculum for Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_schools_in_Scotland" title="Lists of schools in Scotland">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_further_education_colleges_in_Scotland" title="List of further education colleges in Scotland">Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universities_in_Scotland" title="Universities in Scotland">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Qualifications_Authority" title="Scottish Qualifications Authority">Scottish Qualifications Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_Scotland" title="Education Scotland">Education Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hogmanay" title="Hogmanay">Hogmanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Scotland" title="List of museums in Scotland">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_buildings_in_Scotland" title="List of oldest buildings in Scotland">Oldest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Scotland" title="Theatre of Scotland">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_toponymy" title="Scottish toponymy">Placenames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Scotland" title="Prostitution in Scotland">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_M%C3%B2d" title="Royal National Mòd">Royal National Mòd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Scotland" title="Sport in Scotland">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_surnames" title="Scottish surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Scotland" title="National symbols of Scotland">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Scotland" title="National anthem of Scotland">anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal coat of arms of Scotland">coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_flags" title="List of Scottish flags">flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Scotland" title="Flag of Scotland">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">tartan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regimental_tartan" title="Regimental tartan">regimental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicorn#Scotland" title="Unicorn">unicorn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Scotland" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Scotland">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festivals_in_Scotland" title="Festivals in Scotland">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy_in_Scotland" title="Comedy in Scotland">Comedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Scotland" title="Demographics of Scotland">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Scotland" title="Languages of Scotland">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highland_English" title="Highland English">Highland English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Scots" title="List of Scots">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_actors" title="List of Scottish actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_artists" title="List of Scottish artists">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish inventions and discoveries">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_musicians" title="List of Scottish musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_scientists" title="List of Scottish scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_writers" title="List of Scottish writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Scotland" title="Baháʼí Faith in Scotland">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Scotland" title="Buddhism in Scotland">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity_in_Scotland" title="Category:Christianity in Scotland">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_in_Scotland" title="Christmas in Scotland">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="General Assembly of the Church of Scotland">General Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_moderators_of_the_General_Assembly_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="List of moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland">Moderators</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Scotland" title="Catholic Church in Scotland">Roman Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Scottish Episcopal Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_Union_of_Scotland" title="Baptist Union of Scotland">Baptist Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Church_of_Scotland_(since_1900)" title="Free Church of Scotland (since 1900)">Free Church of Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Scotland" title="Hinduism in Scotland">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Scotland" title="Islam in Scotland">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Scotland" title="Sikhism in Scotland">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Scotland" title="Ethnic minorities in Scotland">Ethnic minorities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Scotland" title="Outline of Scotland">Outline</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scotland" title="Category:Scotland">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Scotland" title="Portal:Scotland">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wales_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wales_topics" title="Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wales_topics" title="Template talk:Wales topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wales_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wales_articles" class="adr" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Wales" title="Outline of Wales">List of topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_Wales" title="Biodiversity of Wales">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Wales" title="Fauna of Wales">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Wales" title="Flora of Wales">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Wales" title="Climate of Wales">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Wales" title="List of islands of Wales">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Wales" title="List of lakes of Wales">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Wales" title="Protected areas of Wales">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Wales" title="National parks of Wales">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areas_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty_in_Wales" title="Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales">AONBs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Wales" title="List of rivers of Wales">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">Wales–England border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Wales" title="List of waterfalls in Wales">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wales" title="Elections in Wales">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Wales" title="List of cities in Wales">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayors_in_Wales" title="Mayors in Wales">Mayors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Local rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Wales" title="List of political parties in Wales">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Wales" title="Secretary of State for Wales">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Wales" title="Unionism in Wales">Unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counsel_General_for_Wales" title="Counsel General for Wales">Counsel General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Modern Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_forces_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Police forces of Wales">Police forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Wales" title="Armed forces in Wales">British Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_finance_in_Wales" title="Banking and finance in Wales">Banking and finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry_in_Wales" title="Coal industry in Wales">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Wales" title="List of companies of Wales">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Wales" title="Forestry in Wales">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_construction_in_Wales" title="Housing and construction in Wales">Housing and construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Wales" title="List of power stations in Wales">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">Slate quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Wales" title="Category:Society