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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_(1762–1796)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Reign (1762–1796) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reign_(1762–1796)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reign (1762–1796) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reign_(1762–1796)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coronation_(1762)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coronation_(1762)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Coronation (1762) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coronation_(1762)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Foreign affairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russo-Turkish_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russo-Turkish_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Russo-Turkish Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russo-Turkish_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russo-Persian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russo-Persian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Russo-Persian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russo-Persian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Relations with Western Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partitions_of_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partitions_of_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partitions_of_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 Relations with China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.6 Relations with Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_evaluation_of_foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_evaluation_of_foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.7 The evaluation of foreign policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_evaluation_of_foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_and_finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_and_finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Economics and finance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_and_finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Public health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serfs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serfs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Serfs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serfs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rights_and_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights_and_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Rights and conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rights_and_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attitudes_towards_Catherine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attitudes_towards_Catherine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 Attitudes towards Catherine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attitudes_towards_Catherine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Arts and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Arts and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Religious affairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Russian Orthodoxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poniatowski" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poniatowski"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Poniatowski </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poniatowski-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orlov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orlov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Orlov </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orlov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potemkin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potemkin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Potemkin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potemkin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_months_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_months_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Final months and death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_months_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Issue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Title" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Title"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Title </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Title-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Archives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 General and cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Catherine the Great</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 118 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-118" aria-hidden="true" > 118 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_II_van_Rusland" title="Katharina II van Rusland – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Katharina II van Rusland" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B3%E1%88%8B%E1%89%8B_%E1%8A%AB%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%93" title="ታላቋ ካተሪና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ታላቋ ካተሪና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katariina_Styeres" title="Katariina Styeres – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Katariina Styeres" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كاترين الثانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كاترين الثانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina_II_de_Rusia" title="Catarina II de Rusia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Catarina II de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A8lena_II" title="Catèlena II – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Catèlena II" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalina_II_de_Rusia" title="Catalina II de Rusia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Catalina II de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Yekaterina" title="II Yekaterina – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="II Yekaterina" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87)" title="ایکینجی کاترین (روسیه) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایکینجی کاترین (روسیه)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="রাশিয়ার দ্বিতীয় ক্যাথেরিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাশিয়ার দ্বিতীয় ক্যাথেরিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterina_2-s%C3%A8" title="Ekaterina 2-sè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ekaterina 2-sè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Кацярына II – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кацярына II" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Кацярына II – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кацярына II" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakulang_Catherine" title="Dakulang Catherine – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Dakulang Catherine" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_II,_carica_Rusije" title="Katarina II, carica Rusije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Katarina II, carica Rusije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katelin_II" title="Katelin II – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Katelin II" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterina_II_de_R%C3%BAssia" title="Caterina II de Rússia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Caterina II de Rússia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate%C5%99ina_II._Velik%C3%A1" title="Kateřina II. Veliká – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kateřina II. Veliká" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catrin_Fawr" title="Catrin Fawr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Catrin Fawr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_2._af_Rusland" title="Katarina 2. af Rusland – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Katarina 2. af Rusland" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_II." title="Katharina II. – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Katharina II." data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katariina_II" title="Katariina II – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Katariina II" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%92%CE%84_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Αικατερίνη Β΄ της Ρωσίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αικατερίνη Β΄ της Ρωσίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalina_II_de_Rusia" title="Catalina II de Rusia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Catalina II de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katerina_la_2-a_(Rusio)" title="Katerina la 2-a (Rusio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Katerina la 2-a (Rusio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalina_II.a_Errusiakoa" title="Katalina II.a Errusiakoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Katalina II.a Errusiakoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="کاترین دوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کاترین دوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_Mikla" title="Katarina Mikla – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Katarina Mikla" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_II" title="Catherine II – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Catherine II" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_de_Grutte" title="Katarina de Grutte – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Katarina de Grutte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caitr%C3%ADona_II_na_R%C3%BAise" title="Caitríona II na Rúise – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Caitríona II na Rúise" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina_II_de_Rusia" title="Catarina II de Rusia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Catarina II de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B8%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B0_%E2%80%A2%F0%90%8C%B1%E2%80%A2_%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐌺𐌰𐌸𐌰𐍂𐌹𐌽𐌰 •𐌱• 𐍂𐌿𐍃𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌽𐌳𐌹𐍃 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌺𐌰𐌸𐌰𐍂𐌹𐌽𐌰 •𐌱• 𐍂𐌿𐍃𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌽𐌳𐌹𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%88%EC%B9%B4%ED%85%8C%EB%A6%AC%EB%82%98_2%EC%84%B8" title="예카테리나 2세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="예카테리나 2세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1_II" title="Եկատերինա II – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եկատերինա II" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="महारानी काथरिन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महारानी काथरिन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_II._Velika" title="Katarina II. Velika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Katarina II. Velika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterina_la_2ma_di_Rusia" title="Yekaterina la 2ma di Rusia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Yekaterina la 2ma di Rusia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterina_yang_Agung" title="Yekaterina yang Agung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yekaterina yang Agung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katr%C3%ADn_mikla" title="Katrín mikla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Katrín mikla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterina_II_di_Russia" title="Caterina II di Russia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Caterina II di Russia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94,_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="יקטרינה השנייה, קיסרית רוסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יקטרינה השנייה, קיסרית רוסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_ingkang_Agung" title="Katarina ingkang Agung – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Katarina ingkang Agung" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94_II" title="ეკატერინე II – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეკატერინე II" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="II Екатерина – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="II Екатерина" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina_II_de_Ruscia" title="Catarina II de Ruscia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Catarina II de Ruscia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalina_la_Grande" title="Katalina la Grande – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Katalina la Grande" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharina_II_(imperatrix_Russiae)" title="Catharina II (imperatrix Russiae) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Catharina II (imperatrix Russiae)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katr%C4%ABna_II_Liel%C4%81" title="Katrīna II Lielā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Katrīna II Lielā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jekaterina_II" title="Jekaterina II – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jekaterina II" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A6n-a_I_de_Ruscia" title="Catæn-a I de Ruscia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Catæn-a I de Ruscia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jekaterina_II" title="Jekaterina II – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Jekaterina II" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._Katalin_orosz_c%C3%A1rn%C5%91" title="II. Katalin orosz cárnő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="II. Katalin orosz cárnő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II_(%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Катерина II (Русија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Катерина II (Русија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterina_II" title="Ekaterina II – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ekaterina II" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_II" title="കാതറിൻ II – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാതറിൻ II" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katerina_II_tar-Russja" title="Katerina II tar-Russja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Katerina II tar-Russja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="रशियाची दुसरी कॅथरीन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रशियाची दुसरी कॅथरीन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94_II_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ეკატერინე II დიდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეკატერინე II დიდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="كاترين التانيه ملكة روسيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كاترين التانيه ملكة روسيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterina_II_dari_Rusia" title="Yekaterina II dari Rusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Yekaterina II dari Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="II Екатерина – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="II Екатерина" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharina_II_van_Rusland" title="Catharina II van Rusland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Catharina II van Rusland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9" title="रसियाम्ह क्याथरिन निम्ह – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रसियाम्ह क्याथरिन निम्ह" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%82%AB%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8A2%E4%B8%96_(%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D)" title="エカチェリーナ2世 (ロシア皇帝) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エカチェリーナ2世 (ロシア皇帝)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_II._(R%C3%BCslun)" title="Katharina II. (Rüslun) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Katharina II. (Rüslun)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_II_av_Russland" title="Katarina II av Russland – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Katarina II av Russland" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_II_av_Russland" title="Katarina II av Russland – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Katarina II av Russland" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina_II_de_Russia" title="Catarina II de Russia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Catarina II de Russia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterina_II_Alekseyevna" title="Yekaterina II Alekseyevna – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yekaterina II Alekseyevna" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="کیتھرین اعظم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کیتھرین اعظم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="لویه کاترین – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لویه کاترین" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_de_Grote" title="Katharina de Grote – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Katharina de Grote" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarzyna_II_Wielka" title="Katarzyna II Wielka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Katarzyna II Wielka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina_II_da_R%C3%BAssia" title="Catarina II da Rússia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Catarina II da Rússia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterina_II_Alekseevna" title="Ekaterina II Alekseevna – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ekaterina II Alekseevna" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Yekaterina" title="II Yekaterina – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="II Yekaterina" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_II." title="Katharina II. – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Katharina II." data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecaterina_a_II-a_a_Rusiei" title="Ecaterina a II-a a Rusiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ecaterina a II-a a Rusiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_II" title="Katharina II – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Katharina II" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II._%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Катарина II. Велика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Катарина II. Велика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="सम्राज्ञी काथरिन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सम्राज्ञी काथरिन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Catherine the Great" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katerina_II" title="Katerina II – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Katerina II" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catirina_II_la_Granni" title="Catirina II la Granni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Catirina II la Granni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" title="Catherine II of Russia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Catherine II of Russia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katar%C3%ADna_II._(Rusko)" title="Katarína II. (Rusko) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Katarína II. (Rusko)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_Velika" title="Katarina Velika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Katarina Velika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%94%D1%80%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D1%94%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%EA%99%97" title="Єкатєрїна Вєликаꙗ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Єкатєрїна Вєликаꙗ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95%D9%85" title="کاترینای دووەم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کاترینای دووەم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Катарина Велика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Катарина Велика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_Velika" title="Katarina Velika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Katarina Velika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katariina_Suuri" title="Katariina Suuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Katariina Suuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_II_av_Ryssland" title="Katarina II av Ryssland – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Katarina II av Ryssland" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalina_II_ng_Rusya" title="Catalina II ng Rusya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Catalina II ng Rusya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="உருசியாவின் இரண்டாம் கத்தரீன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உருசியாவின் இரண்டாம் கத்தரீன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Екатерина II – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Екатерина II" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5" title="เยกาเจรีนามหาราชินี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เยกาเจรีนามหาราชินี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B8_II" title="Екатеринаи II – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Екатеринаи II" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/II._Katerina" title="II. Katerina – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="II. Katerina" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Dekaterina_II" title="Ýekaterina II – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ýekaterina II" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_II" title="Катерина II – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Катерина II" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="کیتھرین اعظم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کیتھرین اعظم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterina_II_de_Rusia" title="Caterina II de Rusia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Caterina II de Rusia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterina_II_c%E1%BB%A7a_Nga" title="Yekaterina II của Nga – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Yekaterina II của Nga" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%91%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%8D%B7%E7%90%B3%E5%A8%9C%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="葉卡捷琳娜二世 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="葉卡捷琳娜二世" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalina_nga_Harangdon" title="Catalina nga Harangdon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Catalina nga Harangdon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E5%8D%A1%E6%8D%B7%E7%90%B3%E5%A8%9C%E4%BA%8C%E4%B8%96" title="叶卡捷琳娜二世 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="叶卡捷琳娜二世" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Catherine the Great (disambiguation)">Catherine the Great (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Catherine II" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Catherine II (disambiguation)">Catherine II (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Catherine II</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Empress Catherine II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg/220px-Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg/330px-Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg/440px-Catherine_II_by_A.Albertrandi_after_Rokotov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="1200" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Catherine the Great, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780s</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of Russia">Empress of Russia</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796 (34 years, 4 months, 8 days)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Russian_monarch" title="Coronation of the Russian monarch">Coronation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">22 September 1762</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_royal_consorts#House_of_Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov_(1762–1917)" title="List of Russian royal consorts">Empress consort of Russia</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tenure</th><td class="infobox-data">5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst 2 May [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 21 April] 1729 <a href="/wiki/Stettin" class="mw-redirect" title="Stettin">Stettin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, Holy Roman Empire</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">17 November [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 6 November] 1796 (aged 67) <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a>, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Saints_Peter_and_Paul_Cathedral,_Saint_Petersburg" title="Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg">Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III of Russia</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1745; died <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">1762)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a> <a href="#Issue">among others...</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a></li> <li>Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobrinsky" title="Bobrinsky">Alexei, Count Bobrinsky</a></li></ul> </div> (illegitimate)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Sophia Augusta Frederica/Sophie Auguste Friederike</li><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Екатерина Алексеевна Романова, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Yekaterina Alekseyevna Romanova</li><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>: Catherine Alexeievna Romanova</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">Regnal name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Catherine II</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Romanov#House_of_Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov" title="House of Romanov">Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov</a> (by marriage)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ascania" title="House of Ascania">Ascania</a> (by birth)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christian_August,_Prince_of_Anhalt-Zerbst" title="Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst">Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Elisabeth_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp">Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Orthodox">Russian Orthodox</a> (1744–1796)</li> <li>prev. <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> (1729–1744)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Catherine II's signature"><img alt="Catherine II's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg/125px-Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg/188px-Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg/250px-Catherine_The_Great_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="197" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/220px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/330px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg/440px-Rouble_-_Catherine_II_%D0%9C%D0%9C%D0%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4579" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption>1764, <a href="/wiki/Rouble" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouble">Rouble</a> Catherine II ММД - Krasny Mint</figcaption></figure> Catherine II<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 1729 – 17 November 1796),<a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a> most commonly known as Catherine the Great,<a href="#cite_note-3">[c]</a> was the reigning <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of Russia">empress of Russia</a> from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a>. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres, along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe and the recognition of Russia as one of the <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> of Europe. In her accession to power and her rule of the empire, Catherine often relied on her noble favourites, most notably Count <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Orlov" title="Grigory Orlov">Grigory Orlov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin" title="Grigory Potemkin">Grigory Potemkin</a>. Assisted by highly successful <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_field_marshals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian field marshals">generals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Rumyantsev" title="Pyotr Rumyantsev">Pyotr Rumyantsev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_admirals" title="List of Russian admirals">admirals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Greig" title="Samuel Greig">Samuel Greig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Ushakov" title="Fyodor Ushakov">Fyodor Ushakov</a>, she governed at a time when the Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. In the south, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> was annexed following victories over the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Bar Confederation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War</a>. With the support of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, Russia colonised the territories of <a href="/wiki/Novorossiya" title="Novorossiya">New Russia</a> along the coasts of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azov_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Azov Sea">Azov Seas</a>. In the west, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>—ruled by Catherine's former lover, King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>—was eventually <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitioned</a>, with the Russian Empire gaining the largest share. In the east, Russians became the first Europeans <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">to colonise</a> Alaska, establishing <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a>. Many cities and towns were founded on Catherine's orders in the newly conquered lands, most notably <a href="/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Yekaterinoslav</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kherson" title="Kherson">Kherson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mykolaiv" title="Mykolaiv">Nikolayev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a>. An admirer of <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a>, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and the economy continued to depend on <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfdom</a>, and the increasing demands of the state and of private landowners intensified the exploitation of serf labour. This was one of the chief reasons behind rebellions, including <a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a>, nomads, peoples of the Volga, and peasants. The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. The construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">classical</a> style endorsed by the empress, changed the face of the country. She is often included in the ranks of the <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened despots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[d]</a> As a patron of the arts, she presided over the age of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a>, including the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute_of_Noble_Maidens" title="Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens">Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens</a>, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_(1745,_Gatchina_museum).