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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goffman's_key_insights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Goffman's key insights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goffman's_key_insights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Matza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Matza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>David Matza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Matza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"criminal"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"criminal""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The "criminal"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"criminal"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"mentally_ill"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"mentally_ill""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The "mentally ill"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"mentally_ill"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"homosexual"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"homosexual""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The "homosexual"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"homosexual"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modified_labeling_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modified_labeling_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modified labeling theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modified_labeling_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_l%27etiquetatge" title="Teoria de l'etiquetatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria de l'etiquetatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_n%C3%A1lepkov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Teorie nálepkování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teorie nálepkování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikettierungsansatz" title="Etikettierungsansatz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Etikettierungsansatz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4rgistamisteooria" title="Märgistamisteooria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Märgistamisteooria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_del_etiquetado" title="Teoría del etiquetado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría del etiquetado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%86%D8%B3%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D9%86%DB%8C" title="نظریه برچسب‌زنی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه برچسب‌زنی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Labeling people changes their behavior</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Labeling+theory%22">"Labeling theory"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Labeling+theory%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Labeling+theory%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Labeling+theory%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Labeling+theory%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Labeling+theory%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png/220px-Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png/330px-Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png/440px-Labeling_Theory_Diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A brief representation of the idea behind labeling theory</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Labeling theory</b> posits that <a href="/wiki/Self-identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-identity">self-identity</a> and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophecy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotyping</a>. Labeling theory holds that <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a> is not inherent in an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard <a href="/wiki/Cultural_norm" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural norm">cultural norms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory was prominent during the 1960s and 1970s, and some modified versions of the theory have developed and are still currently popular. Stigma is defined as a powerfully negative label that changes a person's self-concept and <a href="/wiki/Social_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social identity">social identity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Labeling theory is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social-construction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic-interaction</a> analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Labeling theory was developed by <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologists</a> during the 1960s. <a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard Saul Becker's</a> book <i>Outsiders</i> was extremely influential in the development of this theory and its rise to popularity. </p><p>Labeling theory is also connected to other fields besides crime. For instance there is the labeling theory that corresponds to <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a>. Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues were the main advocates in separating the difference between the role of a "homosexual" and the acts one does. An example is the idea that males performing feminine acts would imply that they are homosexual. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Scheff" title="Thomas J. Scheff">Thomas J. Scheff</a> states that labeling also plays a part with the "mentally ill". The label does not refer to criminal but rather acts that are not socially accepted due to mental disorders. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_basis">Theoretical basis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theoretical basis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_Herbert_Mead">George Herbert Mead</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: George Herbert Mead"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the founders of social <a href="/wiki/Interactionism" title="Interactionism">interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a>, focused on the internal processes of how the mind constructs one's self-image. In <i>Mind, Self & Society</i> (1934),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he showed how infants come to know <i>persons</i> first and only later come to know <i>things</i>. According to Mead, thought is both a <i>social</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pragmaticism" title="Pragmaticism">pragmatic</a></i> process, based on the model of two persons discussing how to solve a problem. Mead's central concept is the self, the part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frank_Tannenbaum">Frank Tannenbaum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Frank Tannenbaum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Tannenbaum" title="Frank Tannenbaum">Frank Tannenbaum</a> first introduced the idea of "tagging."