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<span>Phonetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formant_estimation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formant_estimation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Formant estimation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formant_estimation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formant_plots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formant_plots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Formant plots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formant_plots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singer's_formant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singer's_formant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Singer's formant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singer's_formant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formante" title="Formante – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Formante" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formanto" title="Formanto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Formanto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF_(%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="سازند (صوت‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سازند (صوت‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formain" title="Formain – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Formain" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formante_(fon%C3%A9tica)" title="Formante (fonética) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Formante (fonética)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EB%A8%BC%ED%8A%B8" title="포먼트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포먼트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forman" title="Forman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Forman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formante_(acustica)" title="Formante (acustica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Formante (acustica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%98" title="פורמנט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פורמנט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="フォルマント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フォルマント" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant_(akustyka)" title="Formant (akustyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Formant (akustyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formante" title="Formante – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Formante" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Форманта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Форманта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formantti" title="Formantti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Formantti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formant" title="Formant – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Formant" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Форманти звуків – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Форманти звуків" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E5%B3%B0" title="共振峰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="共振峰" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E5%B3%B0" title="共振峰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Spectrum of phonetic resonance in speech production, or its peak</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrogram_-iua-.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Spectrogram_-iua-.png/250px-Spectrogram_-iua-.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Spectrogram_-iua-.png/500px-Spectrogram_-iua-.png 1.5x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spectrogram" title="Spectrogram">Spectrogram</a> of American English vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i,<span class="wrap"> </span>u,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɑ]</span> showing the formants <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>2</sub></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Speech_science" title="Speech science">speech science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a>, a <b>formant</b> is the broad spectral maximum that results from an <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance" title="Acoustic resonance">acoustic resonance</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vocal_tract" title="Vocal tract">human vocal tract</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a>, a formant is usually defined as a broad peak, or local maximum, in the spectrum.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For harmonic sounds, with this definition, the formant frequency is sometimes taken as that of the <a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonic</a> that is most augmented by a resonance. The difference between these two definitions resides in whether "formants" characterise the production mechanisms of a sound or the produced sound itself. In practice, the frequency of a spectral peak differs slightly from the associated resonance frequency, except when, by luck, harmonics are aligned with the resonance frequency, or when the sound source is mostly non-harmonic, as in whispering and <a href="/wiki/Vocal_fry_register" title="Vocal fry register">vocal fry</a>. </p><p>A room can be said to have formants characteristic of that particular room, due to its resonances, i.e., to the way sound reflects from its walls and objects. Room formants of this nature reinforce themselves by emphasizing specific frequencies and absorbing others, as exploited, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Lucier" title="Alvin Lucier">Alvin Lucier</a> in his piece <i><a href="/wiki/I_Am_Sitting_in_a_Room" title="I Am Sitting in a Room">I Am Sitting in a Room</a></i>. In acoustic <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">digital signal processing</a>, the way a collection of formants (such as a room) affects a signal can be represented by an <a href="/wiki/Impulse_response" title="Impulse response">impulse response</a>. </p><p>In both speech and rooms, formants are characteristic features of the resonances of the space. They are said to be <i>excited</i> by acoustic sources such as the voice, and they shape (filter) the sources' sounds, but they are not sources themselves. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From an acoustic point of view, phonetics had a serious problem with the idea that the effective length of vocal tract changed vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, when the length of the vocal tract changes, all the acoustic resonators formed by mouth cavities are scaled, and so are their resonance frequencies. Therefore, it was unclear how vowels could depend on frequencies when talkers with different vocal tract lengths, for instance <a href="/wiki/Bass_(voice_type)" title="Bass (voice type)">bass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soprano" title="Soprano">soprano</a> singers, can produce sounds that are perceived as belonging to the same phonetic category. There had to be some way to normalize the spectral information underpinning the vowel identity. <a href="/wiki/Ludimar_Hermann" title="Ludimar Hermann">Hermann</a> suggested a solution to this problem in 1894, coining the term “formant”. A vowel, according to him, is a special acoustic phenomenon, depending on the intermittent production of a special partial, or “formant”, or “characteristique” feature. The frequency of the “formant” may vary a little without altering the character of the vowel. For “long e” (<i>ee</i> or <i>iy</i>) for example, the lowest-frequency “formant” may vary from 350 to 440 Hz even in the same person.