of Wales">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_art" title="Welsh art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Wales" title="List of castles in Wales">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorsedd_Cymru" title="Gorsedd Cymru">Gorsedd Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Literature in Welsh</a> / <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Wales" title="Media of Wales">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Wales" title="List of museums in Wales">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_scheduled_monuments_in_Wales" title="Lists of scheduled monuments in Wales">Scheduled monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Wales" title="Sport in Wales">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Wales" title="Demographics of Wales">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people" title="List of Welsh people">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Actors" title="List of Welsh people">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_Americans" title="List of Welsh Americans">Welsh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_architects" title="List of Welsh architects">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_artists" title="List of Welsh artists">Artists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_artists_associated_with_Wales" title="List of women artists associated with Wales">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_musicians" title="List of Welsh musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_poets_(6th_century_to_c._1600)" title="List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c. 1600)">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Monarchs_and_princes" title="List of Welsh people">Royalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_scientists" title="List of Welsh scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women" title="List of Welsh women">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_writers" title="List of Welsh writers">Writers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_authors" title="List of Welsh-language authors">in Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women_writers" title="List of Welsh women writers">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Wales" title="Health in Wales">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NHS_Wales" title="NHS Wales">Healthcare service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_health_board" title="Local health board">Boards</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_in_Wales" title="Church in Wales">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_in_Wales" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Wales">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Wales" title="Presbyterian Church of Wales">Presbyterianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Non-Christian belief systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Wales" title="Baháʼí Faith in Wales">Bahá'ís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Wales" title="Buddhism in Wales">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Wales" title="Hinduism in Wales">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Wales" title="Islam in Wales">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Wales" title="Sikhism in Wales">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li>History <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Church_Act_1914" title="Welsh Church Act 1914">Welsh Church Act 1914</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau" title="Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_flags" title="List of Welsh flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Wales" title="Flag of Wales">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers" title="Prince of Wales's feathers">Prince of Wales's feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Badge_of_Wales" title="Royal Badge of Wales">Royal Badge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">Welsh Dragon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anglo-Saxon_heptarchy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heptarchy" title="Template:Heptarchy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heptarchy" title="Template talk:Heptarchy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heptarchy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heptarchy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anglo-Saxon_heptarchy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> <a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">heptarchy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex" title="Kingdom of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hwicce" title="Hwicce">Hwicce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey" title="Kingdom of Lindsey">Lindsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Saxons" title="Middle Saxons"> Middel Seaxe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernicia" title="Bernicia">Bernicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sussex" title="Kingdom of Sussex">Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretwalda" title="Bretwalda">Bretwalda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iclingas" title="Iclingas">Iclingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithuwald_of_Bernicia" title="Frithuwald of Bernicia">Frithuwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiglaf_of_Mercia" title="Wiglaf of Mercia">Wiglaf of Mercia</a></li> <li>Lists of monarchs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_East_Anglia" title="List of monarchs of East Anglia">East Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Essex" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Kent" title="List of monarchs of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Mercia" title="List of monarchs of Mercia">Mercia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Northumbria" title="List of monarchs of Northumbria">Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Sussex" title="List of monarchs of Sussex">Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Wessex" title="List of monarchs of Wessex">Wessex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regiones" title="Regiones">Regiones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>East Anglia: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk" title="Norfolk">Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Ely" title="Isle of Ely"> Elge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambridgeshire" title="History of Cambridgeshire">Gywre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Herstingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icklingham" title="Icklingham">Ikelgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fens" title="The Fens"> Spalda (Spalding)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fens" title="The Fens"> Bilmingas (part of south Lincolnshire)</a></li></ul></li> <li>Essex: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahhingas" title="Brahhingas">Brahhingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedfordshire#History" title="Bedfordshire"> Beda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengie" title="Dengie">Daenningas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canvey_Island" title="Canvey Island"> Caningaege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingatestone" title="Ingatestone">Gegingas</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surrey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ealing" title="Ealing">Gillingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrey#The_Saxon_tribes_and_the_sub-kingdom" title="Surrey">Godhelmingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havering-atte-Bower" title="Havering-atte-Bower">Haueringas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rodings" title="The Rodings">Hroðingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hackney,_London#Place_name_origin" title="Hackney, London"> Haka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Saxons" title="Middle Saxons">Middle Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harringay" title="Harringay"> Haering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrey#The_formation_of_Surrey" title="Surrey">Nox-gaga and