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Available in 11 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-11" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">11 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCrc%C3%BCstanda_n%C3%BCmayi%C5%9Fl%C9%99r_(1978)" title="Gürcüstanda nümayişlər (1978) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Gürcüstanda nümayişlər (1978)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96_%D1%9E_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%96_(1978)" title="Дэманстрацыі ў Грузіі (1978) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дэманстрацыі ў Грузіі (1978)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestaciones_en_Georgia_(1978)" title="Manifestaciones en Georgia (1978) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Manifestaciones en Georgia (1978)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%98%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%99_(1978)" title="הפגנות טביליסי (1978) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפגנות טביליסי (1978)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98_(1978)" title="თბილისის დემონსტრაციები (1978) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თბილისის დემონსტრაციები (1978)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978._gada_demonstr%C4%81cijas_Gruzij%C4%81" title="1978. gada demonstrācijas Gruzijā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="1978. gada demonstrācijas Gruzijā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE_1978_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Грузиски демонстрации во 1978 година – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Грузиски демонстрации во 1978 година" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstra%C8%9Biile_din_Georgia_din_1978" title="Demonstrațiile din Georgia din 1978 – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Demonstrațiile din Georgia din 1978" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B8_(1978)" title="Демонстрации в Грузии (1978) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Демонстрации в Грузии (1978)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_vuoden_1978_mielenosoitukset" title="Georgian vuoden 1978 mielenosoitukset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Georgian vuoden 1978 mielenosoitukset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%B2_%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%97_(1978)" title="Демонстрації в Грузії (1978) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Демонстрації в Грузії (1978)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2665991#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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April 1978, demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian SSR">Georgian SSR</a>, took place in response to an attempt by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Soviet government</a> to change the constitutional status of languages in Georgia. After a new <a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">Soviet Constitution</a> was adopted in October 1977, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Georgian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR">Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR</a> considered a draft constitution in which, in contrast to the Constitution of 1936, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> was no longer declared to be the sole <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">state language</a>. A series of indoor and outdoor actions of protest ensued and implied with near-certainty there would be a clash between several thousands of demonstrators and the Soviet government, but Georgian Communist Party chief <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a> negotiated with the central authorities in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and managed to obtain permission to retain the previous status of the Georgian language. </p><p>This highly unusual concession to an open expression of opposition to state policy of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> defused popular anger in Tbilisi, but triggered tensions in the <a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_ASSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz ASSR">Abkhaz ASSR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>), an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">autonomous republic</a> in northwest Georgia, where <a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz people">Abkhaz</a> Communist officials protested against what they saw as a capitulation to Georgian nationalism and demanded that their autonomy be transferred from Georgia to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a>. The request was rejected but a number of political, cultural and economic concessions were made. Since 1990, 14 April has been celebrated in Georgia as the Day of the Georgian Language. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The late 1970s witnessed the reemergence of a Georgian national movement which called for the revival of Georgian national culture and, in its most radical form, saw no compromise to Georgia's ultimate independence from the Soviet Union, a rare instance of pro-independence <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissident</a> movement in the Union at the time. Although Georgian opposition <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a> preached avoidance of conflict with non-Georgian minorities, as such conflict would hamper the road to independence, and forged ties with the Russian dissidents of the time, including <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a>, the movement had a strong anti-Russian emphasis and alarmed some minorities, especially in Abkhazia, where there was a lingering ethnic discord between Georgian and Abkhaz communities. In early 1977, the Soviet Committee for State Security (<a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>) managed to suppress most Russian dissident groups and moved to Georgia, with the irreconcilable Georgian opposition leaders, <a href="/wiki/Merab_Kostava" title="Merab Kostava">Merab Kostava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zviad_Gamsakhurdia" title="Zviad Gamsakhurdia">Zviad Gamsakhurdia</a>, being arrested in April. Such measures failed to curb the movement, however. New influential young dissidents such as Tamar Chkheidze, Avtandil Imnadze, later <a href="/wiki/Giorgi_Chanturia" title="Giorgi Chanturia">Giorgi Chanturia</a>, and Irakli Tsereteli, emerged in support of the jailed leaders, and several underground publications (<a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a>) were founded.<sup id="cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Small_Nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period Georgia acquired the position of the republic with the highest level of per capita higher education in the Soviet Union, and the increasing number of students, especially the rural youth with higher education and with little connection to the Communist Party and <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a>, formed a ground for anti-Soviet sentiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_of_language">Status of language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Status of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasian</a> republics—Georgia, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian SSR">Armenian SSR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijan SSR">Azerbaijan SSR</a>—were the only <a href="/wiki/Union_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Union republic">Union republics</a> where the language of a "<a href="/wiki/Titular_nationality" class="mw-redirect" title="Titular nationality">titular nationality</a>", in this case Georgian, enjoyed the status of sole <a href="/wiki/State_language" class="mw-redirect" title="State language">state language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Olsen_et_al._3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsen_et_al.