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_%281745%2C_Gatchina_museum%29.jpg/170px-Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_%281745%2C_Gatchina_museum%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_%281745%2C_Gatchina_museum%29.jpg/255px-Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_%281745%2C_Gatchina_museum%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Grand_Duchess_Catherine_Alexeevna_by_L.Caravaque_%281745%2C_Gatchina_museum%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Young Catherine soon after her arrival in Russia, by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Caravaque" title="Louis Caravaque">Louis Caravaque</a>, 1745</figcaption></figure> Catherine was born on 2 May 1729 in <a href="/wiki/Szczecin" title="Szczecin">Stettin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pomerania_(1653%E2%80%931815)" title="Province of Pomerania (1653–1815)">Province of Pomerania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, as Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica (Sophie Auguste Friederike) von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg.<a href="#cite_note-Bezemer-6">[2]</a> Her mother was <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Elisabeth_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp">Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp</a>. Her father, <a href="/wiki/Christian_August,_Prince_of_Anhalt-Zerbst" title="Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst">Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst</a>, belonged to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Ascania" title="House of Ascania">ruling German family</a> of <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Anhalt" title="Principality of Anhalt">Anhalt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[3]</a> He failed to become the duke of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" title="Duchy of Courland and Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</a> and, at the time of his daughter's birth, he held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. However, because her second cousin Peter III converted to Orthodox Christianity, her mother's brother became the heir to the Swedish throne<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter20073Massie201110–19-8">[4]</a> and two of her first cousins, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_III" title="Gustav III">Gustav III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_XIII" title="Charles XIII">Charles XIII</a>, became <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Sweden" title="Monarchy of Sweden">Kings of Sweden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[5]</a> In accordance with the prevailing custom among the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. According to her memoirs, Sophie was considered a <a href="/wiki/Tomboy" title="Tomboy">tomboy</a> and trained herself to master a sword. Catherine found her childhood to be uneventful; she once wrote to her correspondent <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_Baron_von_Grimm" title="Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm">Baron Grimm</a>, "I see nothing of interest in it".<a href="#cite_note-10">[6]</a> Although Sophie was born a princess, her family had little money; her rise to power was supported by her mother Joanna's wealthy relatives, who were both nobles and royal relations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter20073Massie201110–19-8">[4]</a> The more than 300 sovereign entities of the Holy Roman Empire, many of them small and powerless, made for a highly competitive political system in which the various princely families fought for advantages over one another, often by way of political marriages.<a href="#cite_note-11">[7]</a> For smaller German princely families, an advantageous marriage was one of the best means of advancing their interests. To improve the position of her house, Sophie was groomed throughout her childhood to become the wife of a powerful ruler. In addition to her native German, Sophie became fluent in French, the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of European elites in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-12">[8]</a> The young Sophie received the standard education for an 18th-century German princess, concentrating on etiquette, French, and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism#Doctrine" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196940-13">[9]</a> In 1739, when Catherine was 10, she met the second cousin who would become her future husband and <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III of Russia</a>. She later wrote that she immediately found Peter detestable and that she stayed at one end of the castle and Peter at the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOdE2FT4Q-oCdq22theyhailedthiselevenyearoldchild22pgPA4_4–6]-14">[10]</a> She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage_and_reign_of_Peter_III">Marriage and reign of Peter III</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Marriage and reign of Peter III">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_(George_Christoph_Grooth).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg/170px-Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg/255px-Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg/340px-Empress_Catherine_The_Great_circa_1845_%28George_Christoph_Grooth%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna (the future Catherine the Great) around the time of her wedding, by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Grooth" title="Georg Christoph Grooth">Georg Christoph Grooth</a>, 1745</figcaption></figure> The choice of Sophie as wife of the future tsar was a result of the <a href="/wiki/Natalia_Lopukhina" title="Natalia Lopukhina">Lopukhina affair</a>, in which Count <a href="/wiki/Jean_Armand_de_Lestocq" title="Jean Armand de Lestocq">Jean Armand de Lestocq</a> and King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> of Prussia took an active part. The objective was to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, and to overthrow the chancellor <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Bestuzhev-Ryumin" title="Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin">Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin</a>, a known partisan of the Austrian alliance on whom the reigning Russian Empress <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a> relied. The diplomatic intrigue failed, largely due to the intervention of Sophie's mother, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Elisabeth_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp">Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Huberty_1994_166-15">[11]</a> Historical accounts portray <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Elisabeth_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp">Joanna</a> as a cold, abusive woman who loved gossip and court intrigues. Her hunger for fame centered on her daughter's prospects of becoming Empress of Russia, but Joanna also infuriated <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a>, who eventually banned her from the country for allegedly spying for King Frederick. Elizabeth knew the family well and had intended to marry Joanna's brother <a href="/wiki/Christian_August_of_Holstein-Gottorp,_Prince_of_Eutin" title="Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin">Charles Augustus</a> (Karl August von Holstein). He died of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1727, before the wedding could take place.<a href="#cite_note-Huberty_1994_166-15">[11]</a> Despite Joanna's interference, Elizabeth took a strong liking to Sophie, and Sophie and Peter were eventually married in 1745. When Sophie arrived in Russia in 1744 at age 15, she spared no effort to ingratiate herself not only with Elizabeth, but also with Elizabeth's husband <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Razumovsky" title="Alexei Razumovsky">Alexei Razumovsky</a> and with the Russian people at large. She zealously applied herself to learning the Russian language, rising late at night to repeat her lessons in her bedroom. Staying up late at night in the harsh Russian cold caused her to fall ill with <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, though she survived and recovered. In her memoirs, she wrote that she made the decision then to do whatever was necessary and to profess to believe whatever was required of her to become qualified to wear the crown. Although she was able to learn Russian, she spoke with a heavy accent, and made grammatical mistakes. Her writing also contained numerous spelling errors. In most circumstances Catherine II spoke French in her court.<a href="#cite_note-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[13]</a> In fact the use of French as the main language of the Russian imperial court continued until 1812, when it became politically incorrect to speak French in court due to the <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">war</a> with Napoleonic France. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Catherine03.jpg/170px-Catherine03.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Catherine03.jpg/255px-Catherine03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Catherine03.jpg/340px-Catherine03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Equestrianism" title="Equestrianism">equestrian</a> portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseyevna from before 1749</figcaption></figure> Sophie recalled in her memoirs that as soon as she arrived in Russia, she fell ill with a <a href="/wiki/Pleuritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuritis">pleuritis</a> that almost killed her. She credited her survival to frequent <a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">bloodletting</a>; in a single day, she received four <a href="/wiki/Phlebotomies" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebotomies">phlebotomies</a>. Her mother's opposition to this practice brought her the Empress's disfavour. When Sophie's situation looked desperate, her mother wanted her confessed by a Lutheran pastor. Awaking from her delirium, however, Sophie said, "I don't want any Lutheran; I want my Orthodox father [clergyman]". This increased her popularity with the Empress and her court as a whole. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a> doted on Sophie and saw her as a daughter after this. Sophie's father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter's conversion to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>. Despite his objections, on 28 June 1744, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> received Sophie as a member. It was then that she took the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) <a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a> Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey), so that she was in all respects the namesake of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine I">Catherine I</a>, the mother of Elizabeth and the grandmother of Peter III. The following year, on 21 August 1745, the long-planned dynastic marriage between Catherine and Peter finally took place in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>. Catherine had recently turned 16. Her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, then known as Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of <a href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Holstein-Gottorp" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp">Holstein-Gottorp</a> (located in the north-west of present-day<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit">[update]</a> Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of <a href="/wiki/Oranienbaum,_Russia" title="Oranienbaum, Russia">Oranienbaum</a>, which remained the residence of the "young court" for many years. From there, they governed the duchy (which occupied less than a third of the current German state of <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>, even including that part of Schleswig occupied by Denmark) to obtain experience to govern Russia. Apart from providing that experience, the marriage was unsuccessful; it was not consummated for years due to Peter III's mental immaturity. After Peter took a mistress, Catherine became involved with other prominent court figures. She soon became popular with several powerful political groups that opposed her husband. Unhappy with her husband, Catherine became an avid reader of books, mostly in French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196939–52-18">[14]</a> She disparaged her husband for his devotion to reading on the one hand "Lutheran prayer-books, the other the history of and trial of some highway robbers who had been hanged or broken on the wheel".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196940-13">[9]</a> It was during this period that she first read <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and the other philosophes of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">French Enlightenment</a>. As she learned Russian, she became increasingly interested in the literature of her adopted country. Finally, it was the Annals by <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> that caused what she called a "revolution" in her teenage mind as Tacitus was the first intellectual she read who understood power politics as they are, not as they should be. She was especially impressed with his argument that people do not act for their professed idealistic reasons, and instead she learned to look for the "hidden and interested motives".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196941-19">[15]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hertzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Hertzen">Alexander Hertzen</a>, who edited a version of Catherine's memoirs, Catherine had her first sexual relationship with <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Saltykov" title="Sergei Saltykov">Sergei Saltykov</a> while living at Oranienbaum, as her marriage to Peter had not yet been consummated, as Catherine later claimed.<a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> Nonetheless, Catherine would eventually leave the final version of her memoirs to her son, the future <a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a>, in which she explained why Paul had been Peter's son. Saltykov was used to make Peter jealous, and she did not desire to have a child with him; Catherine wanted to become empress herself, and did not want another heir to the throne; however, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a> blackmailed Peter and Catherine to produce this heir. Peter and Catherine had both been involved in a 1749 Russian military plot to crown Peter (together with Catherine) in Elizabeth's stead. As a result of this plot, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a> likely wanted to deny both Catherine and Peter any rights to the Russian throne. Elizabeth, therefore, allowed Catherine to have sexual lovers only after a new legal heir, Catherine and Peter's son <a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul</a>, survived and appeared to be strong.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> After this, Catherine carried on sexual liaisons over the years with many men, including <a href="/wiki/Stanislaus_Augustus_Poniatowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski">Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Grigoryevich_Orlov" class="mw-redirect" title="Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov">Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov</a> (1734–1783), <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vasilchikov" title="Alexander Vasilchikov">Alexander Vasilchikov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin" title="Grigory Potemkin">Grigory Potemkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov">Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989400–403-23">[19]</a> She became friends with Princess <a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Romanovna_Vorontsova-Dashkova" class="mw-redirect" title="Yekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova">Ekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova</a>, the sister of her husband's official mistress. In Dashkova's opinion, Dashkova introduced Catherine to several powerful political groups that opposed her husband; however, Catherine had been involved in military schemes against Elizabeth with the likely goal of subsequently getting rid of Peter III since at least 1749. Peter III's temperament became quite unbearable for those who resided in the palace. He would announce trying drills in the morning to male servants, who later joined Catherine in her room to sing and dance until late hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander198951–54-24">[20]</a> In 1759, Catherine became pregnant with her second child, Anna, who only lived to 14 months. Due to various rumours of Catherine's promiscuity, Peter was led to believe he was not the child's biological father and is known to have proclaimed, "Go to the devil!" when Catherine angrily dismissed his accusation. She therefore spent much of this time alone in her private <a href="/wiki/Boudoir" title="Boudoir">boudoir</a> to hide away from Peter's abrasive personality.<a href="#cite_note-25">[21]</a> In the first version of her memoirs, edited and published by Alexander Hertzen, Catherine strongly implied that the real father of her son Paul was not Peter, but rather Saltykov.<a href="#cite_note-r92-26">[22]</a> Catherine recalled in her memoirs her optimistic and resolute mood before her accession to the throne: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I used to say to myself that happiness and misery depend on ourselves. If you feel unhappy, raise yourself above unhappiness, and so act that your happiness may be independent of all eventualities.<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_(copy_in_Odessa).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg/170px-Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg/255px-Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg/340px-Peter_III_and_Catherine_II_by_Grooth_%28copy_in_Odessa%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Tsar <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a> and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. He reigned only six months, and died on 17 July 1762.</figcaption></figure> After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on 5 January 1762 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">OS</a>: 25 December 1761), Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III and Catherine became <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">empress consort</a>. The imperial couple moved into the new <a href="/wiki/Winter_Palace" title="Winter Palace">Winter Palace</a> in Saint Petersburg. The Emperor's eccentricities and policies, including his great admiration for the Prussian King Frederick II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated as allies. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763) and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761. Peter supported Frederick II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partition of Polish territories</a> with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of <a href="/wiki/Holstein" title="Holstein">Holstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark</a> over the province of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Schleswig" title="Duchy of Schleswig">Schleswig</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Count_Johann_Hartwig_Ernst_von_Bernstorff" title="Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff">Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff</a>). As <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Holstein-Gottorp" title="Duke of Holstein-Gottorp">Duke of Holstein-Gottorp</a>, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia's traditional <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Denmark–Russia relations">ally against Sweden</a>. In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while Catherine lived in another palace nearby. On the night of 8 July 1762 (OS: 27 June 1762),<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband and that the coup they had been planning would have to take place at once. The next day, she left the palace and departed for the <a href="/wiki/Izmailovsky_Life_Guards_Regiment" title="Izmailovsky Life Guards Regiment">Ismailovsky Regiment</a>, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the Ismailovsky Regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne and began her reign as Empress of Russia as Catherine II. She had her husband arrested and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989-29">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> On 17 July 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world<a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at <a href="/wiki/Ropsha" title="Ropsha">Ropsha</a>, possibly at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Grigoryevich_Orlov" title="Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov">Alexei Orlov</a> (younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of <a href="/wiki/Haemorrhoidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemorrhoidal">haemorrhoidal</a> <a href="/wiki/Colic" title="Colic">colic</a> and an apoplexy stroke.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassie2011274–275-32">[28]</a> At the time of Peter III's overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included <a href="/wiki/Ivan_VI_of_Russia" title="Ivan VI of Russia">Ivan VI</a> (1740–1764), who had been confined at <a href="/wiki/Shlisselburg" title="Shlisselburg">Schlüsselburg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ladoga" title="Lake Ladoga">Lake Ladoga</a> from the age of six months and was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup against Catherine. Like Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. The woman later known as <a href="/wiki/Princess_Tarakanova" title="Princess Tarakanova">Princess Tarakanova</a> (с. 1745–1775) was another potential rival. Although Catherine did not descend from the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Romanov" title="House of Romanov">Romanov</a> dynasty, her ancestors included members of the <a href="/wiki/Rurik_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurik dynasty">Rurik dynasty</a>, which had preceded the Romanovs as rulers of Russia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] She succeeded her husband as <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">empress regnant</a>, following the legal precedent of Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Catherine I</a>, who had succeeded her husband <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter I</a> in 1725. Historians debate Catherine's technical status, whether as a regent or as a <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurper</a>, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reign_(1762–1796)">Reign (1762–1796)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reign (1762–1796)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronation_(1762)">Coronation (1762)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Coronation (1762)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/220px-%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/330px-%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg/440px-%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="1089" /></a><figcaption>Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 28 June] 1762, the day of the coup</figcaption></figure> Catherine was crowned at the <a href="/wiki/Dormition_Cathedral,_Moscow" title="Dormition Cathedral, Moscow">Assumption Cathedral</a> in Moscow on 22 September 1762.<a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a> Her coronation marks the creation of one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Crown_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Crown of Russia">Great Imperial Crown of Russia</a>, designed by Swiss-French court diamond jeweller <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%A9mie_Pauzi%C3%A9" title="Jérémie Pauzié">Jérémie Pauzié</a>. Inspired by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> design, the crown was constructed of two half spheres, one gold and one silver, representing the Eastern and <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empires</a>, divided by a foliate garland and fastened with a low hoop.<a href="#cite_note-The_Russian_Crown_Jewels-34">[30]</a> The crown contains 75 pearls and 4,936 Indian diamonds forming laurel and oak leaves, the symbols of power and strength, and is surmounted by a <a href="/wiki/Spinel_of_the_Great_Imperial_Crown" title="Spinel of the Great Imperial Crown">398.62-carat ruby spinel</a> and a diamond cross. The crown was produced in a record two months and weighed 2.3 kg (5.1 lbs).<a href="#cite_note-The_Russian_Crown_Jewels-34">[30]</a> From 1762, the Great Imperial Crown was the coronation crown of all Romanov emperors until the monarchy's abolition in 1917. It is one of the main treasures of the Romanov dynasty and is now on display in the Moscow Kremlin <a href="/wiki/Kremlin_Armoury" title="Kremlin Armoury">Armoury Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_affairs">Foreign affairs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Foreign affairs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Foreign policy of the Russian Empire">Foreign policy of the Russian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1721%E2%80%931796)" title="History of Russia (1721–1796)">History of Russia (1721–1796)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_(1794,_Hermitage).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg/170px-A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg/255px-A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg/340px-A.A.Bezborodko_by_Lampi_%281794%2C_Hermitage%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="1476" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bezborodko" title="Alexander Bezborodko">Alexander Bezborodko</a>, the chief architect of Catherine's foreign policy after the death of <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Panin" title="Nikita Panin">Nikita Panin</a></figcaption></figure> During her reign, Catherine extended the borders of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> by some 520,000 square kilometres (200,000 sq mi), absorbing <a href="/wiki/Novorossiya" title="Novorossiya">New Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine" title="Right-bank Ukraine">right-bank Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Courland" title="Courland">Courland</a> at the expense, mainly, of two powers—the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg/220px-Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg/330px-Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg/440px-Catherine_II_and_Gustav_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Gustav_III" title="Gustav III">Gustav III</a> of Sweden and Empress Catherine II of Russia in <a href="/wiki/Hamina" title="Hamina">Fredrikshamn</a> in 1783</figcaption></figure> Catherine's foreign minister, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Ivanovich_Panin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikita Ivanovich Panin">Nikita Panin</a> (in office 1763–1781), exercised considerable influence from the beginning of Catherine's reign. A shrewd statesman, Panin dedicated much effort and millions of <a href="/wiki/Ruble" title="Ruble">rubles</a> to setting up a "Northern Accord" between Russia, Prussia, Poland, and Sweden to counter the power of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a>–<a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a> League. When it became apparent that his plan could not succeed, Panin fell out of favour with Catherine and she had him replaced with <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Osterman" title="Ivan Osterman">Ivan Osterman</a> (in office 1781–1797).