Oht-gaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrey#The_formation_of_Surrey" title="Surrey">Tetingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tewingas" title="Tewingas">Tewingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waeclingas" title="Waeclingas">Waeclingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tooting" title="Tooting">Tota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrey#The_Saxon_tribes_and_the_sub-kingdom" title="Surrey">Woccingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddington" title="Paddington"> Pæding-tun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrey#Identified_sub-kings_of_Surrey" title="Surrey"> Frithuwald's Sūþrīge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldon" title="Maldon">Dæningas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengie" title="Dengie">Deningei</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kent:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newenden" title="Newenden">Andredsley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newenden" title="Newenden"> Andredes Leag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canterbury" title="Canterbury">Boroware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Cantware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochester,_Kent" title="Rochester, Kent"> Ceasterware </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Eastorege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limenwara" title="Limenwara">Lympne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limenwara" title="Limenwara">Limenwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottingham" title="Mottingham"> Modingahema</a></li> <li>Mercia: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvingham" title="Alvingham">Ælfingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86bbingas" title="Æbbingas">Æbbingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aros%C3%A6te" title="Arosæte">Arosæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Banbury" title="History of Banbury">Banesbyrig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beormingas" title="Beormingas">Beormingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bils%C3%A6te" title="Bilsæte">Bilsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilterns%C3%A6te" title="Cilternsæte">Cilternsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duddeston" title="Duddeston">Duddensæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaini" title="Gaini">Gaini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrwas" title="Gyrwas">Gyrwas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glastonbury" title="Glastonbury"> Glestinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husmerae" title="Husmerae">Husmerae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindisfaras" title="Lindisfaras">Lindisfaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magons%C3%A6te" title="Magonsæte">Magonsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Angles" title="Middle Angles">Middle Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nottinghamshire" title="Nottinghamshire">North Engle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_District" title="Peak District"> Pecset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecsaetan" title="Pecsaetan">Pecsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pencers%C3%A6te" title="Pencersæte">Pencersæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repton" title="Repton">Reagesate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thames_Valley" title="Thames Valley"> South Engele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snotingas" title="Snotingas">Snotingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southumbrians" title="Southumbrians">Southumbrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaldingas" title="Spaldingas">Spaldingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoppingas" title="Stoppingas">Stoppingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweordora" title="Sweordora">Sweordora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomsaete" title="Tomsaete">Tomsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oundle" title="Oundle">Undaium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weogoran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weogoran (page does not exist)">Weogoran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerne" title="Westerne">Westerne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreocens%C3%A6te" title="Wreocensæte">Wreocensæte</a></li></ul></li> <li>Northumbria: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmetsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunderland" title="Sunderland">Beodarsæte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds"> Loidis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sussex: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haestingas" title="Haestingas">Haestingas</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wessex: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arlingham" title="Arlingham">Eorlingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basingas" title="Basingas">Basingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Brycgstowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorchester,_Dorset" title="Dorchester, Dorset">Dornsaete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gewisse" title="Gewisse">Gewisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glastening" title="Glastening">Glastening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meonwara" title="Meonwara">Meonwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readingas" title="Readingas">Rēadingas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumorsaete" title="Sumorsaete">Sumorsaete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somerset" title="Somerset"> Sumortūnsǣte and Glestinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunningas" title="Sunningas">Sunningas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiltshire" title="Wiltshire">Wiltsaete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wihtwara" title="Wihtwara">Wihtwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forest#History" title="New Forest">Ytenes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burghal_Hidage" title="Burghal Hidage">Burghal Hidage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_Supremacy" title="Mercian Supremacy">Mercian Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Hidage" title="Tribal Hidage">Tribal Hidage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_peoples" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_peoples" title="Template talk:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern European</a> origin primarily identified as speakers of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Roman Iron Age">Pre-Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture" title="Early Germanic culture">Early culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_early_Germanic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Family in early Germanic culture">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_mythology" title="Germanic mythology">Folklore </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_folklore" title="Proto-Germanic folklore">Proto-Germanic folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon mythology">Anglo-Saxon mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental Germanic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_funerary_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic funerary practices">Funerary practices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial_mounds" title="Anglo-Saxon burial mounds">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_funeral" title="Norse funeral">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_law" title="Germanic law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_law" title="Medieval Scandinavian law">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_literature" title="Old Norse literature">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_name" title="Germanic name">Names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_name" title="Gothic name">Gothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Numbers in Germanic paganism">Numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic paganism">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_culture#Scripts" title="Early Germanic culture">Scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic symbols">Symbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_warfare" title="Early Germanic warfare">Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_and_Vandal_warfare" title="Gothic and Vandal warfare">Gothic and Vandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_raid_warfare_and_tactics" title="Viking raid warfare and