-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When in early 1978 the issue of adopting new constitutions in the republics, based on the 1977 Soviet Constitution, came up, an attempt was made by the Soviet authorities to remove the anomaly of the three Transcaucasian republics, replacing it with a <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> giving an equally official status to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The move was highly unpopular, but in Georgia the question of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> was particularly sensitive and a negative outcry was quite predictable since a suggestion to hold certain courses in the local institutions of higher learning in Russian two years earlier, in April 1976, had provoked a public outrage.<sup id="cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Small_Nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the situation in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> remained calm, the events proceeded in an unexpectedly dramatic manner in Georgia and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protests">Protests</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Protests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Demonstrations broke out throughout Georgia, reaching their climax in Tbilisi on 14 April 1978, the day when the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian SSR convened to ratify the new legislation. An estimated 20,000,<sup id="cite_ref-Sakwa_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sakwa-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mainly university students, took to the streets. Several intellectuals, including the venerated 80-year-old linguist <a href="/wiki/Akaki_Shanidze" title="Akaki Shanidze">Akaki Shanidze</a>, campaigned against reforming Article 75 (addressing the official status of Georgian), and leaflets calling for nationwide resistance appeared in the streets. The demonstrators marched to the House of the Government in downtown Tbilisi. The Soviet police (<a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">militsiya</a>) officers managed to partially block the march, but around 5,000 people still managed to reach the government building, which was quickly surrounded by the Soviet army. The rest of the protesters gathered in and around <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_State_University" title="Tbilisi State University">Tbilisi State University</a>. As the situation threatened to turn dangerous and rumors were coming of Soviet troops preparing for action, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a>, the First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party Central Committee, addressed the demonstrators and reminded them about the <a href="/wiki/9_March_massacre_in_Tbilisi,_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="9 March massacre in Tbilisi, 1956">student demonstrators</a> shot by the Soviet army in Tbilisi on 9 March 1956. Although he was booed when he first tried to speak to the crowd, Shevardnadze was quick to react. He immediately contacted Moscow and asked for permission to leave Article 75 unchanged. While the shocked <a href="/wiki/Kremlin" title="Kremlin">Kremlin</a> was contemplating the issue, Shevardnadze came out and spoke to the demonstrators, explaining the situation and pledging his sympathies to their cause. Finally, the government—giving in to popular pressure—decided not to change the disputed clause. The demonstrators began gradually to withdraw only after Shevardnadze announced the final decision and read out the article affirming the status of Georgian as the state language of the Georgian SSR.<sup id="cite_ref-Suny_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suny-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following this unprecedented concession to public opinion, Soviet authorities, alarmed by the mass actions in Georgia, abandoned similar amendments to the constitutions of Armenia and Azerbaijan and declared Armenian and Azerbaijani state languages at the republican level, without waiting for similar manifestations in either republic.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The language issue in the Transcaucasian republics revealed the sensitivity of the national problem in the region. The upsurge of the national movement in Georgia proper led to tensions between minorities as well, in particular with the Abkhaz, who interpreted the concession by the Soviet authorities as a retreat in the face of Georgian nationalism and saw this as an opportunity to secede from Georgia. In May 1978, several thousands of Abkhaz nationalists assembled in the village of <a href="/wiki/Lykhny" title="Lykhny">Lykhny</a> to support 130 Abkhaz Communists, who had signed the letter to Moscow, demanding that the Abkhaz ASSR be allowed to be transferred from Georgia to the Russian SFSR. The Kremlin dispatched I.V. Kapitonov, <a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_CPSU_Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee">secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee</a>, to Sukhumi and installed a new party leader, <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B1%D0%B0,_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Адлейба, Борис Викторович">Boris Adleiba</a>, in Abkhazia. Kapitonov declared that secession was impermissible, but the government acknowledged the seriousness of the Abkhaz problem by decreeing a costly plan "for the development of the economy and culture of the Abkhaz ASSR".<sup id="cite_ref-Suny_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suny-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An extra 500 million <a href="/wiki/Ruble" title="Ruble">rubles</a> were appropriated over seven years for economic investments such as a road-building program for infrastructure-poor Abkhazia, and cultural benefits such as the creation of an Abkhaz State University (with Abkhaz, Georgian, and Russian sectors), a State Folk Dance Ensemble in Sukhumi, and <a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a>-language television broadcasting. Besides, ethnic quotas were established for certain bureaucratic posts, giving the Abkhaz a degree of political power that was disproportionate to their minority status in the autonomous republic.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the Georgian language and Abkhaz questions were high on the agenda throughout the following years. Georgians living in Abkhazia protested about discrimination against them at the hands of the Abkhaz Communist Party élite and demanded equal access to the autonomous structures. Several Georgian intellectuals petitioned Shevardnadze and the Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> to address the situation. During 1981, at least five mass demonstrations took place in Georgia at which the Abkhaz question was raised once again alongside broader issues connected with the defense of Georgian language, history, and culture. The protesters also demanded the release of Avtandil Imnadze, the only person who was arrested in connection with the events of 14 April 1978 for having filmed the student demonstrations in Tbilisi.