<a href="#cite_note-D._Bugrov_2010-37">[33]</a> Catherine agreed to a <a href="/wiki/Commercial_treaty" title="Commercial treaty">commercial treaty</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in 1766, but stopped short of a full military alliance. Although she could see the benefits of friendship with Britain, Catherine was wary of Britain's increased power following <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War" title="Great Britain in the Seven Years' War">its victory in the Seven Years' War</a>, which threatened the <a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russo-Turkish_Wars">Russo-Turkish Wars</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Russo-Turkish Wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg/170px-Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg/255px-Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg/340px-Catherine_II_of_Russia_by_Vigilius_Eriksen_-_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9._-_1762.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Equestrian portrait of Catherine in the <a href="/wiki/Preobrazhensky_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Preobrazhensky Regiment">Preobrazhensky Regiment</a>'s uniform, by <a href="/wiki/Vigilius_Eriksen" title="Vigilius Eriksen">Vigilius Eriksen</a></figcaption></figure> Peter the Great had gained a foothold in the south, on the edge of the Black Sea, during the <a href="/wiki/Azov_campaigns_(1695%E2%80%931696)" title="Azov campaigns (1695–1696)">Azov campaigns</a>. Catherine completed the conquest of the south, making Russia the dominant power in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774</a>. Russia inflicted some of the heaviest defeats ever suffered by the Ottoman Empire, including at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chesma" title="Battle of Chesma">Battle of Chesma</a> (5–7 July 1770) and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kagul" title="Battle of Kagul">Battle of Kagul</a> (21 July 1770). In 1769, a last major <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">Crimean–Nogai slave raid</a>, which ravaged the <a href="/wiki/New_Serbia_(historical_province)" title="New Serbia (historical province)">Russian held territories</a> in Ukraine, saw the capture of up to 20,000 slaves for the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> The Russian victories procured access to the Black Sea and allowed Catherine's government to incorporate present-day southern Ukraine, where the Russians founded the new cities of <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mykolaiv" title="Mykolaiv">Nikolayev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dnipro" title="Dnipro">Yekaterinoslav</a> (literally: "the Glory of Catherine") and <a href="/wiki/Kherson" title="Kherson">Kherson</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a>, signed 21 July 1774 (OS: 10 July 1774), gave the Russians territories at <a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yeni-Kale" title="Yeni-Kale">Yenikale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinburn_Peninsula" title="Kinburn Peninsula">Kinburn</a> and the small strip of Black Sea coast between the rivers <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Bug" title="Southern Bug">Bug</a>. The treaty also removed restrictions on Russian naval and commercial traffic in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Azov Sea</a>, granted Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and made Crimea a protectorate of Russia.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher_1967_341–364-41">[37]</a> In 1770, Russia's State Council announced a policy in favour of eventual Crimean independence. Catherine named <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahin_Giray" title="Şahin Giray">Şahin Giray</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatar</a> leader, to head the Crimean state and maintain friendly relations with Russia. His period of rule proved disappointing after repeated effort to prop up his regime through military force and monetary aid. Finally, Catherine <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire">annexed Crimea</a> in 1783. The palace of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> passed into the hands of the Russians. In 1787, Catherine conducted a triumphal procession in the Crimea, which helped provoke the next Russo-Turkish War.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher_1967_341–364-41">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg/330px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg/440px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="2439" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_founders_of_Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Monument to the founders of Odessa">Monument to the founders of Odessa</a>: Catherine and her companions <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Ribas" title="José de Ribas">José de Ribas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Sainte_de_Wollant" title="François Sainte de Wollant">François Sainte de Wollant</a>, Platon Zubov and Grigory Potemkin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1800_Novoros_gov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1800_Novoros_gov.jpg/280px-1800_Novoros_gov.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1800_Novoros_gov.jpg/420px-1800_Novoros_gov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/1800_Novoros_gov.jpg/560px-1800_Novoros_gov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1409" data-file-height="1094" /></a><figcaption>Catherine extended the borders of the Russian Empire southward to absorb the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a></figcaption></figure> The Ottomans restarted hostilities with Russia in the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)">Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792</a>. This war was another catastrophe for the Ottomans, ending with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Jassy" title="Treaty of Jassy">Treaty of Jassy</a> (1792), which legitimised the Russian claim to the Crimean peninsula and granted the <a href="/wiki/Yedisan" title="Yedisan">Yedisan region</a> to Russia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russo-Persian_War">Russo-Persian War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Russo-Persian War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persian_expedition_of_1796" title="Persian expedition of 1796">Persian expedition of 1796</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Georgievsk" title="Treaty of Georgievsk">Treaty of Georgievsk</a> (1783), Russia agreed to protect <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> against any new invasions and further political aspirations of their Persian <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerains</a>. Catherine waged a new war <a href="/wiki/Persian_expedition_of_1796" title="Persian expedition of 1796">against Persia</a> in 1796 after they, under the new king <a href="/wiki/Agha_Mohammad_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agha Mohammad Khan">Agha Mohammad Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krtsanisi" title="Battle of Krtsanisi">again invaded Georgia</a> and established rule in 1795, expelling the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus. The ultimate goal for the Russian government, however, was to topple the anti-Russian shah (king), and to replace him with his pro-Russian half-brother <a href="/wiki/Morteza_Qoli_Khan_Qajar" title="Morteza Qoli Khan Qajar">Morteza Qoli Khan</a>, who had defected to Russia.<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a> It was widely expected that a 13,000-strong Russian corps would be led by the seasoned general <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Gudovich" title="Ivan Gudovich">Ivan Gudovich</a>, but the Empress followed the advice of her lover, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Zubov" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Zubov">Prince Zubov</a>, and entrusted the command to his youthful brother, Count <a href="/wiki/Valerian_Zubov" title="Valerian Zubov">Valerian Zubov</a>. The Russian troops set out from <a href="/wiki/Kizlyar" title="Kizlyar">Kizlyar</a> in April 1796 <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_Derbent" class="mw-redirect" title="Storming of Derbent">and stormed</a> the key fortress of <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a> on 21 May (OS: 10 May). The event was glorified by the court poet <a href="/wiki/Gavrila_Derzhavin" title="Gavrila Derzhavin">Derzhavin</a> in his famous ode; he later commented bitterly on Zubov's inglorious return from the expedition in another famous poem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989321-44">[40]</a> By mid-June 1796, Zubov's troops easily overran most of the territory of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, including three principal cities—<a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shemakha" class="mw-redirect" title="Shemakha">Shemakha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a>. By November, they were stationed at the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Aras_(river)" title="Aras (river)">Aras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kura_(Caspian_Sea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kura (Caspian Sea)">Kura Rivers</a>, poised to attack mainland Iran. In this month, Catherine died, and her son and successor Paul I, who detested that the Zubovs had other plans for the army, ordered the troops to retreat to Russia. This reversal aroused the frustration and enmity of the powerful Zubovs and other officers who took part in the campaign; many of them would be among the conspirators who arranged Paul's murder five years later.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Western_Europe">Relations with Western Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relations with Western Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russia_and_the_American_Revolution" title="Russia and the American Revolution">Russia and the American Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg/220px-Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg/330px-Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg/440px-Taming-of-the-Shrew-Gillray.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3880" data-file-height="2403" /></a><figcaption>A 1791 caricature by <a href="/wiki/James_Gillray" title="James Gillray">James Gillray</a> of an attempted mediation between Catherine the Great (on the right, supported by Austria and France) and the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a> is shown in armour riding <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a>, his horse.</figcaption></figure> Catherine longed for recognition as an enlightened sovereign. She refused the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, which had ports on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and refrained from having a Russian army in Germany. Instead, she pioneered for Russia the role that Britain later played through most of the 19th and early 20th centuries as an international mediator in disputes that could, or did, lead to war. She acted as mediator in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Bavarian_Succession" title="War of the Bavarian Succession">War of the Bavarian Succession</a> (1778–1779) between the German states of Prussia and Austria. In 1780, she established a <a href="/wiki/First_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="First League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a>, designed to defend neutral shipping from being searched by the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. From 1788 to 1790, Russia fought a <a href="/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%931790)" title="Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)">war against Sweden</a> instigated by Catherine's cousin, King Gustav III of Sweden, who expected to overrun the Russian armies still engaged in war against the Ottomans and hoped to strike Saint Petersburg directly. But Russia's <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Fleet" title="Baltic Fleet">Baltic Fleet</a> checked the Royal Swedish navy in the tied <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hogland" title="Battle of Hogland">Battle of Hogland</a> (July 1788), and the Swedish army failed to advance. Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1788 (the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_War" title="Theatre War">Theatre War</a>). After the decisive defeat of the Russian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Svensksund" title="Battle of Svensksund">Battle of Svensksund</a> in 1790, the parties signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_V%C3%A4r%C3%A4l%C3%A4" title="Treaty of Värälä">Treaty of Värälä</a> (14 August 1790), returning all conquered territories to their respective owners and confirming the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_%C3%85bo" title="Treaty of Åbo">Treaty of Åbo</a>. Russia was to stop any involvement in the internal affairs of Sweden. Large sums were paid to Gustav III and peace ensued for 20 years even in spite of the assassination of Gustav III in 1792.<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Partitions_of_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/330px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/495px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png/660px-Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> carried out by Russia, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a> in 1772, 1793, and 1795</figcaption></figure> In 1764, Catherine placed <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski</a>, her former lover, on the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_monarchs" title="List of Polish monarchs">Polish throne</a>. Although the idea of partitioning Poland came from Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine took a leading role in its execution in the 1790s. In 1768, she formally became the protector of the political rights of dissidents and peasants of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which provoked an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">anti-Russian</a> uprising in Poland, the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Confederation" title="Bar Confederation">Confederation of Bar</a> (1768–1772), supported by France. After the rebels, their French and European volunteers, and their allied Ottoman Empire had been defeated, she established in the Commonwealth a system of government fully controlled by the Russian Empire through a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Council" title="Permanent Council">Permanent Council</a>, under the supervision of her <a href="/wiki/Ambassadors_and_envoys_from_Russia_to_Poland_(1763%E2%80%931794)" title="Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)">ambassadors and envoys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a> Fearing that the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">May Constitution of Poland</a> (1791) might lead to a resurgence in the power of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the growing democratic movements inside the Commonwealth might become a threat to the European monarchies, Catherine decided to refrain from her planned intervention into France and to intervene in Poland instead. She provided support to a Polish anti-reform group known as the <a href="/wiki/Targowica_Confederation" title="Targowica Confederation">Targowica Confederation</a>. After defeating Polish loyalist forces in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792" title="Polish–Russian War of 1792">Polish–Russian War of 1792</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a> (1794), Russia completed the partitioning of Poland, dividing all of the remaining Commonwealth territory with Prussia and Austria (1795).<a href="#cite_note-48">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_China">Relations with China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Relations with China">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> of China was committed to an expansionist policy in Central Asia and saw the Russian Empire as a potential rival, making for difficult and unfriendly relations between Beijing and Saint Petersburg.<a href="#cite_note-l55-49">[45]</a> In 1762, he unilaterally abrogated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta</a>, which governed the caravan trade between the two empires.<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> Another source of tension was the wave of <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungar Mongol</a> fugitives from the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing Empire</a> who took refuge with the Russians.<a href="#cite_note-l56-51">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungar genocide</a> which was committed by the Qing Empire had led many Dzungars to seek sanctuary in the Russian Empire, and it was also one of the reasons for the abrogation of the Treaty of Kyakhta. Catherine perceived that the Qianlong Emperor was an unpleasant and arrogant neighbour, once saying: "I shall not die until I have ejected the Turks from Europe, suppressed the pride of China and established trade with India".<a href="#cite_note-l56-51">[47]</a> In a 1790 letter to Baron de Grimm written in French, she called the Qianlong Emperor "mon voisin chinois aux petits yeux" ("my Chinese neighbour with small eyes").<a href="#cite_note-l55-49">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Japan">Relations with Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Relations with Japan">edit</a>]</div> In the Far East, Russians became active in fur trapping in <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a>. This spurred Russian interest in opening trade with <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Japan</a> to the south for supplies and food. In 1783, storms drove a Japanese sea captain, <a href="/wiki/Daikokuya_K%C5%8Dday%C5%AB" title="Daikokuya Kōdayū">Daikokuya Kōdayū</a>, ashore in the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, at that time Russian territory. Russian local authorities helped his party, and the Russian government decided to use him as a trade envoy. On 28 June 1791, Catherine granted Daikokuya an audience at <a href="/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo" title="Tsarskoye Selo">Tsarskoye Selo</a>. Subsequently, in 1792, the Russian government dispatched a trade mission to Japan, led by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Laxman" title="Adam Laxman">Adam Laxman</a>. The Tokugawa shogunate received the mission, but negotiations failed.<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_evaluation_of_foreign_policy">The evaluation of foreign policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The evaluation of foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> Nicholas I, her grandson, evaluated the foreign policy of Catherine the Great as a dishonest one.<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> Catherine failed to reach any of the initial goals she had put forward. Her foreign policy lacked a long-term strategy and from the very start was characterised by a series of mistakes. She lost the large territories of the Russian protectorate of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania and left its territories to Prussia and Austria. The Commonwealth had become the Russian protectorate since the reign of Peter I, but he did not intervene into the problem of political freedoms of dissidents advocating for their religious freedoms only. Catherine did turn Russia into a global great power, not only a European one, but with quite a different reputation from what she initially had planned as an honest policy. The global trade of Russian natural resources and Russian grain provoked famines, starvation and fear of famines in Russia. Her dynasty lost power because of this and of a war with Austria and Germany, impossible without her foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics_and_finance">Economics and finance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economics and finance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II,_1791.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg/220px-5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg/330px-5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg/440px-5_Kopecks_repr%C3%A9sentant_l%27aigle_bic%C3%A9phale_et_le_monogramme_de_Catherine_II%2C_1791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>A 5-kopeck coin bearing the monogram of Catherine the Great and the Imperial coat of arms, dated 1791</figcaption></figure> Russian economic development was well below the standards in western Europe. Historian François Cruzet writes that Russia under Catherine: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">had neither a free peasantry, nor a significant middle class, nor legal norms hospitable to private enterprise. Still, there was a start of industry, mainly textiles around Moscow and ironworks in the Ural Mountains, with a labour force mainly of serfs, bound to the works.<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a></blockquote> Catherine imposed a comprehensive system of state regulation of merchants' activities. It was a failure because it narrowed and stifled entrepreneurship and did not reward economic development.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> She had more success when she strongly encouraged the migration of the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a>, farmers from Germany who settled mostly in the Volga River Valley region. They indeed helped modernise the sector that totally dominated the Russian economy. They introduced numerous innovations regarding wheat production and flour milling, tobacco culture, sheep raising, and small-scale manufacturing.<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> In 1768, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Assignation_Bank" title="Russian Assignation Bank">Assignation Bank</a> was given the task of issuing the first government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 1769. Several bank branches were afterwards established in other towns, called government towns. Paper notes were issued upon payment of similar sums in copper money, which were also refunded upon the presentation of those notes. The emergence of these <a href="/wiki/Assignation_rouble" class="mw-redirect" title="Assignation rouble">assignation roubles</a> was necessary due to large government spending on military needs, which led to a shortage of silver in the treasury (transactions, especially in foreign trade, were conducted almost exclusively in silver and gold coins). Assignation roubles circulated on equal footing with the silver rouble; a market exchange rate for these two currencies was ongoing. The use of these notes continued until 1849.<a href="#cite_note-:0-58">[54]</a> Catherine paid a great deal of attention to financial reform, and relied heavily on the advice of Prince A. A. Viazemski. She found that piecemeal reform worked poorly because there was no overall view of a comprehensive state budget. Money was needed for wars and necessitated the junking of the old financial institutions. A key principle was responsibilities defined by function. It was instituted by the Fundamental Law of 7 November 1775. Vaizemski's Office of State Revenue took centralised control and by 1781, the government possessed its first approximation of a state budget.<a href="#cite_note-:0-58">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health">Public health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Public health">edit</a>]</div> Catherine made public health a priority. She made use of the social theory ideas of German <a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">cameralism</a> and French <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocracy</a>, as well as Russian precedents and experiments such as <a href="/wiki/Foundling_hospital" title="Foundling hospital">foundling homes</a>. In 1764, she launched the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Orphanage" title="Moscow Orphanage">Moscow Foundling Home</a> and lying-in hospital. In 1763, she opened Paul's Hospital, also known as Pavlovskaya Hospital. She had the government collect and publish vital statistics. In 1762, she called on the army to upgrade its medical services. She established a centralised medical administration charged with initiating vigorous health policies. Catherine decided to have herself inoculated against smallpox by English doctor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dimsdale" title="Thomas Dimsdale">Thomas Dimsdale</a>. While this was considered a controversial method at the time, she succeeded. Her son Pavel later was inoculated as well.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_1984_14–16-59">[55]</a> Catherine then sought to have inoculations throughout her empire and stated: "My objective was, through my example, to save from death the multitude of my subjects who, not knowing the value of this technique, and frightened of it, were left in danger".<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths_1984_14–16-59">[55]</a> By 1800, approximately 2 million inoculations (almost 6% of the population) were administered in the Russian Empire. Historians consider her efforts to be a success.<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serfs">Serfs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Serfs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Serfdom in Russia</a></div> According to a census taken from 1754 to 1762, Catherine owned 500,000 serfs. A further 2.8 million belonged to the Russian state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassie2011302-61">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rights_and_conditions">Rights and conditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Rights and conditions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/170px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/255px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/340px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2138" data-file-height="2566" /></a><figcaption>Punishment with a <a href="/wiki/Knout" title="Knout">knout</a></figcaption></figure> At the time of Catherine's reign, the landowning noble class owned the serfs, who were bound to the land they tilled. Children of serfs were born into serfdom and worked the same land their parents had. Even before the rule of Catherine, serfs had very limited rights, but they were not exactly slaves. While the state did not technically allow them to own possessions, some serfs were able to accumulate enough wealth to pay for their freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWirtschafter1998564-62">[58]</a> The understanding of law in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a> by all sections of society was often weak, confused, or nonexistent, particularly in the provinces where most serfs lived. This is why some serfs were able to do things such as to accumulate wealth. To become serfs, people conceded their freedoms to a landowner in exchange for their protection and support in times of hardship. In addition, they received land to till, but were taxed a certain percentage of their crops to give to their landowners. These were the privileges a serf was entitled to and that nobles were bound to carry out. All of this was true before Catherine's reign, and this is the system she inherited. Catherine did initiate some changes to serfdom. If a noble did not live up to his side of the deal, the serfs could file complaints against him by following the proper channels of law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Madariaga197448–51-63">[59]</a> Catherine gave them this new right, but in exchange they could no longer appeal directly to her. She did this because she did not want to be bothered by the peasantry, but did not want to give them reason to revolt. In this act, she gave the serfs a legitimate bureaucratic status they had lacked before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWirtschafter1998563–564-64">[60]</a> Some serfs were able to use their new status to their advantage. For example, serfs could apply to be freed if they were under illegal ownership, and non-nobles were not allowed to own serfs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWirtschafter1998565–567-65">[61]</a> Some serfs did apply for freedom and were successful. In addition, some governors listened to the complaints of serfs and punished nobles, but this was by no means universal. Other than these, the rights of a serf were very limited. A landowner could punish his serfs at his discretion, and under Catherine the Great gained the ability to sentence his serfs to hard labour in Siberia, a punishment normally reserved for convicted criminals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Madariaga197442–46-66">[62]</a> The only thing a noble could not do to his serfs was to kill them. The life of a serf belonged to the state. Historically, when the serfs faced problems they could not solve on their own (such as abusive masters), they often appealed to the autocrat, and continued doing so during Catherine's reign, but she signed legislation prohibiting it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Madariaga197448–51-63">[59]</a> Although she did not want to communicate directly with the serfs, she did create some measures to improve their conditions as a class and reduce the size of the institution of serfdom. For example, she took action to limit the number of new serfs; she eliminated many ways for people to become serfs, culminating in the manifesto of 17 March 1775, which prohibited a serf who had once been freed from becoming a serf again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Madariaga197435-67">[63]</a> While the majority of serfs were farmers bound to the land, a noble could have his serfs sent away to learn a trade or be educated at a school as well as employ them at businesses that paid wages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWirtschafter1998567-68">[64]</a> This happened more often during Catherine's reign because of the new schools she established. Only in this way—apart from conscription to the army—could a serf leave the farm for which he was responsible, but this was used for selling serfs to people who could not own them legally because of absence of nobility abroad.