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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22">"Influence of Arabic on other languages"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Influence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> has had a great influence on other languages, especially in <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>. The influence of Arabic has been most profound in those countries visited by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> or <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic power</a>. </p><p>Arabic loanwords have made into many languages as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldean Neo-Aramaic">Chaldean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dagestani language">Dagestani</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kutchi_language" title="Kutchi language">Kutchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian language">Malaysian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visayan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan languages">Visayan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a> as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. Other languages such as <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubi">Nubi</a> derive from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary. <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> has one of the largest Arabic-influenced vocabularies of any European language, around 8 percent, due to Arab rule mainly in the Southern <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> from 711 until 1492 known as <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, however Spain's re-Christianization and resulting loss of contact with Arabic culture has led to a significant shift in both meaning and pronunciation of Spanish words of Arabic etymology. </p><p>The terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber <i>taẓallit</i>, "prayer" < <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">salat</a>), academic terms (like <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> <i>manteq</i>, "logic"), to everyday conjunctions (like Hindi/Urdu <i>lekin</i>, "but"). Most Berber varieties (such as <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_language" title="Kabyle language">Kabyle</a>), along with Swahili, borrow numbers from Arabic. Most religious terms used by Muslims around the world are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as <i>ṣalāt</i>, 'prayer' and <i>imām</i>, 'prayer leader'. In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often mediated by other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic; for example many older Arabic loanwords in <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a> were borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a>. </p><p>Outside the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>, there are more limited borrowings from Arabic, usually to denote vegetables and other articles in commerce, such as "<a href="/wiki/Aubergine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubergine">aubergine</a>", "alcohol" and also some other terms like "admiral". Among European languages, these mostly were transmitted through <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bengali">Bengali</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Bengali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali language</a>, spoken by the Muslim-majority <a href="/wiki/Bengalis" title="Bengalis">Bengalis</a>, has gained <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> vocabulary both directly, as the language of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">literature</a>, but also indirectly as a consequence of Arabic-influenced <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> being an official language in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> for over 500 years. During the late medieval period, a number of Bengali Muslim writers also wrote Bengali using the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dil_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dil-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the coastal <a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chittagonian dialect">Chittagonian dialect</a>, the Arabic influence is magnified with researchers considering half of the dialect's lexicon to be of <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-arab_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arab-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Berber_languages">Berber languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Berber languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a> have a high percentage of borrowing and influence from the Arabic language, as well as from other languages.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Arabic loanwords represent 35%<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 46%<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the total vocabulary of the <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_language" title="Kabyle language">Kabyle language</a>, and represent 51.7% of the total vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Tarifit" title="Tarifit">Tarifit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost all Berber languages took from Arabic the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">pharyngeal fricatives</a> /ʕ/ and /ħ/, the (nongeminated) uvular stop /q/, and the voiceless <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized consonant</a> /ṣ/.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The influence of Arabic, the process of <a href="/wiki/Spirantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirantization">spirantization</a>, and the absence of labialization have caused the consonant systems of Berber languages to differ significantly by region.<sup id="cite_ref-Kossmann-2012a_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kossmann-2012a-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Berber languages found north of, and in the northern half of, the Sahara have greater influence from Arabic, including that of loaned phonemes, than those in more southern regions, like Tuareg.<sup id="cite_ref-Kossmann-2012a_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kossmann-2012a-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kossmann-2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kossmann-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Berber languages have lost use of their original numerals due to the influence of Arabic, such as <a href="/wiki/Tarifit" title="Tarifit">Tarifit</a> which lost all except one.