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kerry Townsend (2001) writes about the revolution in criminology caused by Tannenbaum's work:</p><blockquote><p>"The roots of Frank Tannenbaum's theoretical model, known as the 'dramatization of evil' or labeling theory, surfaces in the mid- to late-thirties. At this time, the 'New Deal' legislation had not defeated the woes of the Great Depression, and, although dwindling, immigration into the United States continued.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social climate was one of disillusionment with the government. The class structure was one of cultural isolationism; cultural relativity had not yet taken hold. 'The persistence of the class structure, despite the welfare reforms and controls over big business, was unmistakable.'<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup> </p><p>"One of the central tenets of the theory is to encourage the end of labeling process. In the words of Frank Tannenbaum, 'the way out is through a refusal to dramatize the evil", the justice system attempts to do this through diversion programs. The growth of the theory and its current application, both practical and theoretical, provide a solid foundation for continued popularity."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Tannenbaum discusses criminal behavior, with a focus on those who commit crimes professionally or as a career. He classifies criminals into six types: occasional, financially motivated, vagrants, unintentional, mentally ill, and professional.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frank Tannenbaum's explanation of Labeling Theory highlighted the negative consequences of police interactions with children which argues that arresting youth leads to a "dramatization of evil". His research indicated that youth being arrested and labeled as criminals shapes their self-perception to fit that label.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://kb.gcsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1130&context=thecorinthian">[1]</a></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edwin_Lemert">Edwin Lemert</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Edwin Lemert"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Edwin M. Lemert was an influential American sociologist and criminologist known for his contributions to labeling theory and the study of social deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He introduced the concepts of <b>primary</b> and <b>secondary deviance</b>—primary deviance being minor, initial acts of rule-breaking that don't alter self-identity, and secondary deviance occurring when an individual internalizes the deviant label imposed by society, leading to further deviant behavior. Lemert’s work emphasized how societal reactions to deviance can reinforce and escalate it, shaping an individual’s identity as deviant. Lemert's popular books, such as <b>"Social Pathology"</b> (1951) and <b>"Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control"</b> (1967), have had a lasting impact on criminology and sociology.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Lemert" title="Edwin Lemert">Edwin Lemert</a> writes: "His acts are repeated and organized subjectively and transformed into active roles and become the social criteria for assigning status.…When a person begins to employ his deviant behavior or a role based on it as a means of defense, attack, or adjustment to the overt and covert problems created by the consequent societal reaction to him, his deviation is secondary."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 75–6">: 75–6 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Howard_Becker">Howard Becker</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Howard Becker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> While it was Lemert who introduced the key concepts of labeling theory, it was <a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard Becker</a> who became their successor. He first began describing the process of how a person adopts a deviant role in a study of dance musicians, with whom he once worked. He later studied the identity formation of marijuana smokers. This study was the basis of his <i>Outsiders</i> published in 1963. This work became the manifesto of the labeling theory movement among sociologists. In his opening, Becker writes:</p><blockquote><p>"…social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction creates deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by other of rules and sanctions to an 'offender.' The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label."<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_26_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker_26-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>While society uses the stigmatic label to justify its condemnation, the deviant actor uses it to justify his actions. He wrote: "To put a complex argument in a few words: instead of the deviant motives leading to the deviant behavior, it is the other way around, the deviant behavior in time produces the deviant motivation."<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_26_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker_26-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup> </p><p>Becker's immensely popular views were also subjected to a barrage of criticism, most of it blaming him for neglecting the influence of other biological, genetic effects and personal responsibility. In a later 1973 edition of his work, he answered his critics. He wrote that sociologists, while dedicated to studying society, are often careful not to look too closely. Instead, he wrote: "I prefer to think of what we study as <i>collective action.