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg/330px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg/440px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%28%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9C%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="766" /></a><figcaption>Captured Russian officials and aristocrats being tried by <a href="/wiki/Yemelyan_Pugachev" title="Yemelyan Pugachev">Pugachev</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attitudes_towards_Catherine">Attitudes towards Catherine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Attitudes towards Catherine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Imperial_stride!_(BM_1868,0808.6035).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg/220px-An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg/330px-An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg/440px-An_Imperial_stride%21_%28BM_1868%2C0808.6035%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1978" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> on Catherine's morals and on the <a href="#Russo-Turkish_Wars">Russo-Turkish war</a>, from 1791</figcaption></figure> The attitude of the serfs toward their autocrat had historically been a positive one.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> However, if the empress' policies were too extreme or too disliked, she was not considered the true empress. In these cases, it was necessary to replace this "fake" empress with the "true" empress, whoever she may be. Because the serfs had no political power, they rioted to convey their message. However, usually, if the serfs did not like the policies of the empress, they saw the nobles as corrupt and evil, preventing the people of Russia from communicating with the well-intentioned empress and misinterpreting her decrees.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> However, they were already suspicious of Catherine upon her accession because she had annulled an act by Peter III that essentially freed the serfs belonging to the Orthodox Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972b170-71">[67]</a> Naturally, the serfs did not like it when Catherine tried to take away their right to petition her because they felt as though she had severed their connection to the autocrat, and their power to appeal to her. Far away from the capital, they were confused as to the circumstances of her accession to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> The peasants were discontented because of many other factors as well, including crop failure, and epidemics, especially a major <a href="/wiki/Plague_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Plague Riot">epidemic in 1771</a>. The nobles were imposing a stricter rule than ever, reducing the land of each serf and restricting their freedoms further beginning around 1767.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972b166–169-73">[69]</a> Their discontent led to widespread outbreaks of violence and rioting during <a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">Pugachev's Rebellion</a> of 1774. The serfs probably followed someone who was pretending to be the true empress because of their feelings of disconnection to Catherine and her policies empowering the nobles, but this was not the first time they followed a pretender under Catherine's reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972b171-74">[70]</a> Pugachev had made stories about himself acting as a real emperor should, helping the common people, listening to their problems, praying for them, and generally acting saintly, and this helped rally the peasants and serfs, with their very conservative values, to his cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972b171–172-75">[71]</a> With all this discontent in mind, Catherine did rule for 10 years before the anger of the serfs boiled over into a rebellion as extensive as Pugachev's. The rebellion ultimately failed and in fact backfired as Catherine was pushed away from the idea of serf liberation following the violent uprising. Under Catherine's rule, despite her enlightened ideals, the serfs were generally unhappy and discontented. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts_and_culture">Arts and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Arts and culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22,_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg/170px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg/255px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg/340px-%D0%A1%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B_II_%D0%B2_%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B5%22%2C_%D0%B3.%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a> (1789–1790), by <a href="/wiki/Fedot_Shubin" title="Fedot Shubin">Fedot Shubin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg/180px-Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg/270px-Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg/360px-Catherine-the-Great-by-Collot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3013" data-file-height="5000" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Catherine the Great by <a href="/wiki/Marie-Anne_Collot" title="Marie-Anne Collot">Marie-Anne Collot</a>, marble, 1769, <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">The State Hermitage Museum</a>, Saint-Petersburg</figcaption></figure> Catherine was a patron of the arts, literature, and education. The <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, which now<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit">[update]</a> occupies the whole Winter Palace, began as Catherine's personal collection. The empress was a great lover of art and books, and ordered the construction of the Hermitage in 1770 to house her expanding collection of paintings, sculpture, and books.<a href="#cite_note-r222-76">[72]</a> By 1790, the Hermitage was home to 38,000 books, 10,000 gems and 10,000 drawings. Two wings were devoted to her collections of "curiosities".<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> She ordered the planting of the first <a href="/wiki/English_landscape_garden" title="English landscape garden">English landscape garden</a> at Tsarskoye Selo in May 1770.<a href="#cite_note-r222-76">[72]</a> In a letter to Voltaire in 1772, she wrote: "Right now I adore English gardens, curves, gentle slopes, ponds in the form of lakes, archipelagos on dry land, and I have a profound scorn for straight lines, symmetric avenues. I hate fountains that torture water in order to make it take a course contrary to its nature: Statues are relegated to galleries, vestibules etc.; in a word, Anglomania is the master of my plantomania".<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg/250px-The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg/375px-The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg/500px-The_throne_of_Empress_Catherine_II_of_Russia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3960" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>The throne of Empress Catherine II in the Winter Palace</figcaption></figure> Catherine shared in the general European craze for all things Chinese, and made a point of collecting Chinese art and buying porcelain in the popular <a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">Chinoiserie</a> style.<a href="#cite_note-l54-79">[75]</a> Between 1762 and 1766, she had built the "Chinese Palace" at Oranienbaum which reflected the chinoiserie style of architecture and gardening.<a href="#cite_note-l54-79">[75]</a> The Chinese Palace was designed by the Italian architect Antonio Rinaldi who specialised in the chinoiserie style.<a href="#cite_note-l54-79">[75]</a> In 1779, she hired the Scottish architect <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cameron_(architect)" title="Charles Cameron (architect)">Charles Cameron</a> to build the Chinese Village at Tsarskoye Selo.<a href="#cite_note-l54-79">[75]</a> Catherine had at first attempted to hire a Chinese architect to build the Chinese Village, and on finding that was impossible, settled on Cameron, who likewise specialised in the chinoiserie style.<a href="#cite_note-l54-79">[75]</a> She made a special effort to bring leading intellectuals and scientists to Russia, and she wrote her own comedies, works of fiction, and memoirs. She worked with Voltaire, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a>—all French <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">encyclopedists</a> who later cemented her reputation in their writings. The leading economists of her day, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Young_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Young (writer)">Arthur Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a>, became foreign members of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Economic_Society" title="Free Economic Society">Free Economic Society</a>, established on her suggestion in Saint Petersburg in 1765. She recruited the scientists <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas" title="Peter Simon Pallas">Peter Simon Pallas</a> from Berlin and <a href="/wiki/Anders_Johan_Lexell" title="Anders Johan Lexell">Anders Johan Lexell</a> from Sweden to the Russian capital.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> Catherine enlisted Voltaire to her cause, and corresponded with him for 15 years, from her accession to his death in 1778. He lauded her accomplishments, calling her "The Star of the North" and the "<a href="/wiki/Semiramis" title="Semiramis">Semiramis</a> of Russia" (in reference to the legendary Queen of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, a subject on which he published a tragedy in 1768). Although she never met him face to face, she mourned him bitterly when he died. She acquired his collection of books from his heirs, and placed them in the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Russia" title="National Library of Russia">National Library of Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg/300px-Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg/450px-Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg/600px-Jacobi_InaguarationofAcademy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>The inauguration of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts" title="Imperial Academy of Arts">Imperial Academy of Arts</a> in Saint Petersburg in 1757</figcaption></figure> Catherine read three sorts of books, namely those for pleasure, those for information, and those to provide her with a philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-b43-83">[79]</a> In the first category, she read romances and comedies that were popular at the time, many of which were regarded as "inconsequential" by the critics both then and since.<a href="#cite_note-b43-83">[79]</a> She especially liked the work of German comic writers such as <a href="/wiki/Moritz_August_von_Th%C3%BCmmel" title="Moritz August von Thümmel">Moritz August von Thümmel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Friedrich_Nicolai" title="Christoph Friedrich Nicolai">Christoph Friedrich Nicolai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-b43-83">[79]</a> In the second category fell the work of Denis Diderot, Jacques Necker, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bernhard_Basedow" title="Johann Bernhard Basedow">Johann Bernhard Basedow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-b44-84">[80]</a> Catherine expressed some frustration with the economists she read for what she regarded as their impractical theories, writing in the margin of one of Necker's books that if it was possible to solve all of the state's economic problems in one day, she would have done so a long time ago.<a href="#cite_note-b44-84">[80]</a> For information about particular nations that interested her, she read <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Bourguignon_d%27Anville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville">Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville</a>'s Memoirs de Chine to learn about the vast and wealthy Chinese empire that bordered her empire; <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_de_Tott" title="François Baron de Tott">François Baron de Tott</a>'s Memoires de les Turcs et les Tartares for information about the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean khanate; the books of Frederick the Great praising himself to learn about Frederick just as much as to learn about Prussia; and pamphlets written by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> denouncing the <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">British Crown</a> to understand the reasons behind the American Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-b44-84">[80]</a> In the third category fell the work of Voltaire, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Ferdinando Galiani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Baudeau" title="Nicolas Baudeau">Nicolas Baudeau</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-b4445-85">[81]</a> For philosophy, she liked books promoting what has been called "enlightened despotism", which she embraced as her ideal of an autocratic but reformist government that operated according to the rule of law, not the whims of the ruler, hence her interest in Blackstone's legal commentaries.<a href="#cite_note-b4445-85">[81]</a> Within a few months of her accession in 1762, having heard the French government threatened to stop the publication of the famous French <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> on account of its irreligious spirit, Catherine proposed to Diderot that he should complete his great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later, in 1766, she endeavoured to embody in legislation the principles of Enlightenment she learned from studying the French philosophers. She called together at Moscow a Grand Commission—almost a consultative parliament—composed of 652 members of all classes (officials, nobles, <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">burghers</a>, and peasants) and of various nationalities. The commission had to consider the needs of the Russian Empire and the means of satisfying them. The empress prepared the <a href="/wiki/Nakaz" title="Nakaz">"Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly"</a>, pillaging (as she frankly admitted) the philosophers of Western Europe, especially <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cesare,_Marquis_of_Beccaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_(18th_c,_Tver_gallery).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg/190px-Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg/285px-Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg/380px-Catherine_II_by_Alexey_Antropov_%2818th_c%2C_Tver_gallery%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1742" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Catherine II</figcaption></figure> As many of the democratic principles frightened her more moderate and experienced advisors, she refrained from immediately putting them into practice. After holding more than 200 sittings, the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory. Catherine began issuing codes to address some of the modernisation trends suggested in her Nakaz. In 1775, the empress decreed a Statute for the Administration of the provinces of the Russian Empire. The statute sought to efficiently govern Russia by increasing population and dividing the country into provinces and districts. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts were created, government officials numbering more than double this were appointed, and spending on local government increased sixfold. In 1785, Catherine conferred on the nobility the <a href="/wiki/Charter_to_the_Gentry" title="Charter to the Gentry">Charter to the Nobility</a>, increasing the power of the landed oligarchs. Nobles in each district elected a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch on issues of concern to them, mainly economic ones. In the same year, Catherine issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781, the Police Ordinance of 1782, and the Statute of National Education of 1786. In 1777, the empress described to Voltaire her legal innovations within a backward Russia as progressing "little by little".<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg/220px-Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg/330px-Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg/440px-Bolshoy_Teatr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3221" data-file-height="2430" /></a><figcaption>The Bolshoi Theatre in the early 19th century</figcaption></figure> During Catherine's reign, Russians imported and studied the classical and European influences that inspired the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a>. Gavrila Derzhavin, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Denis Fonvizin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ippolit_Bogdanovich" title="Ippolit Bogdanovich">Ippolit Bogdanovich</a> laid the groundwork for the great writers of the 19th century, especially for <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a>. Catherine became a great patron of <a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Russian opera</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Alexander Radishchev</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Journey_from_St._Petersburg_to_Moscow" title="Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow">Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow</a> in 1790, shortly after the start of the French Revolution. He warned of uprisings in Russia because of the deplorable social conditions of the serfs. Catherine decided it promoted the dangerous poison of the French Revolution. She had the book burned and the author exiled to Siberia.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> Catherine also received <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun">Elisabeth Vigée Le Brun</a> at her Tsarskoye Selo residence in St Petersburg, by whom she was painted shortly before her death. Madame Vigée Le Brun vividly describes the empress in her memoirs:<a href="#cite_note-Elisabeth_Vigée-Le_Brun'_1989-91">[87]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">the sight of this famous woman so impressed me that I found it impossible to think of anything: I could only stare at her. Firstly I was very surprised at her small stature; I had imagined her to be very tall, as great as her fame. She was also very fat, but her face was still beautiful, and she wore her white hair up, framing it perfectly. Her genius seemed to rest on her forehead, which was both high and wide. Her eyes were soft and sensitive, her nose quite Greek, her colour high and her features expressive. She addressed me immediately in a voice full of sweetness, if a little throaty: "I am delighted to welcome you here, Madame, your reputation runs before you. I am very fond of the arts, especially painting. I am no connoisseur, but I am a great art lover."</blockquote> Madame Vigée Le Brun also describes the empress at a gala:<a href="#cite_note-Elisabeth_Vigée-Le_Brun'_1989-91">[87]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The double doors opened and the Empress appeared. I have said that she was quite small, and yet on the days when she made her public appearances, with her head held high, her eagle-like stare and a countenance accustomed to command, all this gave her such an air of majesty that to me she might have been Queen of the World; she wore the sashes of three orders, and her costume was both simple and regal; it consisted of a muslin tunic embroidered with gold fastened by a diamond belt, and the full sleeves were folded back in the Asiatic style. Over this tunic she wore a red velvet dolman with very short sleeves. The bonnet which held her white hair was not decorated with ribbons, but with the most beautiful diamonds.</blockquote>Russia's second ballet school, <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_Academy_of_Choreography" title="Moscow State Academy of Choreography">Moscow State Academy of Choreography</a>, commonly known as The Bolshoi Ballet Academy, was founded during Catherine's reign on 23 December 1773.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> It entered into a contract with the Italian teacher-choreographer Filippo Becari, who must was "the most capable of dancing" children to learn "to dance with all possible precision and to show themselves publicly in all pantomime ballets".<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg/180px-Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg/270px-Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg/360px-Ekaterina_II_and_Lomonosov.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption>Catherine visits Russian scientist <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> </figcaption></figure> Catherine held western European philosophies and culture close to her heart, and she wanted to surround herself with like-minded people within Russia.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> She believed a 'new kind of person' could be created by inculcating Russian children with European education. Catherine believed education could change the hearts and minds of the Russian people and turn them away from backwardness. This meant developing individuals both intellectually and morally, providing them knowledge and skills, and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. Her goal was to modernise education across Russia.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_(1784,_Hillwood).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg/170px-E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg/255px-E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg/340px-E._Vorontsova-Dashkova_by_Dm._Levitsky_%281784%2C_Hillwood%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1667" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova</a>, the closest female friend of Empress Catherine and a major figure of the Russian Enlightenment</figcaption></figure> Catherine appointed <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Betskoy" title="Ivan Betskoy">Ivan Betskoy</a> as her advisor on educational matters.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> Through him, she collected information from Russia and other countries about educational institutions. She also established a commission composed of T.N. Teplov, T. von Klingstedt, F.G. Dilthey and the historian G. Muller. She consulted British pedagogical pioneers, particularly the Rev. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dumaresq" title="Daniel Dumaresq">Daniel Dumaresq</a> and Dr John Brown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHans1961-97">[93]</a> In 1764, she sent for Dumaresq to come to Russia and then appointed him to the educational commission. The commission studied the reform projects previously installed by I.I. Shuvalov under Elizabeth and under Peter III. They submitted recommendations for the establishment of a general system of education for all Russian orthodox subjects from the age of 5 to 18, excluding serfs.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> However, no action was taken on any recommendations put forth by the commission due to the calling of the Legislative Commission. In July 1765, Dumaresq wrote to Dr. John Brown about the commission's problems and received a long reply containing very general and sweeping suggestions for education and social reforms in Russia. Dr. Brown argued, in a democratic country, education ought to be under the state's control and based on an education code. He also placed great emphasis on the "proper and effectual education of the female sex"; two years prior, Catherine had commissioned Ivan Betskoy to draw up the General Programme for the Education of Young People of Both Sexes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHans1961233-99">[95]</a> This work emphasised the fostering of the creation of a 'new kind of people' raised in isolation from the damaging influence of a backward Russian environment.<a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a> The Establishment of the Moscow Foundling Home (Moscow Orphanage) was the first attempt at achieving that goal. It was charged with admitting destitute and extramarital children to educate them in any way the state deemed fit. Because the Moscow Foundling Home was not established as a state-funded institution, it represented an opportunity to experiment with new educational theories. However, the Moscow Foundling Home was unsuccessful, mainly due to extremely high mortality rates, which prevented many of the children from living long enough to develop into the enlightened subjects the state desired.<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg/220px-Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg/330px-Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg/440px-Moscow_Orphanage_asv2018-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5520" data-file-height="3105" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Orphanage" title="Moscow Orphanage">Moscow Orphanage</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg/220px-Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg/330px-Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg/440px-Galaktionov_Smolny_institute_1823.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a>, the first Russian <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Noble_Maidens" title="Institute for Noble Maidens">Institute for Noble Maidens</a> and the first European state higher education institution for women</figcaption></figure> Not long after the Moscow Foundling Home, at the instigation of her factotum, Ivan Betskoy, she wrote a manual for the education of young children, drawing from the ideas of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, and founded the famous <a href="/wiki/Smolny_Institute" title="Smolny Institute">Smolny Institute</a> in 1764, first of its kind in Russia. At first, the institute only admitted young girls of the noble elite, but eventually it began to admit girls of the petit-bourgeoisie as well.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> The girls who attended the Smolny Institute, Smolyanki, were often accused of being ignorant of anything that went on in the world outside the walls of the Smolny buildings, within which they acquired a proficiency in French, music, and dancing, along with a complete awe of the monarch. Central to the institute's philosophy of pedagogy was strict enforcement of discipline. Running and games were forbidden, and the building was kept particularly cold because too much warmth was believed to be harmful to the developing body, as was excessive play.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> From 1768 to 1774, no progress was made in setting up a national school system.<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> However, Catherine continued to investigate the pedagogical principles and practice of other countries and made many other educational reforms, including an overhaul of the Cadet Corps in 1766. The Corps then began to take children from a very young age and educate them until the age of 21, with a broadened curriculum that included the sciences, philosophy, ethics, history, and international law. These reforms in the Cadet Corps influenced the curricula of the Naval Cadet Corps and the Engineering and Artillery Schools. Following the war and the defeat of Pugachev, Catherine laid the obligation to establish schools at the guberniya—a provincial subdivision of the Russian empire ruled by a governor—on the Boards of Social Welfare set up with the participation of elected representatives from the three free estates.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> By 1782, Catherine arranged another advisory commission to review the information she had gathered on the educational systems of many different countries.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> One system that particularly stood out was produced by a mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Aepinus" title="Franz Aepinus">Franz Aepinus</a>. He was strongly in favour of the adoption of the Austrian three-tier model of trivial, real, and normal schools at the village, town, and provincial capital levels. In addition to the advisory commission, Catherine established a Commission of National Schools under <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Zavadovsky" title="Pyotr Zavadovsky">Pyotr Zavadovsky</a>. This commission was charged with organising a national school network, as well as providing teacher training and textbooks. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was created.<a href="#cite_note-Madariaga,_Foundation,_385-107">[103]</a> The statute established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools in guberniya capitals that were free of charge, open to all of the free classes (not serfs), and co-educational. It also stipulated in detail the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to the textbooks translated by the commission, teachers were provided with the "Guide to Teachers". This work, divided into four parts, dealt with teaching methods, subject matter, teacher conduct, and school administration.<a href="#cite_note-Madariaga,_Foundation,_385-107">[103]</a> Despite these efforts, later historians of the 19th century were generally critical. Some claimed Catherine failed to supply enough money to support her educational program.