<sup id="cite_ref-Kossmann-2012b_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kossmann-2012b-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catalan/Valencian"><span id="Catalan.2FValencian"></span>Catalan/Valencian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Catalan/Valencian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan language</a></div> <p>Arabic has notably influenced the Catalan language, and especially the southern dialects (including the <a href="/wiki/Valencian_Community" title="Valencian Community">Valencian</a> ones). Due to almost eight centuries of Arabic presence in the Iberian Peninsula (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>), hundreds of words from many fields (including Arabic inventions) have been adapted into Catalan; among many are <i><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">séquia</a></i> ("irrigation ditch"), <i>nòria</i> ("waterwheel, <a href="/wiki/Noria" title="Noria">noria</a>"), <i>algorfa</i> ("loft"), <i>magatzem</i> ("warehouse"), <i>alfàbia</i> ("earthenware jar"), <i>barnús</i> ("bathrobe"), <i>aladroc</i> ("anchovy"), <i>dacsa</i> ("corn"), <i>safanòria</i> ("carrot"), <i>carxofa</i> ("artichoke"), <i>albergínia</i> ("aubergine"), <i>xirivia</i> ("parsnip"), <i>alfals</i> ("alfalfa"), <i>albercoc</i> ("apricot"), <i>tramús</i> ("lupin"), <i>corfa</i> ("bark, peel"), <i>xara</i> ("thicket"), <i>matalaf/matalàs</i> ("mattress"), <i>alacrà</i> ("scorpion"), <i>fardatxo</i> ("lizard") <i>alfàb(r)ega</i> ("basil"), etc. and expressions such as <i>a la babalà</i> ("randomly, to God's will") and <i>a betzef</i> ("abundance, plenty"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toponymy">Toponymy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Toponymy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many places of the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Valencia" class="mw-redirect" title="Land of Valencia">Land of Valencia</a>, and also a few from <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>, have names of partial or total Arabic origin, such as <a href="/wiki/Algemes%C3%AD" title="Algemesí">Algemesí</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alzira,_Valencia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alzira, Valencia">Alzira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almassora" title="Almassora">Almassora</a>, etc. </p><p>A large number of places have the Arabic roots <i>Beni</i>, <i>Bena</i> and <i>Bene</i>, which mean "son of" or "sons of": <a href="/wiki/Benidorm" title="Benidorm">Benidorm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimuslem" title="Benimuslem">Benimuslem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benilloba" title="Benilloba">Benilloba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benillup" title="Benillup">Benillup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimantell" title="Benimantell">Benimantell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimarfull" title="Benimarfull">Benimarfull</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benic%C3%A0ssim" title="Benicàssim">Benicàssim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benissa" title="Benissa">Benissa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benissoda" title="Benissoda">Benissoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benirredr%C3%A0" title="Benirredrà">Benirredrà</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benaguasil" title="Benaguasil">Benaguasil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benasau" title="Benasau">Benasau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beneixama" title="Beneixama">Beneixama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benaixeve" class="mw-redirect" title="Benaixeve">Benaixeve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beneixida" title="Beneixida">Beneixida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benet%C3%BAsser" title="Benetússer">Benetússer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benifl%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Beniflà">Beniflà</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beniard%C3%A0" title="Beniardà">Beniardà</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beniarr%C3%A9s" title="Beniarrés">Beniarrés</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beniatjar" title="Beniatjar">Beniatjar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benicarl%C3%B3" title="Benicarló">Benicarló</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benicolet" title="Benicolet">Benicolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benicull_de_X%C3%BAquer" title="Benicull de Xúquer">Benicull de Xúquer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benidoleig" title="Benidoleig">Benidoleig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benifai%C3%B3" title="Benifaió">Benifaió</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benifair%C3%B3_de_la_Valldigna" title="Benifairó de la Valldigna">Benifairó de la Valldigna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benifair%C3%B3_de_les_Valls" title="Benifairó de les Valls">Benifairó de les Valls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benifato" title="Benifato">Benifato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benig%C3%A0nim" title="Benigànim">Benigànim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benigembla" title="Benigembla">Benigembla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimodo" title="Benimodo">Benimodo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimassot" title="Benimassot">Benimassot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benimeli" title="Benimeli">Benimeli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beniparrell" title="Beniparrell">Beniparrell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benavites" title="Benavites">Benavites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benafigos" title="Benafigos">Benafigos</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Poble_Nou_de_Benitatxell/Benitachell" class="mw-redirect" title="El Poble Nou de Benitatxell/Benitachell">Benitatxell</a>, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English">English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Arabic_origin" title="List of English words of Arabic origin">List of English words of Arabic origin</a></div> <p>Like other European languages, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> contains many words derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>. Among them is every-day vocabulary like "<a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>" (<i>sukkar</i>), "<a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>" (<i>quṭn</i>) or "magazine" (<i><a href="/wiki/Makhzen" title="Makhzen"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">maḫāzin</i></span></a></i>). More recognizable are words like "<a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>" (<i>al-jabr</i>), "<a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a>" (<i>al-kuhūl</i>), "<a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>" ("al-kimiya"), "<a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Cipher" title="Cipher">cypher</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a>" (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Arabic_origin" title="List of English words of Arabic origin">list of English words of Arabic origin</a>). </p><p>A more indirect form of influence is the use of certain Latinate words in an unclassical sense, derived from their use in Latin translations of medieval Arabic philosophical works (e.g. those of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>), which entered the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> vocabulary and later came into normal use in modern languages. Examples are "information" to mean the imparting or acquisition of knowledge (Arabic <i>taṣawwur</i>, mental impression or representation, from a root meaning "form") and "intention" (Arabic <i>ma<sup>c</sup>nā</i>, meaning). These words may almost be regarded as <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French">French</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: French"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Arabic_origin" title="List of French words of Arabic origin">List of French words of Arabic origin</a></div> <p>French is widely spoken as a second language in France's former colonies in the Maghreb. Therefore, the list of words that are used or incorporated into the French spoken in this region (as a result of code-switching, convenience or lack of an equivalent term in standard French) is potentially endless. Such arabisms, are accepted within the local context but would not normally be known by non-maghrebi French speakers. </p><p>Arabic-derived words have entered standard or metropolitan <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> from two main sources. As is the case for many other European languages, one principal source was Spanish. The other was directly from <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> as a result of the occupation and colonisation of the Maghreb, particularly Algeria, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Examples of the latter include 'bled', a slang term for place of origin, following this word's usage in the Maghreb, as opposed to the Standard Arabic <i>balad</i>, 'country', along with the Maghrebi term 'kif kif' and 'tabeeb', a slang term for 'doctor'. A small number of Arabic terms have entered mainstream French as a result of immigration from North Africa which began after the independence of Algeria. Other slang terms such as "niquer" (to have sex) were taken from Oriental Arabic during Napoleon's occupation of Egypt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interlingua">Interlingua</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Interlingua"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dozens of Arabic words occur in <a href="/wiki/Interlingua" title="Interlingua">Interlingua</a>, frequently because their co-occurrence in such languages as English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese can be used to <a href="/wiki/Interlingua_and_eligibility_of_international_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlingua and eligibility of international words">verify their internationality</a>. Many of these words entered Interlingua's vocabulary through Spanish. Arabic words in Interlingua include "algebra", "alcohol", "cifra" (cypher), "magazin", "sucro" (sugar), "zenit", and "zero". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Javanese">Javanese</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Javanese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> than Sanskrit loanwords, and they are usually concerned with Islamic religion. Nevertheless, some words have entered the basic vocabulary, such as <i>pikir</i> ("to think", from the Arabic fikr), <i>badan</i> ("body"), <i>mripat</i> ("eye", thought to be derived from the Arabic <i>ma'rifah</i>, meaning "knowledge" or "vision"). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: <i>pikir</i> = <i>galih</i>, <i>idhĕp</i> (<a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a>) and <i>manah</i>, <i>cipta</i>, or <i>cita</i> (from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>); <i>badan</i> = <i>awak</i> (Austronesian) and <i>slira</i>, <i>sarira</i>, or <i>angga</i> (from Sanskrit); and <i>mripat</i> = <i>mata</i> (Austronesian and Tagalog [Philippines]) and <i>soca</i> or <i>netra</i> (from Sanskrit). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Malay_and_Indonesian">Malay and Indonesian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Malay and Indonesian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian language">Malaysian</a> <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>, the loanwords from Arabic are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with Islam, but to a lesser extent Christianity. Words of Arabic origin include <i>dunia</i> (from Arabic: دنيا dunya = the present world), <i>Sabtu</i> (from Arabic: السبت as-sabt = Saturday), <i>khabar</i> or <i>kabar</i> (خبر ḵabar = news), <i>selamat</i>/<i>salam</i> (سلام salām = a greeting), <i>Jumaat</i> or <i>Jumat</i> (الجمعة al-jumʿa = Friday), <i>ijazah</i> (إجازة ijāza = vacation), <i>kitab</i> (كتاب kitāb = book), <i>nikah</i> (نكاح nikāh = marriage or wedding), <i>tertib</i> (ترتيب tartīb = orderly) and <i>kamus</i> (قاموس qāmūs = dictionary). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_usage">Christian usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christian usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ilah (Arabic: إله) is the word for God even in Christian Bible translations. </p><p>Many early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual Hebrew words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates. In the newer translations this practice is discontinued. They now turn to Greek names or use the original Hebrew Word. For example, the name Jesus was initially translated as 'Isa (Arabic: عيسى), but is now spelt as Yesus. Several ecclesiastical terms derived from Arabic still exist in Indonesian and Malaysian clerical use. </p><p>The Malay word for bishop is <i>uskup</i> (from Arabic: اسقف usquf = bishop, ultimately from Ancient Greek <i>episkopos</i><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). This in turn makes the derived term for "archbishop" <i>uskup agung</i> (literally great bishop), which is combining the Arabic word with an Old Javanese word. The term imam (from Arabic: امام imām = leader, prayer leader) is used to translate a Catholic priest, beside its more common association with an Islamic prayer leader. Some Protestant denominations refer to their congregation as <i>jemaat</i> (from Arabic: جماعة jamā'a = group, community). Even the name of the Bible in Indonesian translation is <i>Alkitab</i> (from Arabic: كتاب kitāb = book), which literally means "the Book". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persian">Persian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Persian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Iran">Arab conquest of Iran</a> lasted for two centuries, from the 7th to the 9th CE. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Language">Arabic</a> gradually replaced <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> as an official language and Arabic became the language of the Persian intellectuals during <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of Islam">Golden Age of Islam</a>. During this period, many Arabic words were imported into the Persian language. Persian words of Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. Arabic has had an extensive influence on the Persian lexicon, but it has not greatly affected the structure of the language. Although a considerable portion of the lexicon is derived from Arabic roots, including some of the Arabic plural patterns, the morphological process used to obtain these lexical elements has not been imported into Persian and is not productive in the language. </p><p>These Arabic words have been imported and lexicalized in Persian. So, for instance, the Arabic plural form for <i>kitāb</i> (كتاب) ["book"] is <i>kutub</i> (كتب) obtained by the root derivation system. In Persian, the plural for the lexical word <i>ketâb</i> is obtained by simply adding the Persian plural <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> <i>hā</i>: <i>ketāb+hā</i> → <i>ketābhā</i> (كتاب‌ها). Also, any new Persian words can only be pluralized by the addition of this plural morpheme since the Arabic root system is not a productive process in Persian. In addition, since the plurals formed by the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> system constitute only a small portion of the Persian vocabulary (about 5% in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shiraz_corpus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shiraz corpus (page does not exist)">Shiraz corpus</a>), it is not necessary to include them in the morphology; they are instead listed in the dictionary as irregular forms. </p><p>In fact, among Iranians there have been sporadic <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism" title="Linguistic purism">efforts</a> as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> to revive Persian and diminish the use of Arabic loanwords in their language. Both <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi Shahs</a> supported such efforts in the 20th century by creating the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Persian_Language_and_Literature" title="Academy of Persian Language and Literature">academy of Persian Language and Literature</a>. In 1934, Reza Shah ordered to rebuild <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Ferdowsi" title="Tomb of Ferdowsi">tomb</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>, who is regarded as the savior of Persian language, and set up a ceremony in <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, celebrating a thousand years of <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a> since the time of Ferdowsi, titled <i><a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi_Millenary_Celebration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdowsi Millenary Celebration">Ferdowsi Millenary Celebration</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">جشن هزاره فردوسی</span>). </p><p>Academy of Persian language and literature after the Iranian revolution continued its striving to protect the integrity of the Persian language. However, the attention of the academy has been turned towards the persistent infiltration of Persian, like many other languages, with English words, as a result of the globalization process. Since the 1980s, the academy constantly campaigns for the use of the Persian equivalents of these new English loanwords. It also has the task of linguistically deriving such words from existing Persian roots if no such equivalents exist, and actively promoting the adoption of these new coinages instead of their English equivalents in the daily lives of the <a href="/wiki/Persian-speaking_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian-speaking people">Persian-speaking people</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Portuguese">Portuguese</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Portuguese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between the 9th century and up to 1249<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the Arabs were expelled from the Algarve, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> acquired words (between 400 and 600 estimate<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) from Arabic by influence of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Moorish Iberia</a>. Although the native population spoke the Lusitanian-<a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarabic language">Mozarabic</a>, they kept some Mozarabic-derived words. These are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article <i>a</i>(<i>l</i>)<i>-</i>, and include common words such as <i>aldeia</i> "village" from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الضيعة</span></span> <i>aḍ-ḍī<sup>c</sup>ah</i>, <i>alface</i> "lettuce" from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الخس</span></span> <i>al-khass</i>, <i>armazém</i> "warehouse" from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">المخزن</span></span> <i>al-makhzan</i>, and <i>azeite</i> "olive oil" from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الزيت</span></span> <i>az-zayt</i>. From Arabic came also the grammatically peculiar word <a href="/wiki/Insha%27Allah" class="mw-redirect" title="Insha'Allah"><i>oxalá</i></a> "God willing", which is an archaism. The frequency of Arabic toponyms is more evident in the south of