</i> People act, as Mead and Blumer have made clearest, <i>together</i>. They do what they do with an eye on what others have done, are doing now, and may do in the future. One tries to fit his own line of action into the actions of others, just as each of them likewise adjusts his own developing actions to what he sees and expects others to do."<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_26_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker_26-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup> </p><p>Francis Cullen reported in 1984 that Becker was probably too generous with his critics. After 20 years, Becker's views, far from being supplanted, have been corrected and absorbed into an expanded "structuring perspective."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albert_Memmi">Albert Memmi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Albert Memmi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> In <i>The Colonizer and the Colonized</i> (1965), <a href="/wiki/Albert_Memmi" title="Albert Memmi">Albert Memmi</a> described the deep psychological effects of the social stigma created by the domination of one group by another. He wrote:</p><blockquote><p>The longer the oppression lasts, the more profoundly it affects him (the oppressed). It ends by becoming so familiar to him that he believes it is part of his own constitution, that he accepts it and could not imagine his recovery from it. This acceptance is the crowning point of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 321–2">: 321–2 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>In <i>Dominated Man</i> (1968), Memmi turned his attention to the motivation of stigmatic labeling: it justifies the exploitation or criminalization of the victim. He wrote:</p><blockquote><p>Why does the accuser feel obliged to accuse in order to justify himself? <i>Because he feels guilty toward his victim.</i> Because he feels that his attitude and his behavior are essentially unjust and fraudulent.… Proof? <i>In almost every case, the punishment has already been inflicted</i>. The victim of racism is already living under the weight of disgrace and oppression.… In order to justify such punishment and misfortune, a process of rationalization is set in motion, by which to explain the ghetto and colonial exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 191–3">: 191–3 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Central to stigmatic labeling is the attribution of an inherent fault: It is as if one says, "There must be something wrong with these people. Otherwise, why would we treat them so badly?" </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erving_Goffman">Erving Goffman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Erving Goffman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perhaps the most important contributor to labeling theory was <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a>, President of the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">American Sociological Association</a> (ASA), and one of America's most cited sociologists. His most popular books include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Presentation_of_Self_in_Everyday_Life" title="The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life">The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Interaction Ritual</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Frame Analysis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His most important contribution to labeling theory, however, was <i>Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity</i> published in 1963.<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goffman's_key_insights"><span id="Goffman.27s_key_insights"></span>Goffman's key insights</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Goffman's key insights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The modern nation state's heightened demand for normalcy. Today's stigmas are the result not so much of ancient or religious prohibitions, but of a new demand for normalcy: </p><blockquote><p>"The notion of the 'normal human being' may have its source in the medical approach to humanity, or in the tendency of large-scale bureaucratic organizations such as the nation state, to treat all members in some respects as equal. Whatever its origins, it seems to provide the basic imagery through which laymen currently conceive themselves."<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Living in a divided world, deviants split their worlds into: (1) forbidden places where discovery means exposure and danger; (2) places where people of that kind are painfully tolerated; and (3) places where one's kind is exposed without need to dissimulate or conceal.<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 81">: 81 </span></sup> Dealing with others is fraught with great complexity and ambiguity: </p><blockquote><p>"When normals and stigmatized do in fact enter one another's immediate presence, especially when they attempt to maintain a joint conversational encounter, there occurs one of the primal scenes of sociology; for, in many cases, these moments will be the ones when the causes and effects of stigma will be directly confronted by both sides."<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> "What are unthinking routines for normals can become management problems for the discreditable.… The person with a secret failing, then, must be alive to the social situation as a scanner of possibilities, and is therefore likely to be alienated from the simpler world in which those around them apparently dwell."<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 88">: 88 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Society's demands are filled with contradictions:</p><blockquote><p>On the one hand, a stigmatized person may be told that he is no different from others. On the other hand, he must declare his status as "a resident alien who stands for his group."<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 108">: 108 </span></sup> "One has to convey the impression that the burden of the stigma is not too heavy yet keep himself at the required distance. "A <i>phantom acceptance</i> is allowed to provide the base for a <i>phantom normalcy."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Familiarity need not reduce contempt. In spite of the common belief that openness and exposure will decrease stereotypes and repression, the opposite is true: </p><blockquote><p>"Thus, whether we interact with strangers or intimates, we will still find that the fingertips of society have reached bluntly into the contact, even here putting us in our place."