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> Two years after the implementation of Catherine's program, a member of the National Commission inspected the institutions established. Throughout Russia, the inspectors encountered a patchy response. While the nobility provided appreciable amounts of money for these institutions, they preferred to send their own children to private, prestigious institutions. Also, the townspeople tended to turn against the junior schools and their pedagogical[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] methods. Yet by the end of Catherine's reign, an estimated 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions. While a significant improvement, it was only a minuscule number, compared to the size of the Russian population.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_affairs">Religious affairs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Religious affairs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katharina_II.,_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg/170px-Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg/255px-Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg/340px-Katharina_II.%2C_die_Gro%C3%9Fe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Catherine II in the Russian national costume</figcaption></figure> Catherine's apparent embrace of all things Russian (including Orthodoxy) may have prompted her personal indifference to religion. She nationalised all of the church lands to help pay for her wars, largely emptied the monasteries, and forced most of the remaining clergymen to survive as farmers or from fees for baptisms and other services. Very few members of the nobility entered the church, which became even less important than it had been. She did not allow dissenters to build chapels, and she suppressed religious dissent after the onset of the French Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-madariaga111-110">[106]</a> However, in accord with her anti-Ottoman policy, Catherine promoted the protection and fostering of Christians under Turkish rule. She placed strictures on Catholics (<a href="/wiki/Ukase" title="Ukase">ukaz</a> of 23 February 1769), mainly Polish, and attempted to assert and extend state control over them in the wake of the partitions of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-newadvent-111">[107]</a> For example, although Catholic parishes were allowed to retain their property and worship, Papal oversight of parishes was restricted to only theology. In its stead, Catherine appointed a Catholic bishop (later raising the position to archbishop) of Mohylev to administer all Catholic churches in her territory.<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> Nevertheless, Catherine's Russia provided an asylum and a base for regrouping to the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">suppression of the Jesuits</a> in most of Europe in 1773.<a href="#cite_note-newadvent-111">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Russia" title="Islam in Russia">Islam in Russia</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg/230px-%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg/345px-%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg/460px-%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkir</a> riders from the Ural steppes</figcaption></figure> Catherine took many different approaches to Islam during her reign. She avoided force and tried persuasion (and money) to integrate Muslim areas into her empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher1968-113">[109]</a> Between 1762 and 1773, Muslims were prohibited from owning any Orthodox serfs. They were pressured into Orthodoxy through monetary incentives. Catherine promised more serfs of all religions, as well as amnesty for convicts, if Muslims chose to convert to Orthodoxy. However, the Legislative Commission of 1767 offered several seats to people professing the Islamic faith. This commission promised to protect their religious rights, but did not do so. Many Orthodox peasants felt threatened by the sudden change, and burned mosques as a sign of their displeasure.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Catherine chose to assimilate Islam into the state rather than eliminate it when public outcry became too disruptive. After the "Toleration of All Faiths" Edict of 1773, Muslims were permitted to build <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosques</a> and practise all of their traditions, the most obvious of these being the pilgrimage to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, which previously had been denied. Catherine created the <a href="/wiki/Orenburg_Muslim_Spiritual_Assembly" title="Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly">Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly</a> to help regulate Muslim-populated regions as well as regulate the instruction and ideals of mullahs. The positions on the Assembly were appointed and paid for by Catherine and her government as a way of regulating religious affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher1968546–548-114">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg/280px-Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg/420px-Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg/560px-Russian_Empire_1792_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4321" data-file-height="2240" /></a><figcaption>The Russian Empire in 1792</figcaption></figure> In 1785, Catherine approved the subsidising of new mosques and new town settlements for Muslims. This was another attempt to organise and passively control the outer fringes of her country. By building new settlements with mosques placed in them, Catherine attempted to ground many of the nomadic people who wandered through southern Russia. In 1786, she assimilated the Islamic schools into the Russian public school system under government regulation. The plan was another attempt to force nomadic people to settle. This allowed the Russian government to control more people, especially those who previously had not fallen under the jurisdiction of Russian law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadariaga1981508–511Fisher1968549-115">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judaism">Judaism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">History of the Jews in Russia</a></div> Russia often treated Judaism as a separate entity, where Jews were maintained with a separate legal and bureaucratic system. Although the government knew that Judaism existed, Catherine and her advisers had no real definition of what a Jew is because the term meant many things during her reign.<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> Judaism was a small, if not non-existent, religion in Russia until 1772. When Catherine agreed to the <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition of Poland</a>, the large new Jewish element was treated as a separate people, defined by their religion. Catherine separated the Jews from Orthodox society, restricting them to the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>. She levied additional taxes on the followers of Judaism; if a family converted to the Orthodox faith, that additional tax was lifted.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> Jewish members of society were required to pay double the tax of their Orthodox neighbours. Converted Jews could gain permission to enter the merchant class and farm as free peasants under Russian rule.<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a> In an attempt to assimilate the Jews into Russia's economy, Catherine included them under the rights and laws of the Charter of the Towns of 1782.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> Orthodox Russians disliked the inclusion of Judaism, mainly for economic reasons. Catherine tried to keep the Jews away from certain economic spheres, even under the guise of equality; in 1790, she banned Jewish citizens from Moscow's middle class.<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> In 1785, Catherine declared Jews to be officially foreigners, with foreigners' rights.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> This re-established the separate identity that Judaism maintained in Russia throughout the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>. Catherine's decree also denied Jews the rights of an Orthodox or naturalised citizen of Russia. Taxes doubled again for those of Jewish descent in 1794, and Catherine officially declared that Jews bore no relation to Russians. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russian_Orthodoxy">Russian Orthodoxy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Russian Orthodoxy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Russia" title="Christianity in Russia">Christianity in Russia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingsobor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kingsobor.jpg/170px-Kingsobor.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kingsobor.jpg/255px-Kingsobor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Kingsobor.jpg/340px-Kingsobor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>St. Catherine Cathedral in <a href="/wiki/Kingisepp" title="Kingisepp">Kingisepp</a>, an example of Late Baroque architecture</figcaption></figure> In many ways, the Orthodox Church fared no better than its foreign counterparts during the reign of Catherine. Under her leadership, she completed what Peter III had started. The church's lands were expropriated, and the budget of both monasteries and bishoprics were controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_of_Accounting" title="Collegium of Accounting">Collegium of Accounting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a293-123">[119]</a> Endowments from the government replaced income from privately held lands. The endowments were often much less than the original intended amount.<a href="#cite_note-Hosking_231-124">[120]</a> She closed 569 of 954 monasteries, of which only 161 received government money. Only 400,000 roubles of church wealth were paid back.<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> While other religions (such as Islam) received invitations to the Legislative Commission, the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat.<a href="#cite_note-Hosking_231-124">[120]</a> Their place in government was restricted severely during the years of Catherine's reign.<a href="#cite_note-madariaga111-110">[106]</a> In 1762, to help mend the rift between the Orthodox church and a sect that called themselves the <a href="/wiki/Old_Believers" title="Old Believers">Old Believers</a>, Catherine passed an act that allowed Old Believers to practice their faith openly without interference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a294-126">[122]</a> While claiming religious tolerance, she intended to recall the Old Believers into the official church. They refused to comply, and in 1764, she deported over 20,000 Old Believers to Siberia on the grounds of their faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a294-126">[122]</a> In later years, Catherine amended her thoughts. Old Believers were allowed to hold elected municipal positions after the Urban Charter of 1785, and she promised religious freedom to those who wished to settle in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a296-128">[124]</a> Religious education was reviewed strictly. At first, she attempted to revise clerical studies, proposing a reform of religious schools. This reform never progressed beyond the planning stages. By 1786, Catherine excluded all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a298-129">[125]</a> By separating the public interests from those of the church, Catherine began a secularisation of the day-to-day workings of Russia. She transformed the clergy from a group that wielded great power over the Russian government and its people to a segregated community forced to depend on the state for compensation.<a href="#cite_note-Hosking_231-124">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> Catherine, throughout her long reign, took many lovers, often elevating them to high positions for as long as they held her interest and then pensioning them off with gifts of serfs and large estates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989224-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a> The percentage of state money spent on the court increased from 10% in 1767 to 11% in 1781 to 14% in 1795. Catherine gave away 66,000 serfs from 1762 to 1772, 202,000 from 1773 to 1793, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795.<a href="#cite_note-Pipes-132">[128]</a>: 119  Catherine bought the support of the bureaucracy. In 1767, Catherine decreed that after seven years in one rank, civil servants automatically would be promoted regardless of office or merit.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> After her affair with her lover and adviser Grigory Potemkin ended in 1776, he allegedly selected a candidate-lover for her who had the physical beauty and mental faculties to hold her interest (such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dmitriev-Mamonov" title="Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov">Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov</a> and Nicholas Alexander Suk).<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> Some of these men loved her in return, and she always showed generosity towards them, even after the affair ended. One of her lovers, Pyotr Zavadovsky, received 50,000 roubles, a pension of 5,000 roubles, and 4,000 peasants in Ukraine after she dismissed him in 1777.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> The last of her lovers, <a href="/wiki/Platon_Zubov" title="Platon Zubov">Platon Zubov</a>, was 40 years her junior. Her sexual independence led to many of the <a href="/wiki/Legends_of_Catherine_the_Great" title="Legends of Catherine the Great">legends about her</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> Catherine kept her illegitimate son by Grigory Orlov (<a href="/wiki/Bobrinsky" title="Bobrinsky">Alexis Bobrinsky</a>, later elevated to Count Bobrinsky by Paul I) near <a href="/wiki/Tula,_Russia" title="Tula, Russia">Tula</a>, away from her court. The acceptance of a woman ruler was more of an issue among elites in Western Europe than in Russia. The British ambassador to Russia, <a href="/wiki/James_Harris,_1st_Earl_of_Malmesbury" title="James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury">James Harris</a>, reported back to London that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Her Majesty has a masculine force of mind, obstinacy in adhering to a plan, and intrepidity in the execution of it; but she wants the more manly virtues of deliberation, forbearance in prosperity and accuracy of judgment, while she possesses in a high degree the weaknesses vulgarly attributed to her sex—love of flattery, and its inseparable companion, vanity; an inattention to unpleasant but salutary advice; and a propensity to voluptuousness which leads to excesses that would debase a female character in any sphere of life.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poniatowski">Poniatowski</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Poniatowski">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcello_Bacciarelli,_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Marcello_Bacciarelli%2C_Portret_Stanis%C5%82awa_Augusta_Poniatowskiego_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2338" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, the last King of <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hanbury_Williams" title="Charles Hanbury Williams">Sir Charles Hanbury Williams</a>, the British ambassador to Russia, offered Stanisław Poniatowski a place in the embassy in return for gaining Catherine as an ally. Poniatowski, through his mother's side, came from the <a href="/wiki/Czartoryski_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Czartoryski family">Czartoryski family</a>, prominent members of the pro-Russian faction in Poland; Poniatowski and Catherine were eighth cousins, twice removed, by their mutual ancestor King <a href="/wiki/Christian_I_of_Denmark" title="Christian I of Denmark">Christian I of Denmark</a>, by virtue of Poniatowski's maternal descent from the Scottish <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a>. Catherine, 26 years old and already married to the then-Grand Duke Peter for some 10 years, met the 22-year-old Poniatowski in 1755, well before encountering the Orlov brothers. They had a daughter named Anna Petrovna in December 1757 (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anna_Petrovna_of_Russia" title="Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia">Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia</a>, the daughter of Peter I's second marriage), although she was legally regarded as Grand Duke Peter's.<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> King <a href="/wiki/Augustus_III_of_Poland" title="Augustus III of Poland">Augustus III of Poland</a> died in 1763, so Poland needed to elect a new ruler. Catherine supported Poniatowski as a candidate to become the next king. She sent the Russian army into Poland to avoid possible disputes. Russia invaded Poland on 26 August 1764, threatening to fight, and imposing Poniatowski as king. Poniatowski accepted the throne, and thereby put himself under Catherine's control. News of Catherine's plan spread, and Frederick II (others say the Ottoman sultan) warned her that if she tried to conquer Poland by marrying Poniatowski, all of Europe would oppose her. She had no intention of marrying him, having already given birth to Orlov's child and to the Grand Duke Paul by then. Prussia (through the agency of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_of_Prussia_(1726%E2%80%931802)" title="Prince Henry of Prussia (1726–1802)">Prince Henry</a>), Russia (under Catherine), and Austria (under <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Theresa of Austria">Maria Theresa</a>) began preparing the ground for the partitions of Poland. In the first partition, 1772, the three powers split 52,000 km2 (20,000 sq mi) among them. Russia got territories east of the line connecting, more or less, <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>–<a href="/wiki/Polotsk" title="Polotsk">Polotsk</a>–<a href="/wiki/Mogilev" title="Mogilev">Mogilev</a>. In the second partition, in 1793, Russia received the most land, from west of <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a> almost to <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> and down the river Dnieper, leaving some spaces of <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a> down south in front of <a href="/wiki/Ochakiv" title="Ochakiv">Ochakov</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Later uprisings in Poland led to the third partition in 1795. Poland ceased to exist as an independent nation<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> until its post-World War I reconstitution. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orlov">Orlov</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Orlov">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orlov_greg.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Orlov_greg.jpeg/170px-Orlov_greg.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Orlov_greg.jpeg/255px-Orlov_greg.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Orlov_greg.jpeg/340px-Orlov_greg.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Count <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Orlov" title="Grigory Orlov">Grigory Orlov</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Rokotov" title="Fyodor Rokotov">Fyodor Rokotov</a></figcaption></figure> Grigory Orlov, the grandson of a rebel in the <a href="/wiki/Streltsy_uprising" title="Streltsy uprising">Streltsy uprising</a> (1698) against Peter the Great, distinguished himself in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zorndorf" title="Battle of Zorndorf">Battle of Zorndorf</a> (25 August 1758), receiving three wounds. He represented an opposite to Peter's pro-Prussian sentiment, with which Catherine disagreed. By 1759, he and Catherine had become lovers; no one told Catherine's husband, Peter. Catherine saw Orlov as very useful, and he became instrumental in the 28 June 1762 <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> against her husband, but she preferred to remain the dowager empress of Russia rather than marrying anyone. Orlov and his other three brothers found themselves rewarded with titles, money, swords, and other gifts, but Catherine did not marry Grigory, who proved inept at politics and useless when asked for advice. He received a palace in Saint Petersburg when Catherine became empress. Orlov died in 1783. Their son, Aleksey Grygoriovich Bobrinsky (1762–1813), had one daughter, Maria Alexeyeva Bobrinsky (Bobrinskaya) (1798–1835), who married in 1819 the 34-year-old Prince <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gagarin" title="Nikolai Gagarin">Nikolai Sergeevich Gagarin</a> (London, England, 1784–1842) who took part in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Battle of Borodino</a> (7 September 1812) against <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, and later served as ambassador in Turin, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potemkin">Potemkin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Potemkin">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1000_Potiomkin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1000_Potiomkin.jpg/170px-1000_Potiomkin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1000_Potiomkin.jpg/255px-1000_Potiomkin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/1000_Potiomkin.jpg/340px-1000_Potiomkin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Catherine II and Prince <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin" title="Grigory Potemkin">Grigory Potemkin</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_of_Russia" title="Millennium of Russia">Millennium Monument</a> in <a href="/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod" title="Veliky Novgorod">Novgorod</a></figcaption></figure> Grigory Potemkin was involved in the palace coup of 1762. In 1772, Catherine's close friends informed her of Orlov's affairs with other women, and she dismissed him. By the winter of 1773, the Pugachev revolt had started to threaten. Catherine's son Paul had started gaining support; both of these trends threatened her power. She called Potemkin for help—mostly military—and he became devoted to her. In 1772, Catherine wrote to Potemkin. Days earlier, she had found out about an uprising in the Volga region. She appointed General <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Bibikov" title="Aleksandr Bibikov">Aleksandr Bibikov</a> to put down the uprising, but she needed Potemkin's advice on military strategy. Potemkin quickly gained positions and awards. Russian poets wrote about his virtues, the court praised him, foreign ambassadors fought for his favour, and his family moved into the palace. He later became the de facto absolute ruler of New Russia, governing its colonisation. In 1780, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a>, the son of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa, toyed with the idea of determining whether or not to enter an alliance with Russia, and asked to meet Catherine. Potemkin had the task of briefing him and travelling with him to Saint Petersburg. Potemkin also convinced Catherine to expand the universities in Russia to increase the number of scientists. Catherine was worried that Potemkin's poor health would delay his important work in colonising and developing the south as he had planned. He died at the age of 52 in 1791.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_months_and_death">Final months and death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Final months and death">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_(1794,_Tretyakov_gallery).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg/170px-Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg/255px-Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg/340px-Catherine_II_walking_by_V.Borovikovskiy_%281794%2C_Tretyakov_gallery%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>1794 portrait of Catherine, aged approximately 65, with the <a href="/wiki/Chesme_Column" title="Chesme Column">Chesme Column</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Park" title="Catherine Park">Catherine Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tsarskoye_Selo" title="Tsarskoye Selo">Tsarskoye Selo</a> in the background</figcaption></figure> Catherine's life and reign included many personal successes, but they ended in two failures. Her Swedish cousin (once removed), King <a href="/wiki/Gustav_IV_Adolf" title="Gustav IV Adolf">Gustav IV Adolf</a>, visited her in September 1796, the empress's intention being that her granddaughter Alexandra should become queen of Sweden by marriage. A ball was given at the imperial court on 11 September when the engagement was supposed to be announced. Gustav Adolph felt pressured to accept that Alexandra would not convert to <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, and though he was delighted by the young lady, he refused to appear at the ball and left for Stockholm. The frustration affected Catherine's health. She recovered well enough to begin to plan a ceremony which would establish her favourite grandson <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander</a> as her heir, superseding her difficult son Paul, but she died before the announcement could be made, just over two months after the engagement ball.<a href="#cite_note-Grande_p._427-141">[137]</a> On 16 November [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 5 November] 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning coffee, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady's maid, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Perekusikhina" title="Maria Perekusikhina">Maria Perekusikhina</a>, that she had slept better than she had in a long time.<a href="#cite_note-Rounding,_p._499-142">[138]</a> Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured.<a href="#cite_note-Rounding,_p._499-142">[138]</a> The court physician diagnosed a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a><a href="#cite_note-Rounding,_p._499-142">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dixon,_p._315-143">[139]</a> and despite attempts to revive her, she fell into a coma. She was given the <a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">last rites</a> and died the following evening around 9:45.<a href="#cite_note-Dixon,_p._315-143">[139]</a> An autopsy confirmed a stroke as the cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg/170px-Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg/255px-Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg/340px-Platon_Zubov_by_Eggink.jpg 2x" data-file-width="892" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption>Catherine's last favourite, <a href="/wiki/Platon_Zubov" title="Platon Zubov">Platon Zubov</a></figcaption></figure> Later, <a href="/wiki/Legends_of_Catherine_the_Great#Death_narratives" title="Legends of Catherine the Great">several rumours</a> circulated regarding the cause and manner of her death. The most famous of these rumors is that she died after committing <a href="/wiki/Zoophilia" title="Zoophilia">bestiality</a> with her horse. This rumor was widely circulated by satirical British and French publications at the time of her death. In his 1647 book Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise (Description of the Muscovite and Persian journey), German scholar <a href="/wiki/Adam_Olearius" title="Adam Olearius">Adam Olearius</a><a href="#cite_note-r508-145">[141]</a> alleged a supposed Russian tendency towards bestiality with horses. This was repeated in anti-Russian literature throughout the 17th and 18th centuries to illustrate the claimed barbarous Asian nature of Russia.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> Catherine's undated will, discovered in early 1792 among her papers by her secretary Alexander Vasilievich Khrapovitsky, gave specific instructions should she die: "Lay out my corpse dressed in white, with a golden crown on my head, and on it inscribe my Christian name. Mourning dress is to be worn for six months, and no longer: the shorter the better."<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> In the end, the empress was laid to rest with a gold crown on her head and clothed in a silver <a href="/wiki/Brocade" title="Brocade">brocade</a> dress. On 25 November, the coffin, richly decorated in gold fabric, was placed atop an elevated platform at the Grand Gallery's chamber of mourning, designed and decorated by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rinaldi_(architect)" title="Antonio Rinaldi (architect)">Antonio Rinaldi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun" title="Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun">Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun</a>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The empress's body lay in state for six weeks in a large and magnificently decorated room in the castle, which was kept lit day and night. Catherine was stretched on a ceremonial bed surrounded by the coats of arms of all the towns in Russia. Her face was left uncovered, and her fair hand rested on the bed. All the ladies, some of whom took turn to watch by the body, would go and kiss this hand, or at least appear to.</blockquote> A description of the empress's funeral is written in Madame Vigée Le Brun's memoirs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issue">Issue</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Issue">edit</a>]</div> <table style="text-align:center; width:100%" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:20%;">Name</th> <th style="width:100px;">Lifespan</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Miscarriage </td> <td>20 December 1752 </td> <td>According to court gossip, this lost pregnancy was attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Saltykov" title="Sergei Saltykov">Sergei Saltykov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Troyat-150">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Miscarriage </td> <td>30 June 1753 </td> <td>This second lost pregnancy was also attributed to Saltykov;<a href="#cite_note-Troyat-150">[146]</a> this time she was very ill for 13 days. Catherine later wrote in her memoirs: "...They suspect that part of the afterbirth has not come away ... on the 13th day it came out by itself".