tactics">Viking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brisigavi" title="Brisigavi">Brisgavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucinobantes" title="Bucinobantes">Bucinobantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentienses" title="Lentienses">Lentienses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetovari" title="Raetovari">Raetovari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrabaecampi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrabaecampi">Adrabaecampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrones" title="Ambrones">Ambrones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angrivarii" title="Angrivarii">Angrivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armalausi" title="Armalausi">Armalausi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auiones" title="Auiones">Auiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarpi" title="Avarpi">Avarpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baemi" title="Baemi">Baemi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiuvarii" title="Baiuvarii">Baiuvarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banochaemae" title="Banochaemae">Banochaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastarnae" title="Bastarnae">Bastarnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caerosi" title="Caerosi">Caeroesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condrusi" title="Condrusi">Condrusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paemani" title="Paemani">Paemani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segni_(tribe)" title="Segni (tribe)">Segni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morini" title="Morini">Morini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateinoi" title="Bateinoi">Bateinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Betasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brondings" title="Brondings">Brondings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buri_tribe" title="Buri tribe">Buri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritni" title="Caritni">Caritni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuari" title="Casuari">Casuari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaedini" title="Chaedini">Chaedini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaemae" title="Chaemae">Chaemae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chali" title="Chali">Chali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charudes" title="Charudes">Charudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasuarii" title="Chasuarii">Chasuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherusci" title="Cherusci">Cherusci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbri" title="Cimbri">Cimbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobandi" title="Cobandi">Cobandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corconti" title="Corconti">Corconti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cugerni" title="Cugerni">Cugerni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danes_(tribe)" title="Danes (tribe)">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dauciones" title="Dauciones">Dauciones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulgubnii" title="Dulgubnii">Dulgubnii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favonae" title="Favonae">Favonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firaesi" title="Firaesi">Firaesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosi" title="Fosi">Fosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisiavones" title="Frisiavones">Frisiavones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrivii" title="Gambrivii">Gambrivii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greuthungi" title="Greuthungi">Greuthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutones" title="Gutones">Gutones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thervingi" title="Thervingi">Thervingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Goths" title="Thracian Goths">Thracian Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutes" title="Gutes">Gutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermunduri" title="Hermunduri">Hermunduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilleviones" title="Hilleviones">Hilleviones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingaevones" title="Ingaevones">Ingaevones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminones" title="Irminones">Irminones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istvaeones" title="Istvaeones">Istvaeones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juthungi" title="Juthungi">Juthungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacringi" title="Lacringi">Lacringi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemovii" title="Lemovii">Lemovii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hea%C3%B0obards" title="Heaðobards">Heaðobards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugii" title="Lugii">Lugii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diduni" title="Diduni">Diduni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helisii" class="mw-redirect" title="Helisii">Helisii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helveconae" title="Helveconae">Helveconae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manimi" title="Manimi">Manimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahanarvali" title="Nahanarvali">Nahanarvali</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Marsi (Germanic tribe)">Marsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiaci" title="Mattiaci">Mattiaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemetes" title="Nemetes">Nemetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Njars" title="Njars">Njars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuithones" title="Nuithones">Nuithones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osi_(tribe)" title="Osi (tribe)">Osi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reudigni" title="Reudigni">Reudigni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugii" title="Rugii">Rugii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugini" title="Rugini">Rugini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semnones" title="Semnones">Semnones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicambri" title="Sicambri">Sicambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciri" title="Sciri">Sciri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitones" title="Sitones">Sitones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suarines" title="Suarines">Suarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunici" title="Sunici">Sunici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedes_(tribe)" title="Swedes (tribe)">Swedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taifals" title="Taifals">Taifals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelir" title="Thelir">Thelir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuringii" title="Thuringii">Thuringii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texandri" title="Texandri">Toxandri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboci" title="Triboci">Triboci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes">Tubantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulingi" title="Tulingi">Tulingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubii" title="Ubii">Ubii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usipetes" title="Usipetes">Usipetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagoth" title="Vagoth">Vagoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Hasdingi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silingi" title="Silingi">Silingi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vangiones" title="Vangiones">Vangiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varisci" title="Varisci">Varisci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victohali" title="Victohali">Victohali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidivarii" title="Vidivarii">Vidivarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinoviloth" title="Vinoviloth">Vinoviloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warini" title="Warini">Warini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d5dcb0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Christianization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Christianization of the Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Christianization of Iceland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#d5dcb0;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Germanic_peoples" title="Category:Germanic peoples">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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