the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sicilian">Sicilian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sicilian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian language</a></div> <p>In AD 535, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> made Sicily a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> became a familiar sound across the island (<a href="#refHull1989">Hull, 1989</a>). As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Sicily was progressively conquered</a> by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a> influence is noticeable in around 800 Sicilian words, many of which relate to agriculture and related activities (<a href="#refHull1989">Hull</a> and <a href="#refRuffino2001">Ruffino</a>). </p><p>Sicilian words of Arabic origin include <i>azzizzari</i> (to embellish, from <i><sup>c</sup>azīz</i>; precious, beautiful), <i>cafisu</i> (measure for liquids, from <i>qafiz</i>), <i>gebbia</i> (artificial pond, from <i>gabiya</i>), <i>giuggiulena</i> (sesame seed, from <i>giulgiulan</i>, <i>ràisi</i> (leader, from <i>ra'īs</i>), <i>saja</i> (canal, from <i>saqiya</i>), and <i>zibbibbu</i> (a type of grape, from <i>zabib</i>). (<a href="#refGiarrizzo1989">Giarrizzo</a>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spanish">Spanish</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spanish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_influence_on_the_Spanish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic influence on the Spanish language">Arabic influence on the Spanish language</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish language</a> has been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> as a result of the long <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Muslim_presence_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula">Islamic presence within the Iberian Peninsula</a>, beginning with the Umayyad conquest in 711-718 AD; the last Islamic kingdom in the Peninsula was conquered by Christians in 1492 AD. Modern day Spanish, also called <i>castellano</i> ("Castilian"), gradually evolved from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> and was influenced by Arabic from an early date. Arabic influence increased when the expanding <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a> spread southward, conquering territory from Muslim kingdoms during the Christian <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mozarab" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozarab">Mozarabs</a>, that had lived under Muslim rulers and had spoken their own varieties of Arabic-influenced Romance (known today by scholars as the <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Romance" title="Andalusi Romance">Mozarabic</a> languages), probably had a formative influence on the language and indirectly contributed Arabic vocabulary. The presence of Mozarabic refugees can explain the presence of Arabic toponyms in areas of Northern Spain where Islamic rule was shorter. The only Iberian Muslim kingdom in which Arabic was the sole language at all levels of society was the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Granada">Kingdom of Granada</a> in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty" title="Nasrid dynasty">Nasrid dynasty</a>. </p><p>In many cases, both Arabic and Latin derived words are used for the same meaning in Spanish. For example, <i>aceituna</i> and <i>oliva</i> (olive), <i>alacrán</i> and <i>escorpión</i> (scorpion), <i>jaqueca</i> and <i>migraña</i> (headache) or <i>alcancía</i> and <i>hucha</i> (piggy bank). The influence of Arabic, whether directly or through Mozarabic, is more noticeable in the Spanish dialects of southern Spain, where the Arabic influence was heavier and of a much longer duration. The same difference also exists between <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> and Valencian.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Arabic influence can be seen in hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Toponym" class="mw-redirect" title="Toponym">toponyms</a> but with a few minor exceptions, its influence on Spanish is primarily lexical. It is estimated that there are over two thousand Arabic loanwords and three thousand derivatives in the Spanish dictionary.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Middle Ages, Spanish was the main route by which Arabic words entered other West European languages. The majority of these words are nouns, with a more limited number of <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a>. Everyday Arabic loanwords include <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aceite#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:aceite"><i>aceite</i></a> (oil, from <i>az-zayt</i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">alcalde</a></i> (mayor, from <i>al-qādī</i>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/azafata#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:azafata"><i>azafata</i></a> (stewardess, from سَفَط‎ <i>safaṭ</i>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ahorrar#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:ahorrar"><i>ahorrar</i></a> (to save, from <i>hurr</i>), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tarea#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:tarea"><i>tarea</i></a> (task, from <i>tariha</i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Ojal%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Ojalá">ojalá</a></i> (<i>if God wills; I wish</i>, from لو شاء الله <i>law šaʾ allāh</i>), and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hasta#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:hasta"><i>hasta</i></a> (until, from <i>hatta</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turkish">Turkish</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Turkish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Replacement_of_loanwords_in_Turkish" class="mw-redirect" title="Replacement of loanwords in Turkish">Replacement of loanwords in Turkish</a></div> <p>Following the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> c. 950 by the <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty">Seljuq Turks</a>, regarded as the cultural ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, the administrative and literary languages of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic (usually by way of Persian), as well as non-Arabic <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> words: a leading example of a Perso-Arabic influenced Turkic language was <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Chagatai</a>, which remained the literary language of Central Asia until Soviet times. During the course of over six hundred years