<sup id="cite_ref-McKendrick_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKendrick-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonetics">Phonetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="margin:1em;float:right;text-align:center"> <caption>Average vowel formants for a male voice (in Hz)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Vowel<br />(<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>) </th> <th scope="col" style="width:3.5em"><i>F</i><sub>1</sub> </th> <th scope="col" style="width:3.5em"><i>F</i><sub>2</sub> </th> <th scope="col" style="width:3.5em"><i>F</i><sub>2</sub> – <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </th> <td>240</td> <td>2400</td> <td>2160 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">y</span> </th> <td>235</td> <td>2100</td> <td>1865 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </th> <td>390</td> <td>2300</td> <td>1910 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ø</span> </th> <td>370</td> <td>1900</td> <td>1530 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ</span> </th> <td>610</td> <td>1900</td> <td>1290 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">æ</span> </th> <td>585</td> <td>1710</td> <td>1125 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> </th> <td>850</td> <td>1610</td> <td>760 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɶ</span> </th> <td>820</td> <td>1530</td> <td>710 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ</span> </th> <td>750</td> <td>940</td> <td>190 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɒ</span> </th> <td>700</td> <td>760</td> <td>60 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʌ</span> </th> <td>600</td> <td>1170</td> <td>570 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ</span> </th> <td>500</td> <td>700</td> <td>200 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɤ</span> </th> <td>460</td> <td>1310</td> <td>850 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </th> <td>360</td> <td>640</td> <td>280 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɯ</span> </th> <td>300</td> <td>1390</td> <td>1090 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </th> <td>250</td> <td>595</td> <td>345 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Formants are distinctive frequency components of the acoustic signal produced by speech, musical instruments<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Singing" title="Singing">singing</a>. The information that humans require to distinguish between speech sounds can be represented purely quantitatively by specifying peaks in the frequency spectrum. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a>, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of <a href="/wiki/Venturi_effect" title="Venturi effect">Venturi effect</a> low-pressure zones.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The formant with the lowest frequency is called <i>F</i><sub>1</sub>, the second <i>F</i><sub>2</sub>, the third <i>F</i><sub>3</sub>, and so forth. The <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">fundamental frequency</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a> of the voice is sometimes referred to as <i>F</i><sub>0</sub>, but it is not a formant. Most often the two first formants, <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>2</sub>, are sufficient to identify the vowel. The relationship between the perceived vowel quality and the first two formant frequencies can be appreciated by listening to "artificial vowels" that are generated by passing a click train (to simulate the glottal pulse train) through a pair of bandpass filters (to simulate vocal tract resonances). <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front vowels</a> have higher <i>F</i><sub>2</sub>, while <a href="/wiki/Low_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vowel">low vowels</a> have higher <i>F</i><sub>1</sub>. <a href="/wiki/Lip_rounding" class="mw-redirect" title="Lip rounding">Lip rounding</a> tends to lower <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> in back vowels and <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>3</sub> in front vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nasal consonants usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz. The liquid <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, whereas the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> "r" sound (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ]</span>) is distinguished by a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plosives" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">Plosives</a> (and, to some degree, <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a>) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels. <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> sounds (such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> in "ball" or "sap") cause a lowering of the formants; on spectrograms, <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> sounds (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> in English) almost always show <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>3</sub> coming together in a 'velar pinch' before the <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> sounds (English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>) cause fewer systematic changes in neighbouring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present. The time course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'. </p><p>In normal voiced speech, the underlying vibration produced by the vocal folds resembles a <a href="/wiki/Sawtooth_wave" title="Sawtooth wave">sawtooth wave</a>, rich in <a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonic</a> overtones. If the fundamental frequency or (more often) one of the overtones is higher than a resonance frequency of the system, then the resonance will be only weakly excited and the formant usually imparted by that resonance will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the case of <a href="/wiki/Soprano" title="Soprano">soprano</a> <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> singers, who sing at pitches high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish. </p><p>Control of resonances is an essential component of the vocal technique known as <a href="/wiki/Overtone_singing" title="Overtone singing">overtone singing</a>, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper <a href="/wiki/Harmonics" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonics">harmonics</a>, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Spectrogram" title="Spectrogram">Spectrograms</a> may be used to visualise formants. In spectrograms, it can be hard to distinguish formants from naturally occurring