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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Occurrence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Stability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quarks_and_the_mass_of_a_proton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quarks_and_the_mass_of_a_proton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Quarks and the mass of a proton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quarks_and_the_mass_of_a_proton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charge_radius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charge_radius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Charge radius</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Charge_radius-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Charge radius subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Charge_radius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pressure_inside_the_proton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure_inside_the_proton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Pressure inside the proton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure_inside_the_proton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charge_radius_in_solvated_proton,_hydronium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charge_radius_in_solvated_proton,_hydronium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Charge radius in solvated proton, hydronium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charge_radius_in_solvated_proton,_hydronium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_of_free_protons_with_ordinary_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_of_free_protons_with_ordinary_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Interaction of free protons with ordinary matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_of_free_protons_with_ordinary_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proton_in_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proton_in_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Proton in chemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proton_in_chemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proton in chemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proton_in_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomic_number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Atomic number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogen_ion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogen_ion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Hydrogen ion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen_ion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proton_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proton_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proton_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Human exposure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiproton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiproton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Antiproton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiproton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Proton</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 152 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-152" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">152 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटॉन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्रोटॉन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="بروتون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بروتون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n" title="Protón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Protón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%27%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="প্ৰ'টন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰ'টন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n" title="Protón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Protón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_(fizika)" title="Proton (fizika) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Proton (fizika)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروتون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پروتون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রোটন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রোটন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B4ng-ch%C3%BA" title="Iông-chú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iông-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Пратон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пратон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Пратон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пратон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3" title="Protó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروطون – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پروطون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prooton" title="Prooton – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prooton" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Πρωτόνιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτόνιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n" title="Protón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Protón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protono" title="Protono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Protono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoi" title="Protoi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Protoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروتون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پروتون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B3t%C3%B3n" title="Prótón – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Prótón" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n" title="Protón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Protón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="質子" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%A8" title="પ્રોટોન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પ્રોટોન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%EC%84%B1%EC%9E%90" title="양성자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="양성자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Պրոտոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրոտոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटॉन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रोटॉन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protono" title="Protono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Protono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ii-protons" title="Ii-protons – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ii-protons" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INelesi" title="INelesi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INelesi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3teind" title="Róteind – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Róteind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protone" title="Protone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Protone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="פרוטון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C9%94%C9%94" title="Protɔɔ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Protɔɔ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪ್ರೋಟಾನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ರೋಟಾನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="პროტონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პროტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%9B%DB%86%D9%86" title="برٛۆن – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="برٛۆن" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoni" title="Protoni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Protoni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwoton" title="Pwoton – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pwoton" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99" title="ໂປຣຕອນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໂປຣຕອນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protons" title="Protons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Protons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonas" title="Protonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Protonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obukontanyo(Protons)" title="Obukontanyo(Protons) – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Obukontanyo(Protons)" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prutun" title="Prutun – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Prutun" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटोन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="प्रोटोन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B4t%C3%B4na" title="Prôtôna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Prôtôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="പ്രോട്ടോൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രോട്ടോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटॉन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रोटॉन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9k-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Cék-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Cék-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ပရိုတွန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပရိုတွန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_(deeltje)" title="Proton (deeltje) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Proton (deeltje)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटोन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रोटोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="प्रोटोन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्रोटोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%BD%E5%AD%90" title="陽子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="陽子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protone" title="Protone – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Protone" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%A8" title="ପ୍ରୋଟୋନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପ୍ରୋଟୋନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirootoonii" title="Pirootoonii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Pirootoonii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਪ੍ਰੋਟਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰੋਟਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پروٹان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پروٹان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروټون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پروټون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruotan" title="Pruotan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Pruotan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B3ton" title="Próton – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Próton" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purutun" title="Purutun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Purutun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protone" title="Protone – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Protone" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoni" title="Protoni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Protoni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prutuni" title="Prutuni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Prutuni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රෝටෝනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රෝටෝනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BD%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پروٽان – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پروٽان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%B3n" title="Protón – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Protón" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borotoon" title="Borotoon – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Borotoon" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%86" title="پرۆتۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پرۆتۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoni" title="Protoni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Protoni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="நேர்மின்னி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நேர்மின்னி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aprutun" title="Aprutun – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aprutun" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ప్రోటాన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రోటాన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="โปรตอน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โปรตอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Протон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Протон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروٹون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پروٹون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="پروتون – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پروتون" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proodon" title="Proodon – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Proodon" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="質子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" title="Proton – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Proton" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feppsaal" title="Feppsaal – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Feppsaal" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%90" title="质子 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="质子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9F" title="פראטאן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פראטאן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%B3t%E1%BB%8D%CC%80n%C3%B9" title="Prótọ̀nù – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Prótọ̀nù" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="質子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruotuons" title="Pruotuons – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Pruotuons" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subatomic particle with positive charge</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Proton_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Proton (disambiguation)">Proton (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>"P+" redirects here. For the record label, see <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dawson" title="Jean Dawson">Jean Dawson</a>.</span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_too_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> may be too long</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">length guidelines</a> and help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit">move details into the article's body</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2025</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Proton</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Quark_structure_proton.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/220px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/330px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/440px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="695" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Valence_quark" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence quark">valence quark</a> content of a proton. The <a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">color assignment</a> of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by <a href="/wiki/Gluons" class="mw-redirect" title="Gluons">gluons</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Classification</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryon</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle#Composition" title="Particle">Composition</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2 <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up quarks</a> (u), 1 <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down quark</a> (d)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle_statistics" title="Particle statistics">Statistics</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fermionic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermionic">Fermionic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadron</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Interactions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic interaction">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Symbol</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>N<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <span class="chemf nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticle</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Theorized</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> (1815)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discovered</th><td class="infobox-data">Observed as H<sup>+</sup> by <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein" title="Eugen Goldstein">Eugen Goldstein</a> (1886). Identified in other nuclei (and named) by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1917–1920).</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">Mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6973167262192595000♠"></span>1.672<span style="margin-left:.25em;">621</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">925</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">95</span>(52)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup> kg</span><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mp_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mp-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000100727646657890♠"></span>1.007<span style="margin-left:.25em;">276</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">466</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">5789</span>(83) Da</span><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mpDa_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mpDa-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002938272089430000♠"></span>938.272<span style="margin-left:.25em;">089</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">43</span>(29) <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">MeV/<i>c</i><sup>2</sup></a></span></span><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mpc2MeV_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mpc2MeV-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mean_lifetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean lifetime">Mean lifetime</a></th><td class="infobox-data">> <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7037113607359999999♠"></span>3.6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>29</sup> years</span><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (stable)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6981160217648700000♠"></span>+1 <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge"><i>e</i></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Charge_radius" title="Charge radius">Charge radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6999841400000000000♠"></span>0.8414(19) <a href="/wiki/Femtometre" title="Femtometre">fm</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-CODATA2018_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CODATA2018-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment" title="Electric dipole moment">Electric dipole moment</a></th><td class="infobox-data">< <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6975210000000000000♠"></span>2.1<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−25</sup> <i>e</i>⋅cm</span><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Polarizability#Electric_polarizability" title="Polarizability">Electric polarizability</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997111999999999999♠"></span>0.001<span style="margin-left:.25em;">12</span>(4) fm<sup>3</sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic moment</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6974141060679545000♠"></span>1.410<span style="margin-left:.25em;">606</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">795</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">45</span>(60)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−26</sup> J⋅T<sup>−1</sup></span><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mup_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mup-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997152103220230000♠"></span>0.001<span style="margin-left:.25em;">521</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">032</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">202</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">30</span>(45)</span> <a href="/wiki/Bohr_magneton" title="Bohr magneton"><i>μ</i><sub>B</sub></a><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mupmuB_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mupmuB-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000279284734463000♠"></span>2.792<span style="margin-left:.25em;">847</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">344</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">63</span>(82)</span> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magneton" title="Nuclear magneton"><i>μ</i><sub>N</sub></a><sup id="cite_ref-physconst-mupmuN_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mupmuN-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Polarizability#Magnetic_polarizability" title="Polarizability">Magnetic polarizability</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996190000000000000♠"></span>1.9(5)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> fm<sup>3</sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span> <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant"><i>ħ</i></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Isospin" title="Isospin">Isospin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)" title="Parity (physics)">Parity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">+1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condensed</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Isospin" title="Isospin">I</a></i>(<i><a href="/wiki/Total_angular_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Total