<i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 53">: 53 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Matza">David Matza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: David Matza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>On Becoming Deviant</i> (1969), sociologist David Matza<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gives the most vivid and graphic account of the process of adopting a deviant role. The acts of authorities in outlawing a proscribed behavior can have two effects, keeping most out of the behavior, but also offering new opportunities for creating deviant identities. He says the concept of "affinity" does little to explain the dedication to the behavior. "Instead, it may be regarded as a natural biographical tendency born of personal and social circumstances that suggests but hardly compels a direction or movement."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 93">: 93 </span></sup> </p><p> What gives force to that movement is the development of a new identity:</p><blockquote><p>"To be cast as a thief, as a prostitute, or more generally, a deviant, is to further compound and hasten the process of becoming that very thing."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 157">: 157 </span></sup> </p><p>"In shocked discovery, the subject now concretely understands that there are serious people who really go around building their lives around his activities—stopping him, correcting him, devoted to him. They keep records on the course of his life, even develop theories on how he got that way.... Pressed by such a display, the subject may begin to add meaning and gravity to his deviant activities. But he may do so in a way not especially intended by agents of the state."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 163–4">: 163–4 </span></sup> </p><p> "The meaningful issue of identity is whether this activity, or any of my activities can stand for me, or be regarded as proper indications of my being. I have done a theft, been signified a thief. <i>am</i> I a thief? To answer affirmatively, we must be able to conceive a special relationship between being and doing—a unity capable of being indicated. That building of meaning has a notable quality."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 165–70">: 165–70 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"criminal""><span id="The_.22criminal.22"></span>The "criminal"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The "criminal""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As an application of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, the theory hypothesizes that the labels applied to individuals influence their behavior, particularly the application of negative or stigmatizing labels (such as "<a href="/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">criminal</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felon</a>") promote <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behavior</a>, becoming a <a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophecy</a>, i.e. an individual who is labeled has little choice but to conform to the essential meaning of that judgment. Consequently, labeling theory postulates that it is possible to prevent social deviance via a limited social shaming reaction in "labelers" and replacing <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> indignation with <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a>. Emphasis is placed on the <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> of offenders through an alteration of their labels. Related prevention policies include client <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowerment</a> schemes, <a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">mediation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conciliation" title="Conciliation">conciliation</a>, victim-offender <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a> ceremonies (restorative justice), <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">reparation</a>, and alternatives to prison programs involving <a href="/wiki/Hobby" title="Hobby">diversion</a>. Labeling theory has been accused of promoting impractical policy implications, and criticized for failing to explain society's most serious offenses.<sup id="cite_ref-Vito1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vito1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"mentally_ill""><span id="The_.22mentally_ill.22"></span>The "mentally ill"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The "mentally ill""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The social construction of <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behavior</a> plays an important role in the labeling process that occurs in society. This process involves not only the labeling of criminally deviant behavior, which is behavior that does not fit socially constructed norms, but also labeling that which reflects stereotyped or stigmatized behavior of the "mentally ill". In 1961 <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a></i>, asked, "Who defines whom as troublesome or mentally sick?... [the one] who first seizes the word imposes reality on the other; [the one] who defines thus dominates and lives; and [the one] who is defined is subjugated and may be killed."<sup id="cite_ref-Szasz1973_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szasz1973-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 85">: 85 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Scheff" title="Thomas J. Scheff">Thomas J. Scheff</a> in <i>Being Mentally Ill</i> challenged common perceptions of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> by claiming that mental illness is manifested solely as a result of societal influence. He argued that society views certain actions as <a href="/wiki/Deviant" class="mw-redirect" title="Deviant">deviant</a> and, in order to come to terms with and understand these actions, often places the label of mental illness on those who exhibit them. Certain expectations are then placed on these individuals and, over time, they unconsciously change their behavior to fulfill them. Criteria for different mental illnesses are not consistently fulfilled by those who are diagnosed with them because all of these people suffer from the same disorder, they are simply fulfilled because the "mentally ill" believe they are supposed to act a certain way so, over time, come