harmonics when one sings. However, one can hear the natural formants in a vowel shape through atonal techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Vocal_fry" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocal fry">vocal fry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formant_estimation">Formant estimation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Formant estimation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Formants, whether they are seen as acoustic resonances of the vocal tract, or as local maxima in the speech spectrum, like <a href="/wiki/Band-pass_filter" title="Band-pass filter">band-pass filters</a>, are defined by their frequency and by their <a href="/wiki/Spectral_width" title="Spectral width">spectral width</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>). </p><p>Different methods exist to obtain this information. Formant frequencies, in their acoustic definition, can be estimated from the <a href="/wiki/Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">frequency spectrum</a> of the sound, using a spectrogram (in the figure) or a spectrum analyzer. However, to estimate the acoustic resonances of the vocal tract (i.e. the speech definition of formants) from a speech recording, one can use <i><a href="/wiki/Linear_predictive_coding" title="Linear predictive coding">linear predictive coding</a></i>. An intermediate approach consists in extracting the spectral envelope by neutralizing the fundamental frequency,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and only then looking for local maxima in the spectral envelope. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formant_plots">Formant plots</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formant plots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catford_formant_plot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Catford_formant_plot.png/220px-Catford_formant_plot.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Catford_formant_plot.png/330px-Catford_formant_plot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Catford_formant_plot.png/440px-Catford_formant_plot.png 2x" data-file-width="2708" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption>A plot of the average formants listed in the above chart</figcaption></figure> <p>The first two formants are important in determining the quality of vowels, and are frequently said to correspond to the open/close (or low/high) and front/back dimensions (which have traditionally been associated with the shape and position of the <a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a>). Thus the first formant <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> has a higher frequency for an open or low vowel such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> and a lower frequency for a closed or high vowel such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>; and the second formant <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> has a higher frequency for a front vowel such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> and a lower frequency for a back vowel such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants, and sometimes more than six. However, the first two formants are the most important in determining vowel quality and are often plotted against each other in vowel diagrams,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this simplification fails to capture some aspects of vowel quality such as rounding.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many writers have addressed the problem of finding an optimal alignment of the positions of vowels on formant plots with those on the conventional vowel quadrilateral. The pioneering work of Ladefoged<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used the <a href="/wiki/Mel_scale" title="Mel scale">Mel scale</a> because this scale was claimed to correspond more closely to the auditory scale of <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a> than to the acoustic measure of <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">fundamental frequency</a> expressed in Hertz. Two alternatives to the Mel scale are the <a href="/wiki/Bark_scale" title="Bark scale">Bark scale</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_rectangular_bandwidth" title="Equivalent rectangular bandwidth">ERB-rate scale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another widely adopted strategy is plotting the difference between <i>F</i><sub>1</sub> and <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> rather than <i>F</i><sub>2</sub> on the horizontal axis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Singer's_formant"><span id="Singer.27s_formant"></span>Singer's formant</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Singer's formant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Squillo" title="Squillo">Squillo</a></div> <p>Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained speakers and classical <a href="/wiki/Singing" title="Singing">singers</a>, especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz (between 2800 and 3400 Hz) that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained speakers or singers. It is thought to be associated with one or more of the higher resonances of the vocal tract.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is this increase in energy at 3000 Hz which allows singers to be heard and understood over an <a href="/wiki/Orchestra" title="Orchestra">orchestra</a>. This formant is actively developed through <a href="/wiki/Vocal_pedagogy" title="Vocal pedagogy">vocal training</a>, for instance through so-called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Voce_di_strega&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Voce di strega (page does not exist)">voce di strega</a></i> or "witch's voice"<sup id="cite_ref-FrisellBrandenBooks_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FrisellBrandenBooks-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exercises and is caused by a part of the vocal tract acting as a <a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_resonator" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmholtz resonator">resonator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sundberg_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sundberg-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In classical music and vocal pedagogy, this phenomenon is also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Squillo" title="Squillo">squillo</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formant_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Formant synthesis">Formant synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_voice" title="Human voice">Human voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_predictive_coding" title="Linear predictive coding">Linear predictive coding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praat" title="Praat">Praat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbre" title="Timbre">Timbre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocoder" title="Vocoder">Vocoder</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-717893-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-717893-3">978-0-13-717893-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Titze, I.R., Baken, R.J. Bozeman, K.W., Granqvist, S. Henrich, N., Herbst, C.T., Howard, D.M., Hunter, E.J., Kaelin, D., Kent, R.D., Löfqvist, A., McCoy, S., Miller, D.G., Noé, H., Scherer, R.C., Smith, J.R., Story, B.H., Švec, J.G., Ternström, S. and Wolfe, J. (2015) "Toward a consensus on symbolic notation of harmonics, resonances, and formants in vocalization." J. Acoust. Soc. America. 