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Shevardnadze managed to comply with popular opinion without being punished or reprimanded by the centre, probably due to the success of his economic policy in Georgia,<sup id="cite_ref-Cornell_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornell-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he still sought to neutralise the dissident movement in order to retain his reputation as a successful and loyal Communist leader. Under increasing pressure from the authorities, the national movement suffered a setback in April 1979, when the prominent Georgian dissident, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, was pardoned after having repented his views, admitting his "errors of judgment" on nationwide television. As Gamsakhurdia's close associate, Merab Kostava, refused to surrender, he remained an untainted leader of the Georgian dissident movement until his release in 1987 and his mysterious death in a car crash in 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Small_Nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-nationalist measures also included the dismissal of <a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94" class="extiw" title="ka:აკაკი ბაქრაძე">Akaki Bakradze</a>, a popular professor who taught a course on Georgian literature at Tbilisi University and was known for his anti-Soviet feelings. In March 1981, over 1,000 students protested and achieved the restoration of Bakradze to his position. Later that month, large groups of students and intellectuals demonstrated in defence of Georgian national rights and submitted to the Georgian party leadership a document entitled "The Demands of the Georgian People". The petition included proposals to protect the status of the Georgian language, improve the teaching of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgian history</a> and the preservation of Georgian historical monuments, and protect the Georgians in Abkhazia. Other Georgian protests took place in the town of <a href="/wiki/Mtskheta" title="Mtskheta">Mtskheta</a> in October 1981, when 2,000 people demonstrated in defence of their native language. Unrest continued, and, in 1982, intellectuals protested against the arrest of dissenters on trumped-up charges.<sup id="cite_ref-Olsen_et_al._3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olsen_et_al.-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The April 1978 demonstrations are considered by many as the starting point of a new phase of Georgia's national movement, which eventually led the country into widespread resistance to Soviet rule in the late 1980s and the declaration of Georgian independence on 9 April 1991. Since 1990, 14 April has been celebrated as the "Day of the Georgian Language". Although it is not an official <a href="/wiki/Public_holiday" title="Public holiday">holiday</a>, it is customarily a date for commemorating the events of 1978 and summarizing what has been accomplished by the nation during the past year in the areas of teaching and research.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1978_Georgian_demonstrations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Small_Nations-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Small_Nations_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornell, Svante E. (2001), <i>Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus</i>, pp. 154–155. Routledge (UK), <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1162-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1162-7">0-7007-1162-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornell-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornell_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornell, Svante E. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf"><i>Autonomy and Conflict: Ethnoterritoriality and Separatism in the South Caucasus – Case in Georgia</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141309/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/inside/publications/0419dissertation.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-06-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 162. Department of Peace and Conflict Research, University of Uppsala, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/91-506-1600-5" title="Special:BookSources/91-506-1600-5">91-506-1600-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olsen_et_al.-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olsen_et_al._3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olsen_et_al._3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Olsen, James S., Pappas Lee B., Pappas Nicholas C. (1994), <i>An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empries</i>, pp. 247–258. Greenwood Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-27497-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-27497-5">0-313-27497-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney,_Craig_R.1978" class="citation news cs1">Whitney, Craig R. (1978-04-19). "A Second Soviet Republic Wins Its Language Fight; Exceptions in Linguistic Policy". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. A5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Second+Soviet+Republic+Wins+Its+Language+Fight%3B+Exceptions+in+Linguistic+Policy&rft.pages=A5&rft.date=1978-04-19&rft.au=Whitney%2C+Craig+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1978+Georgian+demonstrations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sakwa-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sakwa_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sakwa, Richard (1998), <i>Soviet Politics in Perspective</i>, p. 241. Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07153-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07153-4">0-415-07153-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suny-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suny_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suny_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), <i>The Making of the Georgian Nation: 2nd edition</i>, pp. 309, 397. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20915-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20915-3">0-253-20915-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamian1998" class="citation book cs1">Abrahamian, Levon Hm. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070630141301/http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~bsp/publications/1998_01-abra.pdf"><i>Mother Tongue: Linguistic Nationalism and the Cult of Translation in Postcommunist Armenia</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Berkeley Program in Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a>, Berkeley Institute of Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. p. 10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~bsp/publications/1998_01-abra.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-06-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mother+Tongue%3A+Linguistic+Nationalism+and+the+Cult+of+Translation+in+Postcommunist+Armenia&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Berkeley+Program+in+Soviet+and+Post-Soviet+Studies.+University+of+California%2C+Berkeley+Institute+of+Slavic%2C+East+European%2C+and+Eurasian+Studies&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Abrahamian&rft.aufirst=Levon+Hm.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocrates.berkeley.edu%2F~bsp%2Fpublications%2F1998_01-abra.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1978+Georgian+demonstrations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2001" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Stuart J. (2001). <i>Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8736-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8736-6"><bdi>0-8014-8736-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Hatreds%3A+The+Symbolic+Politics+of+Ethnic+War&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8014-8736-6&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1978+Georgian+demonstrations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span> Алексеева, Людмила (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/">Грузинское национальное движение</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309152800/http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/">Archived</a> 2017-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/">История Инакомыслия в СССР</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309152800/http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/">Archived</a> 2017-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed on 2 April 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabo, Annika and Utas, Bo (2005), <i>The Role of the State in West Asia</i>, p. 183. Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1087-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1087-6">0-7007-1087-6</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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aria-labelledby="Era_of_Stagnation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Era_of_Stagnation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">Events (1964–1982)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassboro_Summit_Conference" title="Glassboro Summit Conference">Glassboro Summit Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">1968 Red Square demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Attempted assassination of Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev assassination attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladivostok_Summit_Meeting_on_Arms_Control" title="Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control">Vladivostok Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Accords" title="Helsinki Accords">Helsinki Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Moscow_bombings" title="1977 Moscow bombings">1977 Moscow bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977 Soviet constitution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1978 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Reaction to 1980–1981 Polish crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exercise_Zapad-81" class="mw-redirect" title="Exercise Zapad-81">Exercise Zapad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">Events (1982–1985)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RYAN" class="mw-redirect" title="RYAN">RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Soviet_nuclear_false_alarm_incident" title="1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident">1983 false nuclear alarm incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_cotton_scandal" title="Uzbek cotton scandal">Uzbek cotton scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Games" title="Friendship Games">Friendship Games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politburo members<br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_22nd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidium of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">22nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_23rd_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">23rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_24th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">24th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_25th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">25th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_26th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">26th</a></li></ul></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Aliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Chebrikov" title="Viktor Chebrikov">Chebrikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Demichev" title="Pyotr Demichev">Demichev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dolgikh" title="Vladimir Dolgikh">Dolgikh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leonid_Efremov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leonid Efremov (page does not exist)">Efremov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Grechko" title="Andrei Grechko">Grechko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Grishin" title="Viktor Grishin">Grishin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Gromyko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Kirilenko_(politician)" title="Andrei Kirilenko (politician)">Kirilenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhon_Kiselyov" title="Tikhon Kiselyov">Kiselyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Kunaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Kulakov" title="Fyodor Kulakov">Kulakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Kuznetsov_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)">Kuznetsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Masherov" title="Pyotr Masherov">Masherov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirill_Mazurov" title="Kirill Mazurov">Mazurov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Mikoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Mzhavanadze" title="Vasil Mzhavanadze">Mzhavanadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arv%C4%ABds_Pel%C5%A1e" title="Arvīds Pelše">Pelše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Polyansky" title="Dmitry Polyansky">Polyansky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Ponomarev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharof_Rashidov" title="Sharof Rashidov">Rashidov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Romanov" title="Grigory Romanov">Romanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Shcherbytsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Shelepin" title="Alexander Shelepin">Shelepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Shelest" title="Petro Shelest">Shelest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Shevardnadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Shvernik" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Shvernik">Shvernik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Solomentsev" title="Mikhail Solomentsev">Solomentsev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Suslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tikhonov" title="Nikolai Tikhonov">Tikhonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Ustinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Ustinov">Ustinov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gennady_Voronov" title="Gennady Voronov">Voronov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Vorotnikov" title="Vitaly Vorotnikov">Vorotnikov</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">Troika</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Kosygin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Podgorny" title="Nikolai Podgorny">Podgorny</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governments of the Soviet Union">Governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_First_Government" title="Kosygin's First Government">Kosygin's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Second_Government" title="Kosygin's Second Government">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Third_Government" title="Kosygin's Third Government">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fourth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fourth Government">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosygin%27s_Fifth_Government" title="Kosygin's Fifth Government">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_First_Government" title="Tikhonov's First Government">Tikhonov's 1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonov%27s_Second_Government" title="Tikhonov's Second Government">2nd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1973 Soviet economic reform">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1979 Soviet economic reform">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Programme" title="Food Programme">Food Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1984_Soviet_economic_reform&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1984 Soviet economic reform (page does not exist)">1984</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eighth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">8th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ninth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">9th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Tenth five-year plan (Soviet Union)">10th plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="Eleventh five-year plan (Soviet Union)">11th plan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" 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