to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheff1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheff1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scheff's theory had many critics, most notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Gove&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Gove (page does not exist)">Walter Gove</a> who consistently argued against Scheff with an almost opposite theory; he believed that society has no influence at all on "mental illness". Instead, any societal perceptions of the "mentally ill" come about as a direct result of these people's behaviors. Most sociologists' views of labeling and mental illness have fallen somewhere between the extremes of Gove and Scheff. On the other hand, it is almost impossible to deny, given both common sense and research findings, that society's negative perceptions of "crazy" people has had some effect on them. It seems that, realistically, labeling can accentuate and prolong the issues termed "mental illness", but it is rarely the full cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Gove1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gove1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other studies have been conducted in this general vein. To provide a few examples, several studies have indicated that most people associate being labeled mentally ill as being just as, or even more, stigmatizing than being seen as a <a href="/wiki/Drug_addict" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addict">drug addict</a>, ex-convict, or <a href="/wiki/Prostitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitute">prostitute</a> (for example: Brand & Claiborn 1976). Additionally, Page's 1977 study found that self declared "ex-mental patients" are much less likely to be offered apartment leases or hired for jobs. Clearly, these studies and the dozens of others like them serve to demonstrate that labeling can have a very real and very large effect on the mentally ill. However, labeling has not been proven to be the sole cause of any symptoms of mental illness. </p><p>Peggy Thoits (1999) discusses the process of labeling someone with a mental illness in her article, "Sociological Approaches to Mental Illness". Working off Thomas Scheff's (1966) theory, Thoits claims that people who are labeled as mentally ill are stereotypically portrayed as unpredictable, dangerous, and unable to care for themselves. She also claims that "people who are labeled as deviant and treated as deviant become deviant."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 134">: 134 </span></sup> This statement can be broken down into two processes, one that involves the effects of self-labeling and the other differential treatment from society based on the individual's label. Therefore, if society sees mentally ill individuals as unpredictable, dangerous and reliant on others, then a person who may not actually be mentally ill but has been labeled as such, could become mentally ill. </p><p>The label of "mentally ill" may help a person seek help, for example <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medication</a>. Labels, while they can be stigmatizing, can also lead those who bear them down the road to proper treatment and (hopefully) recovery. If one believes that "being mentally ill" is more than just believing one should fulfill a set of <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_criteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic criteria">diagnostic criteria</a> (as Scheff – see above – would argue<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>), then one would probably also agree that there are some who are labeled "mentally ill" who need help. It has been claimed that this could not happen if "we" did not have a way to categorize (and therefore label) them, although there are actually plenty of <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of mental disorder">approaches</a> to these phenomena that do not use categorical classifications and diagnostic terms, for example <a href="/wiki/Spectrum_disorder" title="Spectrum disorder">spectrum</a> or continuum models. Here, people vary along different dimensions, and everyone falls at different points on each dimension. </p><p>Proponents of <i>hard labeling</i>, as opposed to <i>soft labeling</i>, believe that mental illness does not exist, but is merely deviance from <a href="/wiki/Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a> of the social order, causing people to believe in mental illness. They view them as socially constructed illnesses and psychotic disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-Link1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Link1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 361–76">: 361–76 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"homosexual""><span id="The_.22homosexual.22"></span>The "homosexual"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The "homosexual""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The application of labeling theory to homosexuality has been extremely controversial. It was <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kinsey" title="Alfred Kinsey">Alfred Kinsey</a> and his colleagues who pointed out the big discrepancy between the behavior and the role attached to it.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had observed the often negative consequences of labeling and repeatedly condemned labeling people as homosexual:</p><blockquote><p>It is amazing to observe how many psychologists and psychiatrists have accepted this sort of propaganda, and have come to believe that homosexual males and females are discretely different from persons who respond to natural stimuli. Instead of using these terms as substantives which stand for persons, or even as adjectives to describe persons, they may better be used to describe the nature of the overt sexual relations, or of the stimuli to which an individual erotically responds.… It would clarify our thinking if the terms could be dropped completely out of our vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 616–7">: 616–7 </span></sup> </p><p>Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual.… Only the human mind invents categories and tries to force facts into pigeonholes. The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 639">: 639 </span></sup> </p><p>The classification of sexual behavior as masturbatory, heterosexual, or homosexual, is, therefore, unfortunate if it suggests that only different types of persons seek out or accept each kind of sexual activity. There is nothing known in the anatomy or physiology of sexual response and orgasm which distinguishes masturbatory, heterosexual, or homosexual reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 446">: 446 </span></sup> </p><p> In regard to sexual behavior, it has been possible to maintain this dichotomy only by placing all persons who are exclusively heterosexual in a heterosexual category and all persons who have any amount of experience with their own sex, even including those with the slightest experience, in a homosexual category.… The attempt to maintain a simple dichotomy on these matters exposes the traditional biases which are likely to enter whenever the heterosexual or homosexual classification of an individual is involved.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 468–9">: 468–9 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a>'s <i>Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity</i> distinguished between the behavior and the role assigned to it:</p><blockquote><p>The term "homosexual" is generally used to refer to anyone who engages in overt sexual practices with a member of his own sex, the practice being called "homosexuality." This usage appears to be based on a medical and legal frame of reference and provides much too broad and heterogenous a categorization for use here. I refer only to individuals who participate in a special community of understanding wherein members of one's own sex are defined as the most desirable sexual objects, and sociability is energetically organized around the pursuit and entertainment of these objects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143–4">: 143–4 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Labeling theory was also applied to homosexuality by <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Hooker" title="Evelyn Hooker">Evelyn Hooker</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Leznoff and Westley (1956), who published the first sociological study of the gay community.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erving Goffman and Howard Becker used the lives of gay-identified persons in their theories of labeling and interactionism. Simon and Gagnon likewise wrote: "It is necessary to move away from the obsessive concern with the sexuality of the individual, and attempt to see the homosexual in terms of the broader attachments that he must make to live in the world around him."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 179">: 179 </span></sup> British sociologist <a href="/wiki/Mary_Susan_McIntosh" title="Mary Susan McIntosh">Mary McIntosh</a> reflected the enthusiasm of Europeans for labeling theory in her 1968 study, "The Homosexual Role:"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"The vantage-point of comparative sociology enables us to see that the conception of homosexuality as a condition is, itself, a possible object of study. This conception and the behavior it supports operate as a form of social control in a society in which homosexuality is condemned.… It is interesting to notice that homosexuals themselves welcome and support the notion that homosexuality as a condition. For just as the rigid categorization deters people from drifting into deviancy, so it appears to foreclose on the possibility of drifting back into normalcy and thus removes the element of anxious choice. It appears to justify the deviant behavior of the homosexual as being appropriate for him as a member of the homosexual category. The deviancy can thus be seen as legitimate for him and he can continue in it without rejecting the norm of society."</p></blockquote><p>Sara Fein and Elaine M. Nuehring (1981) were among the many who supported the application of labeling theory to homosexuality. They saw the gay role functioning as a "master status" around which other roles become organized. This brings a whole new set of problems and restrictions:</p><blockquote><p>Placement in a social category constituting a master status prohibits individuals from choosing the extent of their involvement in various categories. Members of the stigmatized group lose the opportunity to establish their own personal system of evaluation and group membership as well as the ability to arrive at their own ranking of each personal characteristic.… For example, newly self-acknowledged homosexual individuals cannot take for granted that they share the world with others who hold congruent interpretations and assumptions; their behavior and motives, both past and present, will be interpreted in light of their stigma.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Perhaps the strongest proponent of labeling theory was <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sagarin" title="Edward Sagarin">Edward Sagarin</a>. In his book, <i>Deviants and Deviance</i>, he wrote, "There are no homosexuals, transvestites, chemical addicts, suicidogenics, delinquents, criminals, or other such entities, in the sense of people having such identities."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150">: 150 </span></sup> Sagarin's position was roundly condemned by academics in the gay community. Sagarin had written some gay novels under the pseudonym of Donald Webster Cory. According to reports, he later abandoned his gay identity and began promoting an interactionist view of homosexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150">: 150 </span></sup> </p><p>A number of authors adopted a modified, non-deviant, labeling theory. They rejected the stigmatic function of the gay role, but found it useful in describing the process of <a href="/wiki/Coming_out" title="Coming out">coming out</a> and reconciling one's homosexual experiences with the social role. Their works includes: </p> <ul><li><i>Homosexuals and the Military</i> (1971);<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Coming Out in the Gay World" (1971);<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Homosexual Identity: Commitment, Adjustment, and Significant Others" (1973);<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Male Homosexuals: Their Problems and Adaptations</i> (1974);<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Identity and Community in the Gay World</i> (1974);<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Components of Sexual Identity" (1977);<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women</i> (1978);<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"On 'Doing' and 'Being' Gay: Sexual Behavior and Homosexual Male Self-Identity" (1978);<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Homosexual Identity Formation: A Theoretical Model" (1979, <a href="/wiki/Cass_identity_model" title="Cass identity model">Cass identity model</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Becoming Homosexual: A model of Gay Identity Acquisition" (1979);<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women</i> (1981);<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li>"Developmental Stages of the Coming Out Process" (1982).