137, 3005–3007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeans, J.H. (1938) Science & Music, reprinted by Dover, 1968.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Standards Secretariat, Acoustical Society of America, (1994). ANSI S1.1-1994 (R2004) American National Standard Acoustical Terminology, (12.41) Acoustical Society of America, Melville, NY.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHermann1894" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hermann, Ludimar (1894). <i>Phonophotographische Untersuchungen</i> [<i>Phonophotographical Studies</i>] (in German) (5th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonophotographische+Untersuchungen&rft.edition=5th&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Hermann&rft.aufirst=Ludimar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKendrick-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McKendrick_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKendrick, J. G. (1903). Experimental phonetics. In Annual report of the board of regents of the Smithsonian institution for the year ending June 30, 1902 (pp. 241–259). Smithsonian Institution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCatford1988" class="citation book cs1">Catford, J. C. (1988). <i>A practical introduction to phonetics</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824217-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824217-8"><bdi>978-0-19-824217-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+practical+introduction+to+phonetics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824217-8&rft.aulast=Catford&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reuter, Christoph (2009): The role of formant positions and micro-modulations in blending and partial masking of musical instruments. In: <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Acoustical_Society_of_America" title="Journal of the Acoustical Society of America">Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</a> (JASA), Vol. 126,4, p. 2237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlanagan1972" class="citation book cs1">Flanagan, James L. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-01562-9"><i>Speech Analysis Synthesis and Perception</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-01562-9">10.1007/978-3-662-01562-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-01564-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-01564-3"><bdi>978-3-662-01564-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Speech+Analysis+Synthesis+and+Perception&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-01562-9&rft.isbn=978-3-662-01564-3&rft.aulast=Flanagan&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-01562-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas2011" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Erik R. (2011). <i>Sociophonetics: An Introduction</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22455-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-22455-1"><bdi>978-0-230-22455-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociophonetics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-230-22455-1&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Erik+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKawaharaMasuda-Katsusede_Cheveigné1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kawahara, Hideki; Masuda-Katsuse, Ikuyo; de Cheveigné, Alain (April 1999). "Restructuring speech representations using a pitch-adaptive time–frequency smoothing and an instantaneous-frequency-based F0 extraction: Possible role of a repetitive structure in sounds". <i>Speech Communication</i>. <b>27</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">187–</span>207. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-6393%2898%2900085-5">10.1016/S0167-6393(98)00085-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speech+Communication&rft.atitle=Restructuring+speech+representations+using+a+pitch-adaptive+time%E2%80%93frequency+smoothing+and+an+instantaneous-frequency-based+F0+extraction%3A+Possible+role+of+a+repetitive+structure+in+sounds&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E207&rft.date=1999-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0167-6393%2898%2900085-5&rft.aulast=Kawahara&rft.aufirst=Hideki&rft.au=Masuda-Katsuse%2C+Ikuyo&rft.au=de+Cheveign%C3%A9%2C+Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ladefoged, Peter (2006) <i>A Course in Phonetics (Fifth Edition)</i>, Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 188. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4130-2079-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4130-2079-8">1-4130-2079-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ladefoged, Peter (2001) <i>Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Language</i>, Maldern, MA: Blackwell, p. 40. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21412-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21412-7">0-631-21412-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Deterding, David (1997) 'The Formants of Monophthong Vowels in Standard Southern British English Pronunciation', <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 27, pp. 47–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hayward, Katrina (2000) <i>Experimental Phonetics</i>, Harlow, UK: Pearson, p. 149. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-29137-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-29137-2">0-582-29137-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged1967" class="citation book cs1">Ladefoged, P. (1967). <i>Three Areas of Experimental Phonetics</i>. Oxford. p. 87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Areas+of+Experimental+Phonetics&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHayward2000" class="citation book cs1">Hayward, K. (2000). <i>Experimental Phonetics</i>. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-29137-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-29137-2"><bdi>0-582-29137-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experimental+Phonetics&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-582-29137-2&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sundberg, J. (1974). "Articulatory interpretation of the 'singing formant'", <i>Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>, 55, 838–844.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBele2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bele, Irene Velsvik (December 2006). "The Speaker's Formant". <i>J. Voice</i>. <b>20</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">555–</span>578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvoice.2005.07.001">10.1016/j.jvoice.2005.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16325374">16325374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Voice&rft.atitle=The+Speaker%27s+Formant&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E555-%3C%2Fspan%3E578&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jvoice.2005.07.