of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (c. 1299–1922), the literary and official language of the empire was a mixture of Turkish, Persian and Arabic, which differed considerably from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time, and is termed <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>. </p><p>After the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a>, and following the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language#Writing_system" title="Turkish language">script reform</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Language_Association" title="Turkish Language Association">Turkish Language Association</a> (TDK) was established under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</a> in 1932, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a <a href="/wiki/Language_reform" title="Language reform">language reform</a> to <a href="/wiki/List_of_replaced_loanwords_in_Turkish" title="List of replaced loanwords in Turkish">replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin</a> with Turkish equivalents.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By banning the usage of replaced loanwords in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language, thus diminishing but by no means erasing the Arabic influence on Turkish. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">List of Arabic star names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_place_names" title="List of Arabic place names">List of Arabic place names</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language">Maltese language - 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"Impact of Arabic on Bengali Language and Culture". <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bangladesh&rft.atitle=Impact+of+Arabic+on+Bengali+Language+and+Culture&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Dil&rft.aufirst=Afia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arab-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-arab_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFATM_Muslehuddin2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">ATM Muslehuddin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Arabic">"Arabic"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sirajul_Islam" title="Sirajul Islam">Sirajul Islam</a>; Miah, Sajahan; <a href="/wiki/Mahfuza_Khanam" title="Mahfuza Khanam">Khanam, Mahfuza</a>; Ahmed, Sabbir (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Banglapedia" title="Banglapedia">Banglapedia: the National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh</a></i> (Online ed.). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Banglapedia Trust, <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Society_of_Bangladesh" title="Asiatic Society of Bangladesh">Asiatic Society of Bangladesh</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/984-32-0576-6" title="Special:BookSources/984-32-0576-6"><bdi>984-32-0576-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52727562">52727562</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL30677644M">30677644M</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic&rft.btitle=Banglapedia%3A+the+National+Encyclopedia+of+Bangladesh&rft.place=Dhaka%2C+Bangladesh&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Banglapedia+Trust%2C+Asiatic+Society+of+Bangladesh&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52727562&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL30677644M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=984-32-0576-6&rft.au=ATM+Muslehuddin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.banglapedia.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DArabic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattar2004" class="citation book cs1">Mattar, Philip (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NDEOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA463"><i>Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa: Aaronsohn-Cyril VI</i></a>. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 463. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865769-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865769-1"><bdi>978-0-02-865769-1</bdi></a>. <q>Most Berber languages have a high percentage of borrowing from Arabic, as well as from other languages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Modern+Middle+East+%26+North+Africa%3A+Aaronsohn-Cyril+VI&rft.pages=463&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865769-1&rft.aulast=Mattar&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNDEOAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldaufKaplan2007" class="citation book cs1">Baldauf, Richard B.; Kaplan, Robert B. (2007-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA50"><i>Language Planning and Policy in Africa</i></a>. Multilingual Matters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84769-011-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84769-011-1"><bdi>978-1-84769-011-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Planning+and+Policy+in+Africa&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-84769-011-1&rft.aulast=Baldauf&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSabe8l9hox0C%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann2013" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, Maarten (2013-07-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Se-BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98"><i>The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber</i></a>. BRILL. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25309-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25309-4"><bdi>978-90-04-25309-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Influence+on+Northern+Berber&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013-07-18&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25309-4&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=Maarten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSe-BAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaspelmathTadmor2009" class="citation book cs1">Haspelmath, Martin; Tadmor, Uri (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OYFMqEJ1KCgC&pg=PA56"><i>Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021843-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021843-5"><bdi>978-3-11-021843-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Loanwords+in+the+World%27s+Languages%3A+A+Comparative+Handbook&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-11-021843-5&rft.aulast=Haspelmath&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Tadmor%2C+Uri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOYFMqEJ1KCgC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann2017" class="citation