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Barry_D._Adam" title="Barry D. Adam">Barry Adam</a> (1976) took those authors to task for ignoring the force of the oppression in creating identities and their inferiorizing effects. Drawing upon the works of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Memmi" title="Albert Memmi">Albert Memmi</a>, Adam showed how gay-identified persons, like Jews and blacks, internalize the hatred to justify their limitations of life choices. He saw the gravitation towards ghettos was evidence of the self-limitations:</p><blockquote><p>A certain romantic liberalism runs through the literature, evident from attempts to paper over or discount the very real problems of inferiorization. Some researchers seem bent on 'rescuing' their subjects from 'defamation' by ignoring the problems of defeatism and complicit self-destruction. Avoidance of dispiriting reflection upon the day-to-day practice of dominated people appears to spring from a desire to 'enhance' the reputation of the dominated and magically relieve their plight. Careful observation has been sacrificed to the 'power of positive thinking.'<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5–6">: 5–6 </span></sup></p></blockquote><p>Strong defense of labeling theory also arose within the gay community. Dan Slater of the Los Angeles Homosexual Information Center said, "There is no such thing as a homosexual lifestyle. There is no such thing as gay pride or anything like that. Homosexuality is simply based on the sex act. Gay consciousness and all the rest are separatist and defeatist attitudes going back to centuries-old and out-moded conceptions that homosexuals are, indeed, different from other people."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a later article, Slater (1971) stated the gay movement was going in the wrong direction:</p><blockquote><p>Is it the purpose of the movement to try to assert sexual rights for everyone or create a political and social cult out of homosexuality? …Persons who perform homosexual acts or other non-conforming acts are sexually free. They want others enlightened. They want hostile laws changed, but they resent the attempt to organize their lives around homosexuality just as much as they resent the centuries-old attempt to organize their lives around heterosexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/William_DuBay" title="William DuBay">William DuBay</a> (1967) describes gay identity as one strategy for dealing with society's oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It solves some problems but creates many more, replacing a closet of secrecy with one of gay identity. A better strategy, he suggests, is to reject the label and live as if the oppression did not exist. Quoting Goffman,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 122">: 122 </span></sup> he writes, "But of course what is a good adjustment for the individual can be an even better one for society." </p><p>DuBay contends that the attempt to define homosexuality as a class of persons to be protected against discrimination as defined in the statutes has not reduced the oppression. The goal of the movement instead should be to gain acceptance of homosexual relationships as useful and productive for both society and the family. The movement has lost the high moral ground by sponsoring the "flight from choice" and not taking up the moral issues. "Persons whom we confine to back rooms and bars other societies have honored as tenders of children, astrologers, dancers, chanters, minstrels, jesters, artists, shamans, sacred warriors and judges, seers, healers, weavers of tales and magic."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p><p>DuBay refers to the "gay trajectory," in which a person first wraps himself in the gay role, organizing his personality and his life around sexual behavior. He might flee from his family and home town to a large gay center. There, the bedeviling force of the stigma will introduce him to more excessive modes of deviance such as promiscuity, prostitution, alcoholism, and drugs. Many resist such temptations and try to normalize their life, but the fast lanes of gay society are littered with the casualties of gay identity. Some come to reject the label entirely. "Accomplishing the forbidden, they are neither gay nor straight. Again learning to choose, they develop the ability to make the ban ambiguous, taking responsibility and refusing explanations of their behaviors."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143">: 143 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Mackay" title="John Henry Mackay">John Henry Mackay</a> (1985) writes about a gay hustler in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> adopting such a solution: "What was self-evident, natural, and not the least sick did not require an excuse through an explanation.… It was love just like any other love. Whoever could not or would not accept it as love was mistaken."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modified_labeling_theory">Modified labeling theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modified labeling theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Link" title="Bruce Link">Bruce Link</a> and colleagues (1989) had conducted several studies which point to the influence that labeling can have on mental patients.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through these studies, taking place in 1987, 1989, and 1997, Link advanced a "modified labeling theory" indicating that expectations of labeling can have a large negative effect, that these expectations often cause patients to withdraw from society, and that those labeled as having a mental disorder are constantly being rejected from society in seemingly minor ways but that, when taken as a whole, all of these small slights can drastically alter their self concepts. They come to both anticipate and perceive negative societal reactions to them, and this potentially damages their quality of life.