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16325374&rft.aulast=Bele&rft.aufirst=Irene+Velsvik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FrisellBrandenBooks-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FrisellBrandenBooks_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrisell,_Anthony2007" class="citation book cs1">Frisell, Anthony (2007). <i>Baritone Voice</i>. Boston: Branden Books. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8283-2181-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8283-2181-5"><bdi>978-0-8283-2181-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Baritone+Voice&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Branden+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8283-2181-5&rft.au=Frisell%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sundberg-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sundberg_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSundberg,_Johan1987" class="citation book cs1">Sundberg, Johan (1987). <i>The science of the singing voice</i>. DeKalb, Ill: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University_Press" title="Northern Illinois University Press">Northern Illinois University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-542-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87580-542-6"><bdi>0-87580-542-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+science+of+the+singing+voice&rft.place=DeKalb%2C+Ill&rft.pub=Northern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-87580-542-6&rft.au=Sundberg%2C+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFormant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~karchung/Phonetics%20II%20page%20nineteen.htm">Formants for fun and profit</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geofex.com/Article_Folders/wahpedl/voicewah.htm">Formants and wah-wah pedals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/formant.html">What is a formant?</a> A discussion of the three different meanings of the word 'formant'</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/soprane.html">Formant tuning by soprano singers</a> from the University of New South Wales</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/xoomi.html">The acoustics of harmonic or overtone singing</a> from the University of New South Wales</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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class="plainlist"><ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A spectrogram of a violin playing a note and then a perfect fifth above it. The shared partials are highlighted by the white dashes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png/80px-Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png/120px-Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png/160px-Spectrogram_showing_shared_partials.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="250" /></a></span></li><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Spectrogram" title="Spectrogram">Spectrogram</a></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bark_scale" title="Bark scale">Bark scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_scale" title="Mel scale">Mel scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour" title="Equal-loudness contour">Equal-loudness contour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fletcher%E2%80%93Munson_curves" class="mw-redirect" title="Fletcher–Munson curves">Fletcher–Munson curves</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">Audio frequency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)" title="Beat (acoustics)">Beat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Formant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">Fundamental frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">Frequency spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_spectrum" title="Harmonic spectrum">harmonic spectrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_series_(music)" title="Harmonic series (music)">Series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inharmonicity" title="Inharmonicity">Inharmonicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_fundamental" title="Missing fundamental">Missing fundamental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_tone" title="Combination tone">Combination tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersenne%27s_laws" title="Mersenne's laws">Mersenne's laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overtone" title="Overtone">Overtone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance" title="Acoustic resonance">Resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">Standing wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Node_(physics)" title="Node (physics)">Node</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertone_series" title="Undertone series">Subharmonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Acousticians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Backus_(acoustician)" title="John Backus (acoustician)">John Backus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Blauert" title="Jens Blauert">Jens Blauert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chladni" title="Ernst Chladni">Ernst Chladni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleen_Hutchins" title="Carleen Hutchins">Carleen Hutchins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Melde" title="Franz Melde">Franz Melde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marin_Mersenne" title="Marin Mersenne">Marin Mersenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Meyer-Eppler" title="Werner Meyer-Eppler">Werner Meyer-Eppler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sauveur" title="Joseph Sauveur">Joseph Sauveur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Van_Holliday" title="D. Van Holliday">D. Van Holliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echo" title="Echo">Echo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrasound" title="Infrasound">Infrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">Ultrasound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_acoustics" title="Musical acoustics">Musical acoustics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piano_acoustics" title="Piano acoustics">Piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violin_acoustics" title="Violin acoustics">Violin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Acoustics" title="Category:Acoustics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formant&oldid=1264827142">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formant&oldid=1264827142</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_voice" title="Category:Human voice">Human voice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sound_synthesis_types" title="Category:Sound synthesis types">Sound synthesis types</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Acoustics" title="Category:Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2021</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 December 2024, at 19:04<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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