cs2">Kossmann, Maarten (2017-03-29), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-232">"Berber-Arabic Language Contact"</a>, <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.232">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.232</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938465-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-30</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Berber-Arabic+Language+Contact&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.date=2017-03-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.232&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938465-5&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=Maarten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Flinguistics%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199384655-e-232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kossmann-2012a-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kossmann-2012a_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kossmann-2012a_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann2012" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, Maarten (2012). "Berber". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795895594"><i>The Afroasiatic languages</i></a>. Zygmunt Frajzyngier, Erin Shay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42364-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42364-9"><bdi>978-1-139-42364-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/795895594">795895594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Berber&rft.btitle=The+Afroasiatic+languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=22-23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F795895594&rft.isbn=978-1-139-42364-9&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=Maarten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F795895594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kossmann-2013-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kossmann-2013_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann2013" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, Maarten G. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/858861608"><i>The Arabic influence on Northern Berber</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25309-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-25309-4"><bdi>978-90-04-25309-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/858861608">858861608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+influence+on+Northern+Berber&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F858861608&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25309-4&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=Maarten+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F858861608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kossmann-2012b-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kossmann-2012b_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann2012" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, Maarten (2012). "Berber". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795895594"><i>The Afroasiatic languages</i></a>. Zygmunt Frajzyngier, Erin Shay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42364-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42364-9"><bdi>978-1-139-42364-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/795895594">795895594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Berber&rft.btitle=The+Afroasiatic+languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F795895594&rft.isbn=978-1-139-42364-9&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=Maarten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F795895594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/bishop">"bishop | Origin and meaning of bishop by Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.etymonline.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.etymonline.com&rft.atitle=bishop+%7C+Origin+and+meaning+of+bishop+by+Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fbishop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidde_Sottomayor_Pizarro1989" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">David, Henrique; de Sottomayor Pizarro, José Augusto (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/6410.pdf">"A conquista de Faro: o reavivar de uma questão"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Revista de História</i> (in Portuguese). <b>09</b>: 63–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Hist%C3%B3ria&rft.atitle=A+conquista+de+Faro%3A+o+reavivar+de+uma+quest%C3%A3o&rft.volume=09&rft.pages=63-76&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Henrique&rft.au=de+Sottomayor+Pizarro%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Augusto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fler.letras.up.pt%2Fuploads%2Fficheiros%2F6410.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInfopédia" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Infopédia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infopedia.pt/$influencia-arabe-na-evolucao-da-lingua">"Influência Árabe na Evolução da Língua Nacional - Infopédia"</a>. <i>Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora</i> (in Portuguese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infop%C3%A9dia+-+Dicion%C3%A1rios+Porto+Editora&rft.atitle=Influ%C3%AAncia+%C3%81rabe+na+Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o+da+L%C3%ADngua+Nacional+-+Infop%C3%A9dia&rft.au=Infop%C3%A9dia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infopedia.pt%2F%24influencia-arabe-na-evolucao-da-lingua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Catalan-language">"Catalan language | History, Grammar & Dialects | Britannica"</a>. 5 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catalan+language+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Grammar+%26+Dialects+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2024-01-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FCatalan-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38192299">"Arabismos en el Español Actual: Traducción, Lengua e Imagen"</a>. <i>Nueva Revista del Pacífico</i> (69): 1. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nueva+Revista+del+Pac%C3%ADfico&rft.atitle=Arabismos+en+el+Espa%C3%B1ol+Actual%3A+Traducci%C3%B3n%2C+Lengua+e+Imagen&rft.issue=69&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38192299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+Arabic+on+other+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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