<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul (I) Petrovich</a> Emperor of Russia </td> <td>1 October 1754 – 23 March 1801 (aged 46) </td> <td>Born at the Winter Palace, officially he was a son of Peter III but in her memoirs, Catherine implies very strongly that Saltykov was the biological father of the child, though she later retracted this.<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> He married firstly <a href="/wiki/Natalia_Alexeievna_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Natalia Alexeievna of Russia">Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt</a> in 1773 and had no issue. He married secondly, in 1776, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Sophie_Dorothea_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)">Princess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg</a> and had issue, including the future <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I of Russia</a>. He succeeded as emperor of Russia in 1796 and was murdered at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Michael%27s_Castle" title="Saint Michael's Castle">Saint Michael's Castle</a> in 1801. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anna Petrovna Grand Duchess of Russia </td> <td>9 December 1757 – 8 March 1759 (aged 15 months) </td> <td>Possibly the offspring of Catherine and Stanislaus Poniatowski, Anna was born at the Winter Palace between 10 and 11 o'clock;<a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> she was named by Empress Elizabeth after <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Anna_Petrovna_of_Russia" title="Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia">her deceased sister</a>, against Catherine's wishes.<a href="#cite_note-massie-155">[151]</a> On 17 December 1757, Anna was baptised and received the Great Cross of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Catherine" title="Order of Saint Catherine">Order of Saint Catherine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a> Elizabeth served as godmother; she held Anna above the baptismal font and brought Catherine, who did not witness any of the celebrations, and Peter a gift of 60,000 rubles.<a href="#cite_note-massie-155">[151]</a> Elizabeth took Anna and raised the baby herself, as she had done with Paul.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> In her memoirs, Catherine makes no mention of Anna's death on 8 March 1759,<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> though she was inconsolable and entered a state of shock.<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> Anna's funeral took place on 15 March, at <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky_Lavra" title="Alexander Nevsky Lavra">Alexander Nevsky Lavra</a>. After the funeral, Catherine never mentioned her dead daughter again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989[httpsarchiveorgdetailscatherinegreatli0000alexpage54_54]-160">[156]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bobrinsky#The_first_Count_Bobrinsky" title="Bobrinsky">Aleksey Grigorievich Bobrinsky</a> <a href="/wiki/Bobrinsky" title="Bobrinsky">Count Bobrinsky</a> </td> <td>11 April 1762 – 20 June 1813 (aged 51) </td> <td>Born at the Winter Palace, he was brought up at <a href="/wiki/Novomoskovsk,_Russia" title="Novomoskovsk, Russia">Bobriki</a>; his father was Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov. He married Baroness Anna Dorothea von Ungern-Sternberg and had issue. Created Count Bobrinsky in 1796, he died in 1813. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Temkina" title="Elizabeth Temkina">Elizabeth Grigorieva Temkina</a> (alleged daughter) </td> <td>13 July 1775 – 25 May 1854 (aged 78) </td> <td>Born many years after the death of Catherine's husband, brought up in the <a href="/wiki/Samoilov" class="mw-redirect" title="Samoilov">Samoilov</a> household as <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin" title="Grigory Potemkin">Grigory Potemkin</a>'s daughter, and never acknowledged by Catherine, it has been suggested that Temkina was the illegitimate child of Catherine and Potemkin, but this is now regarded as unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-Montefiore2010-161">[157]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Title">Title</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Title">edit</a>]</div> The Manifesto of 1763 begins with Catherine's title: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We, Catherine the second, by the Grace of God, Empress and Autocrat of all the Russians at Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsarina of Kasan, Tsarina of Astrachan, Tsarina of Siberia, Lady of Pleskow and Grand Duchess of Smolensko, Duchess of Estonia and Livland, Carelial, Tver, Yugoria, Permia, Viatka and Bulgaria and others; Lady and Grand Duchess of Novgorod in the Netherland of Chernigov, Resan, Rostov, Yaroslav, Beloosrial, Udoria, Obdoria, Condinia, and Ruler of the entire North region and Lady of the Yurish, of the Cartalinian and Grusinian tsars and the Cabardinian land, of the Cherkessian and Gorsian princes and the lady of the manor and sovereign of many others.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a></blockquote> Another of her titles was "Mother of the Fatherland".<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a> She was often simply called "Mother"; even sometimes by the court nobles instead of "Your Majesty".<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archives">Archives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Archives">edit</a>]</div> Empress Catherine's correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II_Eugene,_Duke_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg">Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg</a>, (the father of Catherine's daughter-in-law <a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Sophie_Dorothea_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)">Maria Feodorovna</a>) written between 1768 and 1795, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Catherine_the_Great" title="Special:EditPage/Catherine the Great">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Catherine+the+Great%22">"Catherine the Great"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Catherine+the+Great%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Catherine+the+Great%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Catherine+the+Great%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Catherine+the+Great%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Catherine+the+Great%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (December 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Empress Catherine appears as a character in <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>'s unfinished <a href="/wiki/Mock-heroic" title="Mock-heroic">mock-heroic</a> poem <a href="/wiki/Don_Juan_(poem)" title="Don Juan (poem)">Don Juan</a>.</li> <li>She was a subject in <a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Diaries" title="The Royal Diaries">The Royal Diaries</a> series in the book Catherine: The Great Journey, Russia, 1743–1745 by <a href="/wiki/Kristiana_Gregory" title="Kristiana Gregory">Kristiana Gregory</a>.</li> <li>The Empress is parodied in Offenbach's operetta <a href="/wiki/La_Grande-Duchesse_de_G%C3%A9rolstein" title="La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein">La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein</a> (1867).<a href="#cite_note-Corleonis-166">[162]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Lubitsch" title="Ernst Lubitsch">Ernst Lubitsch</a>'s silent film <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_Paradise" title="Forbidden Paradise">Forbidden Paradise</a> (1924) told the story of Catherine's romance with an officer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlene_Dietrich" title="Marlene Dietrich">Marlene Dietrich</a> portrayed Catherine the Great in the film <a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Empress" title="The Scarlet Empress">The Scarlet Empress</a> (1934).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rise_of_Catherine_the_Great" title="The Rise of Catherine the Great">The Rise of Catherine the Great</a> (1934) is a film starring <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Bergner" title="Elisabeth Bergner">Elisabeth Bergner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Fairbanks_Jr." title="Douglas Fairbanks Jr.">Douglas Fairbanks Jr.</a></li> <li>Lubitsch remade his 1924 silent film as the sound film <a href="/wiki/A_Royal_Scandal_(1945_film)" title="A Royal Scandal (1945 film)">A Royal Scandal</a> (1945), also known as Czarina.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_West" title="Mae West">Mae West</a> published <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Was_Great" title="Catherine Was Great">Catherine Was Great</a> in 1944, starring in it then and in subsequent productions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Moreau" title="Jeanne Moreau">Jeanne Moreau</a> played a version of Catherine in the farce comedy film <a href="/wiki/Great_Catherine_(film)" title="Great Catherine (film)">Great Catherine</a> (1968).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslav</a> <a href="/wiki/New_wave_music" title="New wave music">new-wave</a> band <a href="/wiki/Ekaterina_Velika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekaterina Velika">EKV</a> (Ekaterina Velika) was named after Catherine.</li> <li>The British/Canadian/American TV miniseries <a href="/wiki/Young_Catherine" title="Young Catherine">Young Catherine</a> (1991), starring <a href="/wiki/Julia_Ormond" title="Julia Ormond">Julia Ormond</a> as Catherine and <a href="/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave" title="Vanessa Redgrave">Vanessa Redgrave</a> as Empress Elizabeth, is based on Catherine's early life.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristina_Orbakait%C4%97" title="Kristina Orbakaitė">Kristina Orbakaitė</a> portrayed Catherine's journey to the throne as a side-plot in the Soviet film "<a href="/wiki/Viva_Gardes-Marines!" title="Viva Gardes-Marines!">Vivat, Gardes-Marines!</a>!" (1991)</li> <li>The television film <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great_(1995_film)" title="Catherine the Great (1995 film)">Catherine the Great</a> (1995) stars <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Zeta-Jones" title="Catherine Zeta-Jones">Catherine Zeta-Jones</a> as Catherine and Jeanne Moreau as Empress Elizabeth.</li> <li>Actress <a href="/wiki/Olga_Antonova_(actress)" title="Olga Antonova (actress)">Olga Antonova</a> played the role of the Empress in the 2000 film <a href="/wiki/The_Captain%27s_Daughter_(2000_film)" title="The Captain's Daughter (2000 film)">The Captain's Daughter</a>, based on the novel of the same name by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Alexander Pushkin</a>.</li> <li>A teenage clone of Catherine the Great appears a recurring character in the American animated series <a href="/wiki/Clone_High" title="Clone High">Clone High</a> (2002–2003), voiced by <a href="/wiki/Murray_Miller" title="Murray Miller">Murray Miller</a> from "<a href="/wiki/Escape_to_Beer_Mountain:_A_Rope_of_Sand" title="Escape to Beer Mountain: A Rope of Sand">Escape to Beer Mountain: A Rope of Sand</a>" until "<a href="/wiki/Changes:_The_Big_Prom:_The_Sex_Romp:_The_Season_Finale" class="mw-redirect" title="Changes: The Big Prom: The Sex Romp: The Season Finale">Changes: The Big Prom: The Sex Romp: The Season Finale</a>", and depicted as dating a clone of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>. In the series' 2023 revival, Miller was recast with <a href="/wiki/Dannah_Phirman" title="Dannah Phirman">Dannah Phirman</a>, and depicted as now dating a clone of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>.</li> <li>Her rise to power and reign are portrayed in the <a href="/wiki/Russia-1" title="Russia-1">Russia-1</a> television series <a href="/wiki/Ekaterina_(TV_series)" title="Ekaterina (TV series)">Ekaterina</a>, which has been extended for a second season in 2017 and a third season in 2019.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Channel_One_Russia" title="Channel One Russia">Channel One Russia</a> television series <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine the Great (TV series)">Catherine the Great</a> was released in 2015.</li> <li>The song "Catherine the Great" from the album <a href="/wiki/Foreverland" title="Foreverland">Foreverland</a> by <a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy_(band)" title="The Divine Comedy (band)">The Divine Comedy</a> was released as a single on 24 June 2016.</li> <li>Catherine (portrayed by Meghan Tonjes) is featured in the web series <a href="/wiki/Epic_Rap_Battles_of_History#History" title="Epic Rap Battles of History">Epic Rap Battles of History</a>, in the episode "<a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a>" (12 July 2016), pitted against the titular characters, as well as <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompey the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a></li> <li>The television miniseries <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great_(miniseries)" title="Catherine the Great (miniseries)">Catherine the Great</a> (2019) stars <a href="/wiki/Helen_Mirren" title="Helen Mirren">Helen Mirren</a>.</li> <li>She was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Elle_Fanning" title="Elle Fanning">Elle Fanning</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hulu" title="Hulu">Hulu</a> television series <a href="/wiki/The_Great_(TV_series)" title="The Great (TV series)">The Great</a> (2020–2023).</li> <li>She appears as a leader of the Russian civilization in <a href="/wiki/Civilization_(series)" title="Civilization (series)">Civilization</a> games <a href="/wiki/Civilization_II" title="Civilization II">II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civilization_III" title="Civilization III">III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civilization_Revolution" title="Civilization Revolution">Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civilization_IV" title="Civilization IV">IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civilization_V" title="Civilization V">V</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legends_of_Catherine_the_Great" title="Legends of Catherine the Great">Legends of Catherine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_and_opera" title="Catherine II and opera">Catherine II and opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Russian_monarchs" title="Family tree of Russian monarchs">Family tree of Russian monarchs</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/21px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/42px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/21px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/42px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/20px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/31px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/40px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="115" data-file-height="108" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Monarchy" title="Portal:Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Yekaterina Alekseyevna, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[jɪkətʲɪˈrʲinə ɐlʲɪkˈsʲejɪvnə]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_date" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Style date">Old Style date</a>: 21 April 1729 – 6 November 1796. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Russian: Екатерина Великая, romanized: Yekaterina Velikaya. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> "Despot" is not derogatory in this context.<a href="#cite_note-4">[1]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_Kenneth_C.2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Campbell, Kenneth C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2JsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">Western Civilization: A Global and Comparative Approach</a>. Vol. II: Since 1600. Routledge. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45230-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-45230-0"><bdi>978-1-317-45230-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Global+and+Comparative+Approach&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-45230-0&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Kenneth+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA2JsBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bezemer-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Bezemer_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBezemer" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bezemer, Jan Willem. Een geschiedenis van Rusland. Van Rurik tot Brezjnev (in Dutch) (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: G.A. van Oorschot. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9028206833" title="Special:BookSources/9028206833"><bdi>9028206833</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/65583925">65583925</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Een+geschiedenis+van+Rusland.+Van+Rurik+tot+Brezjnev&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=111&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=G.A.+van+Oorschot&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F65583925&rft.isbn=9028206833&rft.aulast=Bezemer&rft.aufirst=Jan+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Ferdinand Siebigk: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:ADB:Christian_August_(F%C3%BCrst_von_Anhalt-Zerbst)" class="extiw" title="s:de:ADB:Christian August (Fürst von Anhalt-Zerbst)">Christian August (Fürst von Anhalt-Zerbst)</a>. In: <a href="/wiki/Allgemeine_Deutsche_Biographie" title="Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie">Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie</a> (ADB). Band 4, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1876, S. 157–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter20073Massie201110–19-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreeter20073Massie201110–19_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreeter20073Massie201110–19_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStreeter2007">Streeter 2007</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFMassie2011">Massie 2011</a>, pp. 10–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronholm,_Neander_N.1902" class="citation book cs1">Cronholm, Neander N. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924071200822">A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. Chicago, New York [etc.] The author.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sweden+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Chicago%2C+New+York+%5Betc.%5D+The+author&rft.date=1902&rft.au=Cronholm%2C+Neander+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924071200822&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> ch 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSergeant,_Philip_W.2004" class="citation book cs1">Sergeant, Philip W. (2004). The Courtships of Catherine the Great. Kessinger Publishing. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Courtships+of+Catherine+the+Great&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Sergeant%2C+Philip+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, pp. 7–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196940-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrechka196940_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrechka196940_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrechka1969">Brechka 1969</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOdE2FT4Q-oCdq22theyhailedthiselevenyearoldchild22pgPA4_4–6]-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreeter2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMOdE2FT4Q-oCdq22theyhailedthiselevenyearoldchild22pgPA4_4–6]_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStreeter2007">Streeter 2007</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOdE2FT4Q-oC&dq=%22they+hailed+this+eleven+year+old+child%22&pg=PA4">4–6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Huberty_1994_166-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huberty_1994_166_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huberty_1994_166_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuberty1994" class="citation book cs1">Huberty, Michel (1994). L'Allemagne dynastique: Les quinze Familles qui on fait l'Empire. A. Giraud. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-901138-07-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-901138-07-5"><bdi>978-2-901138-07-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Allemagne+dynastique%3A+Les+quinze+Familles+qui+on+fait+l%27Empire&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=A.+Giraud&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-2-901138-07-5&rft.aulast=Huberty&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas2016" class="citation book cs1">Coulmas, Florian (2016). "Catherine the Great". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/35854/chapter-abstract/307988012">Guardians of language: twenty voices through history</a> (First ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 89–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198736523" title="Special:BookSources/9780198736523"><bdi>9780198736523</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Catherine+the+Great&rft.btitle=Guardians+of+language%3A+twenty+voices+through+history&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=89-102&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780198736523&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F35854%2Fchapter-abstract%2F307988012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://annapeicheva.ru/frankophonia/">"Почему дворяне в России говорили именно на французском?"</a>. 4 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%83+%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%B2+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%3F&rft.date=2024-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fannapeicheva.ru%2Ffrankophonia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196939–52-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrechka196939–52_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrechka1969">Brechka 1969</a>, pp. 39–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrechka196941-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrechka196941_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrechka1969">Brechka 1969</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, pp. 87–88 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarquhar2001" class="citation cs2">Farquhar, Michael (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasuryofroyals00farq/page/88">A Treasure of Royal Scandals</a>, New York: Penguin Books, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasuryofroyals00farq/page/88">88</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-2025-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-2025-6"><bdi>978-0-7394-2025-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treasure+of+Royal+Scandals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7394-2025-6&rft.aulast=Farquhar&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftreasuryofroyals00farq%2Fpage%2F88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history-gatchina.ru/article/pavel_birth.htm">"О происхождении Павла I"</a>. history-gatchina.ru. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200627064257/http://www.history-gatchina.ru/article/pavel_birth.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history-gatchina.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%9E+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory-gatchina.ru%2Farticle%2Fpavel_birth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989400–403-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989400–403_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander1989">Alexander 1989</a>, pp. 400–403. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander198951–54-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander198951–54_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander1989">Alexander 1989</a>, pp. 51–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Sergeant, Philip W. The Courtships of Catherine the Great (Kessinger Publishing, 2004), 34, 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-r92-26"><a href="#cite_ref-r92_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 92 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Evans_Clements2012" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Evans Clements (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xa2yCC2apZAC&pg=PA71">A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present</a>. Indiana University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00104-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00104-7"><bdi>978-0-253-00104-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Women+in+Russia%3A+From+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00104-7&rft.au=Barbara+Evans+Clements&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxa2yCC2apZAC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/catherine-the-great">"Catherine The Great"</a>. 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Biography 27 (2004), 517–534. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassie2011274–275-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMassie2011274–275_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMassie2011">Massie 2011</a>, pp. 274–275. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mikv1.narod.ru/text/OpisKor_RS93t80n12.htm">"Coronation of the Empress Catherine II [Описание коронации, миропомазания и причащения императрицы Екатерины II-й]"</a>. Русская старина, 1893. – Т. 80. – № 12. – С. 487–496. – В ст.: Труворов А. Коронация императрицы Екатерины Второй – Сетевая версия – М. Вознесенский. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017203233/http://mikv1.narod.ru/text/OpisKor_RS93t80n12.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2018. 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RUDN Journal of Russian History 4 (2010): 38–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRodger2005">Rodger 2005</a>, p. 328 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKizilov2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kizilov" title="Mikhail Kizilov">Kizilov, Mikhail</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2971600">"Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources"</a>. Oxford University. 11 (1): 2–7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027021701/https://www.academia.edu/2971600">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+University&rft.atitle=Slave+Trade+in+the+Early+Modern+Crimea+From+the+Perspective+of+Christian%2C+Muslim%2C+and+Jewish+Sources&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-7&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Kizilov&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2971600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> M. S. Anderson, The Eastern question, 1774–1923: A study in international relations (London: Macmillan, 1966) pp. 1–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fisher_1967_341–364-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher_1967_341–364_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fisher_1967_341–364_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1967" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Alan W. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41043307">"Şahin Girey, the Reformer Khan, and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea"</a>. Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 15 (3): 341–364. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41043307">41043307</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510152947/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41043307">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrb%C3%BCcher+f%C3%BCr+Geschichte+Osteuropas&rft.atitle=%C5%9Eahin+Girey%2C+the+Reformer+Khan%2C+and+the+Russian+Annexation+of+the+Crimea&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=341-364&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41043307%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Alan+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41043307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronin2013" class="citation book cs1">Cronin, Stephanie (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VCTipPJdKBwC&pg=PA54">Iranian–Russian Encounters: Empires and Revolutions Since 1800</a>. Routledge. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-62433-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-62433-6"><bdi>978-0-415-62433-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iranian%E2%80%93Russian+Encounters%3A+Empires+and+Revolutions+Since+1800&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-62433-6&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVCTipPJdKBwC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2011" class="citation book cs1">Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&pg=PA763">Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 volumes)</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 763. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-337-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-337-8"><bdi>978-1-59884-337-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+Conquest+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia+%282+volumes%29&rft.pages=763&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-337-8&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjBBYD2J2oE4C%26pg%3DPA763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989321-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989321_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander1989">Alexander 1989</a>, p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Nikolas K. Gvosdev, Imperial Policies and Perspectives towards Georgia, 1760–1819 (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2000) pp. 63–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Stewart P. Oakley, War and Peace in the Baltic, 1560–1790 (1993) pp. 156–157. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Anderson, Catherine the Great pp. 134–135, 316–320. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Jerzy Lojek, "Catherine II's Armed Intervention in Poland: Origins of the Political Decisions at the Russian Court in 1791 and 1792." Canadian-American Slavic Studies 4.3 (1970): 570–593. </li> <li id="cite_note-l55-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-l55_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-l55_49-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, pp. 55–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-l56-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-l56_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-l56_51-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLim2013">Lim 2013</a>, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLensen1950" class="citation journal cs1">Lensen, George Alexander (1950). "Early Russo-Japanese Relations". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 10 (1): 2–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2049650">10.2307/2049650</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2049650">2049650</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162618073">162618073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Far+Eastern+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Early+Russo-Japanese+Relations&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-37&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162618073%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2049650%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2049650&rft.aulast=Lensen&rft.aufirst=George+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> [Kazimir Valishevsky. 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Retrieved 24 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+Russia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F13253a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNancy_Shields_Kollmann_·2017" class="citation book cs1">Nancy Shields Kollmann · (2017). The Russian Empire 1450-1801. Oxford University Press. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199280513" title="Special:BookSources/9780199280513"><bdi>9780199280513</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire+1450-1801&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780199280513&rft.au=Nancy+Shields+Kollmann+%C2%B7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher1968-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher1968_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisher1968">Fisher 1968</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher1968546–548-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher1968546–548_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisher1968">Fisher 1968</a>, pp. 546–548. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadariaga1981508–511Fisher1968549-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadariaga1981508–511Fisher1968549_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadariaga1981">Madariaga 1981</a>, pp. 508–511; <a href="#CITEREFFisher1968">Fisher 1968</a>, p. 549. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, p. 505 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, pp. 506–507 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, p. 507 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMadariaga1981">Madariaga 1981</a>, pp. 504–508 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, p. 511 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, p. 512 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKlier1976">Klier 1976</a>, p. 515 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a293-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a293_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaeff1972a">Raeff 1972a</a>, p. 293. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hosking_231-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hosking_231_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hosking_231_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hosking_231_124-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosking1997">Hosking 1997</a>, p. 231 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a294-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a294_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a294_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaeff1972a">Raeff 1972a</a>, p. 294. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosking1997">Hosking 1997</a>, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a296-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a296_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaeff1972a">Raeff 1972a</a>, p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a298-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaeff1972a298_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaeff1972a">Raeff 1972a</a>, p. 298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989224-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989224_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander1989">Alexander 1989</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Eleanor Herman, Sex With the Queen (2006) pp. 147–173. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pipes-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Pipes_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1974" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Richard (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiaunderoldre0000pipe">Russia under the old regime</a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684140414" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684140414"><bdi>978-0684140414</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+under+the+old+regime&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0684140414&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiaunderoldre0000pipe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Pipes, Russia under the old regime, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia. New York, Oxford University Press, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarquhar2001" class="citation book cs1">Farquhar, Michael (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasuryofroyals00farq/page/7">A Treasure of Royal Scandals</a>. 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The Russian Review. 34 (3). quoting p. 293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F127976">10.2307/127976</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/127976">127976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=Catherine+the+Great+and+the+Problem+of+Female+Rule&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=quoting+p.+293&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F127976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F127976%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meehan-Waters&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatt2017" class="citation book cs1">Hatt, Christine (24 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ilWlLmsIukC&q=Stanis%C5%82aw+Poniatowski+Anna+Petrovna">Catherine the Great</a>. 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Retrieved 24 November 2017 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great&rft.pub=World+Almanac+Library&rft.date=2017-11-24&rft.isbn=978-0836855357&rft.aulast=Hatt&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ilWlLmsIukC%26q%3DStanis%25C5%2582aw%2BPoniatowski%2BAnna%2BPetrovna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Thomas McLean, The Other East and Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Imagining Poland and the Russian Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) pp. 14–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuran1969" class="citation journal cs1">Duran, James A. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/126983">"Catherine II, Potemkin, and Colonization Policy in Southern Russia"</a>. The Russian Review. 28 (1): 23–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F126983">10.2307/126983</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/126983">126983</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220817234309/https://www.jstor.org/stable/126983">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=Catherine+II%2C+Potemkin%2C+and+Colonization+Policy+in+Southern+Russia&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-36&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F126983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F126983%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Duran&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F126983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grande_p._427-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Grande_p._427_141-0">^</a> Henri Troyat in Catherine la Grande (Swedish translation by Harald Bohrn Katarina den stora : 1729–1796 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-1-952612-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-1-952612-0">978-91-1-952612-0</a>) p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rounding,_p._499-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rounding,_p._499_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rounding,_p._499_142-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rounding,_p._499_142-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 499 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixon,_p._315-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon,_p._315_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dixon,_p._315_143-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2009">Dixon 2009</a>, p. 315 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 502 </li> <li id="cite_note-r508-145"><a href="#cite_ref-r508_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 508 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, pp. 508–509 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2009">Dixon 2009</a>, p. 314 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRounding2006">Rounding 2006</a>, p. 503 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon2009">Dixon 2009</a>, p. 318 </li> <li id="cite_note-Troyat-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Troyat_150-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Troyat_150-1">b</a> Henri Troyat, Catherine the Great (English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> The Memoirs of Catherine the Great. Edited by M Morager, London, Hamish-Hamilton, 1955, pp. 205–218. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Henri Troyat, Catherine the Great (English translation by Aidan Ellis). Oxford, Aidan Ellis, 1978, pp. 66–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Dangerous Liaisons. Liena Zagare, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Sun" title="The New York Sun">The New York Sun</a>, Arts & Letters, p. 15. 18 August 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRounding,_Virginia2008" class="citation book cs1">Rounding, Virginia (2008). Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power. Macmillan. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-37863-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-37863-9"><bdi>978-0-312-37863-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Love%2C+Sex%2C+and+Power&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-37863-9&rft.au=Rounding%2C+Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-massie-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-massie_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-massie_155-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassie,_Robert_K.2012" class="citation book cs1">Massie, Robert K. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatpo00mass_3">Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman</a>. New York: Random House LLC. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatpo00mass_3/page/203/mode/2up">203</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40877-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40877-8"><bdi>978-0-345-40877-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Portrait+of+a+Woman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Random+House+LLC&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-345-40877-8&rft.au=Massie%2C+Robert+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreatpo00mass_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBantysh-Kamensky,_Dmitri2005" class="citation book cs1">Bantysh-Kamensky, Dmitri (2005). Lists of holders of the Imperial Russian Orders of St. Andrew, St. Catherine, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Anne [Списки кавалерам российских императорских орденов Св. Андрея Первозванного, Св. Екатерины, Св. Александра Невского и Св. Анны с учреждения до установления в 1797 году орденского капитула]. Moscow: Truten. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-94926-007-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-94926-007-4"><bdi>978-5-94926-007-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lists+of+holders+of+the+Imperial+Russian+Orders+of+St.+Andrew%2C+St.+Catherine%2C+St.+Alexander+Nevsky+and+St.+Anne+%5B%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%B2.+%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%2C+%D0%A1%D0%B2.+%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B%2C+%D0%A1%D0%B2.+%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%B2.+%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D1%81+%D1%83%D1%87%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2+1797+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83+%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%5D&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Truten&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-5-94926-007-4&rft.au=Bantysh-Kamensky%2C+Dmitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2010">Montefiore 2010</a>, p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_the_GreatCruse,_MarkusHoogenboom,_Hilde2006" class="citation book cs1">Catherine the Great; Cruse, Markus; Hoogenboom, Hilde (2006). The Memoirs of Catherine the Great. New York: Random House LLC. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6987-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6987-0"><bdi>978-0-8129-6987-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Memoirs+of+Catherine+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Random+House+LLC&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6987-0&rft.au=Catherine+the+Great&rft.au=Cruse%2C+Markus&rft.au=Hoogenboom%2C+Hilde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon,_Simon2010" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Simon (2010). Catherine the Great. London: Profile Books. pp. 106–07. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84765-192-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84765-192-1"><bdi>978-1-84765-192-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pages=106-07&rft.pub=Profile+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84765-192-1&rft.au=Dixon%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989[httpsarchiveorgdetailscatherinegreatli0000alexpage54_54]-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1989[httpsarchiveorgdetailscatherinegreatli0000alexpage54_54]_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander1989">Alexander 1989</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatli0000alex/page/54">54</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Montefiore2010-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Montefiore2010_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMontefiore2010">Montefiore 2010</a>, p. 159 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_II1763" class="citation book cs1">Catherine II (25 July 1763). Manifesto of 1763. Governing Senate of the Russian Empire.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manifesto+of+1763&rft.pub=Governing+Senate+of+the+Russian+Empire&rft.date=1763-07-25&rft.au=Catherine+II&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Noble Feelings of Dissent: Russian Emotional Culture and the Decembrist Revolt of 1825 A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Stanislav Tarasov, M.A. Washington, DC 23 July 2021 page 148 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> "Матушка Екатерина (1760 - 1770-е гг.)" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-373-03076-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-373-03076-2">978-5-373-03076-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.landesarchiv-bw.de/plink/?f=1-1173811">"Herzog Friedrich Eugen (1732–1797) – Briefwechsel des Herzogs mit dem kaiserlichen Hause von Russland, 1768–1795 – 1. Briefwechsel mit der Kaiserin Katharina"</a>. Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. Retrieved 26 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Herzog+Friedrich+Eugen+%281732%E2%80%931797%29+%E2%80%93+Briefwechsel+des+Herzogs+mit+dem+kaiserlichen+Hause+von+Russland%2C+1768%E2%80%931795+%E2%80%93+1.+Briefwechsel+mit+der+Kaiserin+Katharina&rft.pub=Hauptstaatsarchiv+Stuttgart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.landesarchiv-bw.de%2Fplink%2F%3Ff%3D1-1173811&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corleonis-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Corleonis_166-0">^</a> Corleonis, Adrian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allmusic.com/work/la-grande-duchesse-de-grolstein-operetta-in-3-acts-c203030/description">La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein, operetta in 3 acts: Description</a>. Allmusic.com, accessed 13 March 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211027/NVbH1BVXywY">"Alexander the Great vs Ivan the Terrible"</a>. Epic Rap Battles of History. Youtube. 12 July 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NVbH1BVXywY">the original</a> on 27 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epic+Rap+Battles+of+History&rft.atitle=Alexander+the+Great+vs+Ivan+the+Terrible&rft.date=2016-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DNVbH1BVXywY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: General and cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander1989" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatli0000alex">Catherine the Great: Life and Legend</a>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Life+and+Legend&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreatli0000alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrechka1969" class="citation journal cs1">Brechka, Frank (January 1969). "Catherine the Great: The Books She Read". The Journal of Library History. 4 (1): 39–52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Library+History&rft.atitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+The+Books+She+Read&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-52&rft.date=1969-01&rft.aulast=Brechka&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterwick1998" class="citation book cs1">Butterwick, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ySzrq3JwjBEC">Poland's Last King and English Culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798</a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820701-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820701-6"><bdi>978-0-19-820701-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240428104502/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySzrq3JwjBEC">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Last+King+and+English+Culture%3A+Stanis%C5%82aw+August+Poniatowski%2C+1732%E2%80%931798&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820701-6&rft.aulast=Butterwick&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DySzrq3JwjBEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2009" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, Simon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreat0000dixo">Catherine the Great</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ecco_Press" title="Ecco Press">Ecco</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-078627-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-078627-4"><bdi>978-0-06-078627-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-06-078627-4&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreat0000dixo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1968" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Alan W. (1968). "Enlightened Despotism and Islam under Catherine II". Slavic Review. 27 (4): 542–553. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2494437">10.2307/2494437</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2494437">2494437</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155316413">155316413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Enlightened+Despotism+and+Islam+under+Catherine+II&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=542-553&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155316413%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2494437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2494437&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Alan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans1961" class="citation journal cs1">Hans, N. (1961). "Dumaresq, Brown and Some Early Educational Projects of Catherine II". Slavonic and East European Review. 40 (94): 229–235. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205333">4205333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=Dumaresq%2C+Brown+and+Some+Early+Educational+Projects+of+Catherine+II&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=94&rft.pages=229-235&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4205333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hans&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosking1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hosking" title="Geoffrey Hosking">Hosking, Geoffrey</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiapeopleempi00hosk">Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674781184" title="Special:BookSources/9780674781184"><bdi>9780674781184</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+People+and+Empire%2C+1552%E2%80%931917&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780674781184&rft.aulast=Hosking&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiapeopleempi00hosk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlier1976" class="citation journal cs1">Klier, John D. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2495122">"The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II"</a>. Slavic Review. 35 (3): 504–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2495122">10.2307/2495122</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495122">2495122</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159944347">159944347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ambiguous+Legal+Status+of+Russian+Jewry+in+the+Reign+of+Catherine+II&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=504-17&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159944347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2495122%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2495122&rft.aulast=Klier&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2495122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKliuchevskii1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Klyuchevsky" title="Vasily Klyuchevsky">Kliuchevskii, Vasilii</a> (1997). A course in Russian history: the time of Catherine the Great. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+course+in+Russian+history%3A+the+time+of+Catherine+the+Great&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Kliuchevskii&rft.aufirst=Vasilii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"> (Translation of a 19th-century work.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolchin1990" class="citation book cs1">Kolchin, Peter (1990) [First published 1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unfreelaborameri0000kolc">Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92098-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-92098-9"><bdi>978-0-674-92098-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfree+Labor%3A+American+Slavery+and+Russian+Serfdom&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-674-92098-9&rft.aulast=Kolchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funfreelaborameri0000kolc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLim2013" class="citation book cs1">Lim, Susanna Soojung (2013). China and Japan in the Russian Imagination, 1685–1922: To the Ends of the Orient. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135071615" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135071615"><bdi>978-1135071615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+Japan+in+the+Russian+Imagination%2C+1685%E2%80%931922%3A+To+the+Ends+of+the+Orient&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135071615&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=Susanna+Soojung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Madariaga1974" class="citation journal cs1">de Madariaga, Isabel (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4206834">"Catherine II and the Serfs: A Reconsideration of Some Problems"</a>. The Slavonic and East European Review. 52 (126): 34–62. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6795">0037-6795</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4206834">4206834</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210501123459/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4206834">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=Catherine+II+and+the+Serfs%3A+A+Reconsideration+of+Some+Problems&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=126&rft.pages=34-62&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4206834%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0037-6795&rft.aulast=de+Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4206834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga1979" class="citation journal cs1">Madariaga, Isabel De (1979). "The Foundation of the Russian Educational System by Catherine II". Slavonic and East European Review: 369–95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Foundation+of+the+Russian+Educational+System+by+Catherine+II&rft.pages=369-95&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga1981" class="citation book cs1">——— (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiainageofcat0000mada">Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300025156" title="Special:BookSources/9780300025156"><bdi>9780300025156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+in+the+Age+of+Catherine+the+Great&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780300025156&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiainageofcat0000mada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga1993" class="citation book cs1">——— (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreat00isab">Catherine the Great: A Short History</a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05427-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05427-9"><bdi>978-0-300-05427-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+A+Short+History&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05427-9&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreat00isab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassie2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Massie" title="Robert K. Massie">Massie, Robert K.</a> (2011). Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45672-8"><bdi>978-0-679-45672-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Portrait+of+a+Woman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-679-45672-8&rft.aulast=Massie&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax2006" class="citation news cs1">Max (2006). "If these walls....Smolny's Repeated Roles in History". Russian Life. pp. 19–24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Life&rft.atitle=If+these+walls....Smolny%27s+Repeated+Roles+in+History&rft.pages=19-24&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Montefiore, Simon Sebag</a> (2001). Prince of Princes: the life of Potemkin. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-438-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84212-438-3"><bdi>978-1-84212-438-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prince+of+Princes%3A+the+life+of+Potemkin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84212-438-3&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2010" class="citation book cs1">—— (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_jvr-k8Q5tMC&pg=PT159">Catherine the Great and Potemkin: The Imperial Love Affair</a>. Orion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-86623-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-86623-7"><bdi>978-0-297-86623-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great+and+Potemkin%3A+The+Imperial+Love+Affair&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-297-86623-7&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_jvr-k8Q5tMC%26pg%3DPT159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaeff1972a" class="citation book cs1">Raeff, Marc (1972a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_eZeCwAAQBAJ">Catherine the Great: A Profile</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-01467-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-01467-5"><bdi>978-1-349-01467-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240428104508/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eZeCwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+A+Profile&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-1-349-01467-5&rft.aulast=Raeff&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_eZeCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaeff1972b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">——— (1972b). "Pugachev's Rebellion". In Forster, Robert; Greene, Jack P. (eds.). Preconditions of Revolution in Early Europe. The Johns Hopkins Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801813771" title="Special:BookSources/9780801813771"><bdi>9780801813771</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pugachev%27s+Rebellion&rft.btitle=Preconditions+of+Revolution+in+Early+Europe&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=9780801813771&rft.aulast=Raeff&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReddaway1971" class="citation book cs1">Reddaway, W.F (1971) [1931]. Documents of Catherine the Great. The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768. England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+of+Catherine+the+Great.