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modified labeling theory has been described as a "sophisticated social-psychological model of 'why labels matter.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" In 2000, results from a prospective two-year study of patients discharged from a mental hospital (in the context of <a href="/wiki/Deinstitutionalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinstitutionalization">deinstitutionalization</a>) showed that <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigma</a> was a powerful and persistent force in their lives, and that experiences of <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">social rejection</a> were a persistent source of social stress. Efforts to cope with labels, such as not telling anyone, educating people about mental distress/disorder, withdrawing from stigmatizing situations, could result in further social isolation and reinforce negative self-concepts. Sometimes an identity as a low <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> minority in society would be accepted. The stigma was associated with diminished motivation and ability to "make it in mainstream society" and with "a state of social and psychological vulnerability to prolonged and recurrent problems". There was an up and down pattern in self-esteem, however, and it was suggested that, rather than simply gradual erosion of self-worth and increasing <a href="/wiki/Self-deprecating" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-deprecating">self-deprecating</a> tendencies, people were sometimes managing, but struggling, to maintain consistent feelings of self-worth. Ultimately, "a cadre of patients had developed an entrenched, negative view of themselves, and their experiences of rejection appear to be a key element in the construction of these self-related feelings" and "hostile neighbourhoods may not only affect their self-concept but may also ultimately impact the patient's mental health status and how successful they are."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Labeling_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBernburg2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bernburg, Jón Gunnar (2009). "Labeling Theory". <i>Handbook on Crime and Deviance</i>: 187–207. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0245-0_10">10.1007/978-1-4419-0245-0_10</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Handbook+on+Crime+and+Deviance&rft.atitle=Labeling+Theory&rft.pages=187-207&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0245-0_10&rft.aulast=Bernburg&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3n+Gunnar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|access-date=</code> requires <code class="cs1-code">|url=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1972" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Nanette J. 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New York: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780444990471" title="Special:BookSources/9780444990471"><bdi>9780444990471</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Survival+of+Domination&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780444990471&rft.aulast=Adam&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurvivalofdomina0000adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker1973" class="citation book cs1">Becker, H. (1973) [1963]. <i>Outsiders</i>. 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New York: Wiley-Interscience. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471921127" title="Special:BookSources/9780471921127"><bdi>9780471921127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identity+and+Community+in+the+Gay+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9780471921127&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=C.+A.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fidentitycommunit0000warr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1978" class="citation journal cs1">Weinberg, T. (1978). "On 'Doing' and 'Being' Gay: Sexual Behavior and Homosexual Male Self-Identity". <i>Journal of Homosexuality</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 143–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2Fj082v04n02_02">10.1300/j082v04n02_02</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/739145">739145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Homosexuality&rft.atitle=On+%27Doing%27+and+%27Being%27+Gay%3A+Sexual+Behavior+and+Homosexual+Male+Self-Identity&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-168&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2Fj082v04n02_02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F739145&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinbergWilliams1974" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, M.; Williams, C. (1974). <i>Male Homosexuals</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Male+Homosexuals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Williams%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsWeinberg1971" class="citation book cs1">Williams, C.; Weinberg, M. (1971). <i>Homosexuals and the Military</i>. New York: Harper and Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Homosexuals+and+the+Military&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightGronfeinOwens2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, E. R.; Gronfein, W. P.; Owens, T. J. (2000). "Deinstitutionalization, Social Rejection, and the Self-Esteem of Former Mental Patients". <i>Journal of Health and Social Behavior</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 68–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2676361">10.2307/2676361</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2676361">2676361</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10750323">10750323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+and+Social+Behavior&rft.atitle=Deinstitutionalization%2C+Social+Rejection%2C+and+the+Self-Esteem+of+Former+Mental+Patients&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68-90&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10750323&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2676361%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2676361&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft.au=Gronfein%2C+W.+P.&rft.au=Owens%2C+T.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALabeling+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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