+The+Correspondence+with+Voltaire+and+the+Instruction+of+1767+in+the+English+Text+of+1768&rft.place=England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Reddaway&rft.aufirst=W.F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodger2005" class="citation book cs1">Rodger, NAM (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commandofoceanna00rodg">Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815</a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06050-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06050-8"><bdi>978-0-393-06050-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Command+of+the+Ocean%3A+A+Naval+History+of+Britain%2C+1649%E2%80%931815&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06050-8&rft.aulast=Rodger&rft.aufirst=NAM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommandofoceanna00rodg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRounding2006" class="citation book cs1">Rounding, Virginia (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatlo0000roun_j1t3">Catherine the Great: Love, Sex and Power</a>. London: Hutchinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-179992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-179992-2"><bdi>978-0-09-179992-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Love%2C+Sex+and+Power&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-09-179992-2&rft.aulast=Rounding&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreatlo0000roun_j1t3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreeter2007" class="citation book cs1">Streeter, Michael (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOdE2FT4Q-oC">Catherine the Great</a>. Haus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905791-06-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905791-06-4"><bdi>978-1-905791-06-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great&rft.pub=Haus+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-905791-06-4&rft.aulast=Streeter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOdE2FT4Q-oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWirtschafter1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling (1998). "Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia". Journal of Modern History. 70 (3): 561–587. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F235117">10.1086/235117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154510675">154510675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Legal+Identity+and+the+Possession+of+Serfs+in+Imperial+Russia&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=561-587&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F235117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154510675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wirtschafter&rft.aufirst=Elise+Kimerling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613%E2%80%931917)" title="Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)">Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Alexander, John T. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catherinegreatli0000alex">Catherine the Great: Life and Legend</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505236-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505236-7"><bdi>978-0-19-505236-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catherine+the+Great%3A+Life+and+Legend&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505236-7&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatherinegreatli0000alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bilbasov, Vasily A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331083958/https://new.runivers.ru/lib/book4351/">History of Catherine the Great</a>. Berlin: Publishing Frederick Gottgeyner, 1900. At <a href="/wiki/Runivers.ru" class="mw-redirect" title="Runivers.ru">Runivers.ru</a> in <a href="/wiki/DjVu" title="DjVu">DjVu</a> and PDF formats</li> <li>Bogdanovich, Modest I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331085456/https://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3157/10069/">Russian army in the age of the Empress Catherine II</a>. Saint Petersburg: Printing office of the Department of inheritance, 1873. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats</li> <li>Brickner, Alexander Gustavovich. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190331083958/https://new.runivers.ru/lib/book4358/">History of Catherine the Great</a>. Saint Petersburg: Typography of A. Suvorin, 1885. At Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats</li> <li>Catherine the Great. The Memoirs of Catherine the Great by Markus Cruse and Hilde Hoogenboom (translators). New York: Modern Library, 2005 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-64299-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-64299-4">0-679-64299-4</a>); 2006 (paperback, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6987-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-6987-1">0-8129-6987-1</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Cronin" title="Vincent Cronin">Cronin, Vincent</a>. Catherine, Empress of All the Russias. London: Collins, 1978 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-216119-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-216119-2">0-00-216119-2</a>); 1996 (paperback, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86046-091-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-86046-091-7">1-86046-091-7</a>)</li> <li>Dixon, Simon. Catherine the Great (Profiles in Power). Harlow, UK: Longman, 2001 (paperback, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-09803-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-09803-3">0-582-09803-3</a>)</li> <li>Herman, Eleanor. Sex With the Queen. New York: HarperCollins, 2006 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-084673-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-084673-9">0-06-084673-9</a>).</li> <li>LeDonne, John P. Ruling Russia: Politics & Administration in the Age of Absolutism, 1762–1796 (1984).</li> <li>Malecka, Anna. "Did Orlov Buy the Orlov", Gems and Jewellery, July 2014, pp. 10–12.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcum1974" class="citation journal cs1">Marcum, James W. (1974). "Catherine II and the French Revolution: A Reappraisal". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 16 (2): 187–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00085006.1974.11091360">10.1080/00085006.1974.11091360</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40866712">40866712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Slavonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Catherine+II+and+the+French+Revolution%3A+A+Reappraisal&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-201&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00085006.1974.11091360&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40866712%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marcum&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACatherine+the+Great" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Nikolaev, Vsevolod, and Albert Parry. The Loves of Catherine the Great (1982).</li> <li>Ransel, David L. The Politics of Catherinian Russia: The Panin Party (Yale UP, 1975).</li> <li>Sette, Alessandro. "Catherine II and the Socio-Economic Origins of the Jewish Question in Russia", Annales Universitatis Apulensis - Series Historica, 23#2 (2019): 47–63.</li> <li>Smith, Douglas, ed. and trans. Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois UP, 2004 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-324-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87580-324-5">0-87580-324-5</a>); 2005 (paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-607-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87580-607-4">0-87580-607-4</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Troyat" title="Henri Troyat">Troyat, Henri</a>. Catherine the Great. New York: Dorset Press, 1991 (hardcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88029-688-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-88029-688-7">0-88029-688-7</a>); London: Orion, 2000 (paperback, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-029-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-029-8">1-84212-029-8</a>) popular</li> <li>Troyat, Henri. Terrible Tsarinas. New York: Algora, 2001 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-892941-54-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-892941-54-6">1-892941-54-6</a>).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Catherine_the_Great" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hycx">Catherine the Great </a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/18catherine.html">Some of the code of laws mentioned above, along with other information</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926212253/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/18catherine.html">Archived</a> 26 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040327234320/http://members.aol.com/jktsn/manifest.htm">Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II, inviting foreign immigration</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 27 March 2004)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Catherine the Great </div><div><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ascania" title="House of Ascania">House of Anhalt</a></div>Born: 2 May 1729 Died: 17 November 1796 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Russia" title="Emperor of Russia">Empress of Russia</a> 9 July 1762 – 17 November 1796 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #65BCFF"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian rulers">Russian royalty</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Title last held by</div><a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Martha Skowrońska</a> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Empress_consort_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress consort of Russia">Empress consort of Russia</a> 5 January 1762 – 9 July 1762 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div><a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Sophie_Dorothea_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)">Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_sovereigns" title="Template:Russian sovereigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_sovereigns" title="Template talk:Russian sovereigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_sovereigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian sovereigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_Russian_monarchs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_monarchs" title="List of Russian monarchs">List of Russian monarchs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Vladimir" title="Grand Prince of Vladimir">Grand princes of Vladimir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Prince of Moscow">Moscow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_I_Dolgorukiy" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri I Dolgorukiy">Yuri I Dolgorukiy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrey_Bogolyubsky" title="Andrey Bogolyubsky">Andrei I Bogolyubsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_of_Vladimir" title="Mikhail of Vladimir">Mikhail of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_the_Big_Nest" title="Vsevolod the Big Nest">Vsevolod the Big Nest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_II_of_Vladimir" title="Yuri II of Vladimir">Yuri II of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_of_Rostov" title="Konstantin of Rostov">Konstantin of Rostov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_II_of_Vladimir" title="Yuri II of Vladimir">Yuri II of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_II_of_Vladimir" title="Yaroslav II of Vladimir">Yaroslav II of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_III_of_Vladimir" title="Sviatoslav III of Vladimir">Sviatoslav III of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrey_II_of_Vladimir" title="Andrey II of Vladimir">Andrey II of Vladimir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky" title="Alexander Nevsky">Alexander Nevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_of_Tver" title="Yaroslav of Tver">Yaroslav of Tver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_of_Kostroma" title="Vasily of Kostroma">Vasily of Kostroma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_of_Pereslavl" title="Dmitry of Pereslavl">Dmitry of Pereslavl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrey_of_Gorodets" title="Andrey of Gorodets">Andrey of Gorodets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_of_Tver" title="Mikhail of Tver">Mikhail of Tver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yury_of_Moscow" title="Yury of Moscow">Yuri of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_of_Tver" title="Dmitry of Tver">Dmitry the Terrible Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Mikhailovich_of_Tver" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver">Alexander of Tver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_I_of_Moscow" title="Ivan I of Moscow">Ivan I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_of_Moscow" title="Simeon of Moscow">Simeon the Proud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_II_of_Moscow" title="Ivan II of Moscow">Ivan II the Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_of_Suzdal" title="Dmitry of Suzdal">Dmitry of Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy" title="Dmitry Donskoy">Dmitry of the Don</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_I_of_Moscow" title="Vasily I of Moscow">Vasily I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_II_of_Moscow" title="Vasily II of Moscow">Vasily II the Blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_III_of_Russia" title="Vasili III of Russia">Vasily III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tsar_of_all_Russia" title="Tsar of all Russia">Tsars of all Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan IV the Terrible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_I_of_Russia" title="Feodor I of Russia">Feodor I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irina_Godunova" title="Irina Godunova">Irina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Godunov" title="Boris Godunov">Boris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_II_of_Russia" title="Feodor II of Russia">Feodor II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_Dmitry_I" title="False Dmitry I">False Dmitry I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasili_IV_of_Russia" title="Vasili IV of Russia">Vasili IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_IV_Vasa" title="Władysław IV Vasa">Vladislav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_of_Russia" title="Michael of Russia">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia" title="Alexis of Russia">Alexis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_III_of_Russia" title="Feodor III of Russia">Feodor III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_V_of_Russia" title="Ivan V of Russia">Ivan V</a> (co-rulers)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Russia" title="Emperor of Russia">Emperors of all Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Catherine I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia" title="Peter II of Russia">Peter II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Anna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_VI_of_Russia" title="Ivan VI of Russia">Ivan VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia" title="Paul I of Russia">Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tsaritsas_and_empresses_consort_of_Russia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_royal_consorts" title="Template:Russian royal consorts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_royal_consorts" title="Template talk:Russian royal consorts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_royal_consorts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian royal consorts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tsaritsas_and_empresses_consort_of_Russia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_royal_consorts" title="List of Russian royal consorts">Tsaritsas and empresses consort of Russia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tsarina" title="Tsarina">Tsaritsas consort</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_(17th_century).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg/50px-Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg/75px-Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg/100px-Royal_Coat_of_arms_of_Russia_%2817th_century%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anastasia_Romanovna" title="Anastasia Romanovna">Anastasia Romanovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Temryukovna" title="Maria Temryukovna">Maria Temryukovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marfa_Sobakina" title="Marfa Sobakina">Marfa Sobakina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Koltovskaya" title="Anna Koltovskaya">Anna Koltovskaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Vasilchikova" title="Anna Vasilchikova">Anna Vasilchikova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Nagaya" title="Maria Nagaya">Maria Nagaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irina_Godunova" title="Irina Godunova">Irina Godunova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Skuratova-Belskaya" title="Maria Skuratova-Belskaya">Maria Skuratova-Belskaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marina_Mniszech" title="Marina Mniszech">Marina Mniszech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Buynosova-Rostovskaya" title="Maria Buynosova-Rostovskaya">Maria Buynosova-Rostovskaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Dolgorukova" title="Maria Dolgorukova">Maria Dolgorukova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxia_Streshneva" title="Eudoxia Streshneva">Eudoxia Streshneva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Miloslavskaya" title="Maria Miloslavskaya">Maria Miloslavskaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalya_Naryshkina" title="Natalya Naryshkina">Natalya Naryshkina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agafya_Grushetskaya" title="Agafya Grushetskaya">Agafya Grushetskaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marfa_Apraksina" title="Marfa Apraksina">Marfa Apraksina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praskovia_Saltykova" title="Praskovia Saltykova">Praskovia Saltykova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxia_Lopukhina" title="Eudoxia Lopukhina">Eudoxia Lopukhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Marta Skavronskaya</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Empress_consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress consort">Empresses consort</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/50px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/75px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg/100px-Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_the_Russian_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia" title="Catherine I of Russia">Marta Skavronskaya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Catherine Alekseyevna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Sophie_Dorothea_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)">Maria Feodorovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Alexeievna_(Louise_of_Baden)" title="Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden)">Elizabeth Alexeievna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Feodorovna_(Charlotte_of_Prussia)" title="Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)">Alexandra Feodorovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Alexandrovna_(Marie_of_Hesse)" title="Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)">Maria Alexandrovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Dagmar_of_Denmark)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)">Maria Feodorovna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Feodorovna_(Alix_of_Hesse)" title="Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)">Alexandra Feodorovna</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template talk:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Age of Enlightenment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Age_of_Enlightenment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grand_Duchesses_of_Russia_by_marriage" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Russian_grand_duchesses_by_marriage" title="Template:Russian grand duchesses by marriage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Russian_grand_duchesses_by_marriage" title="Template talk:Russian grand duchesses by marriage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Russian_grand_duchesses_by_marriage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Russian grand duchesses by marriage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grand_Duchesses_of_Russia_by_marriage" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Grand_Duchesses_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Grand Duchesses of Russia">Grand Duchesses of Russia by marriage</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1st generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Christine_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2nd generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Catherine Alexeievna (Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3rd generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Alexeievna_(Wilhelmina_of_Hesse-Darmstadt)" title="Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt)">Natalia Alexeievna (Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Sophie_Dorothea_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)">Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">4th generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Alexeievna_(Louise_of_Baden)" title="Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden)">Elizabeth Alexeievna (Louise of Baden)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Juliane_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Anna Feodorovna (Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Feodorovna_(Charlotte_of_Prussia)" title="Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)">Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Charlotte_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Princess Charlotte of Württemberg">Elena Pavlovna (Charlotte of Württemberg)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">5th generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Alexandrovna_(Marie_of_Hesse)" title="Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)">Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Alexandra_of_Saxe-Altenburg" title="Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg">Alexandra Iosifovna (Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchess_Alexandra_of_Oldenburg" title="Duchess Alexandra of Oldenburg">Alexandra Petrovna (Alexandra of Oldenburg)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Cecilie_of_Baden" title="Princess Cecilie of Baden">Olga Feodorovna (Cäcilie of Baden)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">6th generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Feodorovna_(Dagmar_of_Denmark)" title="Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)">Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchess_Marie_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin" title="Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin">Maria Pavlovna (Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Elisabeth_of_Hesse_and_by_Rhine" title="Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine">Elizabeth Feodorovna (Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Alexandra_of_Greece_and_Denmark" title="Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark">Alexandra Georgievna (Alexandra of Greece and Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Elisabeth_of_Saxe-Altenburg_(1865%E2%80%931927)" title="Princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Altenburg (1865–1927)">Elizaveta Mavrikievna (Elisabeth of Saxe-Altenburg)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Anastasia_of_Montenegro" title="Princess Anastasia of Montenegro">Anastasia Nikolaevna (Anastasia of Montenegro)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Milica_of_Montenegro" title="Princess Milica of Montenegro">Militza Nikolaevna of Montenegro (Milica of Montenegro)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Maria_of_Greece_and_Denmark" title="Princess Maria of Greece and Denmark">Maria Georgievna (Maria of Greece and Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchess_Xenia_Alexandrovna_of_Russia" title="Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia">Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia</a>**</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Victoria_Melita_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha" title="Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha">Viktoria Feodorovna (Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonida_Bagration_of_Mukhrani" title="Leonida Bagration of Mukhrani">Leonida Georgievna (Leonida Bagration of Mukhrani)</a>***</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* never converted to Orthodoxy</li> <li>** also a Grand Duchess of Russia by birth</li> <li>*** title granted by Grand Duke Vladimir Cyrillovich</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36450#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36450#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36450#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000096772005">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/49493819">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/53521/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkT6gBMJxqFBv6bmvF9Xd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118560565">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80046091">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120812555">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120812555">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620620">Japan</a></li><li>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/MILV033238">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35026586">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000603311&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.rsl.ru/F?func=find-b&find_code=SYS&adjacent=Y&local_base=RSL11&request=000008078&CON_LNG=ENG">Russia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX979722">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.bibnat.ro:8991/F/?func=direct&local_base=NLR10&doc_number=000073488">Romania</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068509502">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90372155">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000058256&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000064536&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000201577">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=44336">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC202127102">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/86lnj7ks3r4cnq6">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810596482205606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/16169">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007259438705171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000102199">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058530076206706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14834616">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA0501122X?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500257752">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/440104">RKD Artists</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/800185">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118560565.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118560565">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029120047">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6k35s7p">SNAC</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/66287">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/151701">RISM</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\A\CatherineII">Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&oldid=1257417278">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catherine_the_Great&oldid=1257417278</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Catherine_the_Great" title="Category:Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1729_births" title="Category:1729 births">1729 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1796_deaths" title="Category:1796 deaths">1796 deaths</a></li><li><a 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