angular momentum">J</a></i><sup><i><a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)" title="Parity (physics)">P</a></i></sup>) = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span>(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span><sup>+</sup>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>proton</b> is a stable <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particle</a>, symbol <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Hydron_(chemistry)" title="Hydron (chemistry)">H<sup>+</sup></a>, or <sup>1</sup>H<sup>+</sup> with a positive <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> of +1 <i>e</i> (<a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a>). Its mass is slightly less than the mass of a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> and approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003183600000000000♠"></span>1836</span> times the mass of an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Proton-to-electron_mass_ratio" title="Proton-to-electron mass ratio">proton-to-electron mass ratio</a>). Protons and neutrons, each with a mass of approximately one <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">atomic mass unit</a>, are jointly referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a></i> (particles present in atomic nuclei). </p><p>One or more protons are present in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of every <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>. They provide the attractive electrostatic central force which binds the atomic electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> (represented by the symbol <i>Z</i>). Since each <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus, each element has its own atomic number, which determines the number of atomic electrons and consequently the chemical characteristics of the element. </p><p>The word <i>proton</i> is <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> for "first", and the name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> nucleus (known to be the lightest nucleus) could be extracted from the nuclei of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> by atomic collisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protons were therefore a candidate to be a fundamental or <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particle</a>, and hence a building block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei. </p><p>Although protons were originally considered to be elementary particles, in the modern <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, protons are known to be composite particles, containing three <a href="/wiki/Valence_quark" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence quark">valence quarks</a>, and together with <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> are now classified as <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>. Protons are composed of two <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up quarks</a> of charge +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">2</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span><i>e</i> each, and one <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down quark</a> of charge −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span><i>e</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest masses</a> of quarks contribute only about 1% of a proton's mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Mass_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mass-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remainder of a proton's mass is due to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a>, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the quarks and the energy of the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluon</a> fields that bind the quarks together. The <a href="/wiki/Root_mean_square" title="Root mean square">root mean square</a> <a href="/wiki/Charge_radius" title="Charge radius">charge radius</a> of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 <a href="/wiki/Femtometre" title="Femtometre">fm</a> (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6985100000000000000♠"></span>1 fm</span> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6985100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>−15</sup> m</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-PSI_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PSI-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Antognini2013_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antognini2013-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, two different studies, using different techniques, found this radius to be 0.833 fm, with an uncertainty of ±0.010 fm.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Free protons occur occasionally on Earth: <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> can produce protons with energies of up to several tens of <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kohn2015_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kohn2015-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kohn2017_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kohn2017-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At sufficiently low temperatures and kinetic energies, free protons will bind to <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>. However, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, until it is captured by the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a> of an atom. The result is a diatomic or <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic ion</a> containing hydrogen. In a vacuum, when free electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming a neutral <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">hydrogen atom</a>, which is chemically a <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radical</a>. Such "free hydrogen atoms" tend to react chemically with many other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with each other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules (H<sub>2</sub>), which are the most common molecular component of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular clouds">molecular clouds</a> in <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Free protons are routinely used for accelerators for <a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">proton therapy</a> or various particle physics experiments, with the most powerful example being the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/250px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/330px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/500px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number"><i>Z</i></a><br /></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number"><i>A</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number"><i>N</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess"><i>N</i> − <i>Z</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – <i>Z</i> ↔ <i>N</i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><small>Processes:</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. 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2.2em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle);background-image:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Question%2C_Web_Fundamentals.svg");background-position:top 50%left 0.35em;background-size:1.5em;background-repeat:no-repeat}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .unsolved{clear:right;float:right;max-width:25%}}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-label{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-body{margin:0.35em;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-more{font-size:smaller}</style> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div><span class="unsolved-label" id="unsolved-label-physics">Unsolved problem in physics</span>:</div> <div class="unsolved-body">How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin of protons?</div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics)</a></div> </div> <p>Protons are <a href="/wiki/Spin-%C2%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-½">spin-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span></a> <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a> and are composed of three valence quarks,<sup id="cite_ref-Adair1989_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adair1989-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making them <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryons</a> (a sub-type of <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>). The two <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up quarks</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down quark</a> of a proton are held together by the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong force</a>, mediated by <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cottingham1986_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cottingham1986-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21–22">: 21–22 </span></sup> A modern perspective has a proton composed of the valence quarks (up, up, down), the gluons, and transitory pairs of <a href="/wiki/Sea_quark" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea quark">sea quarks</a>. Protons have a positive charge distribution, which decays approximately exponentially, with a root mean square <a href="/wiki/Charge_radius" title="Charge radius">charge radius</a> of about 0.8 fm.<sup id="cite_ref-Basdevant2005_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basdevant2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protons and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> are both <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>, which may be bound together by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>. The nucleus of the most common <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">hydrogen atom</a> (with the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">chemical symbol</a> "H") is a lone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long period. As early as 1815, <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms (which he called "protyles"), based on a simplistic interpretation of early values of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weights</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis" title="Prout's hypothesis">Prout's hypothesis</a>), which was disproved when more accurate values were measured.<sup id="cite_ref-Lecturer2006_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lecturer2006-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39–42">: 39–42 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_1911_Solvay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Rutherford_1911_Solvay.jpg/150px-Rutherford_1911_Solvay.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Rutherford_1911_Solvay.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="212" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> at the first <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference</a>, 1911</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proton_detected_in_an_isopropanol_cloud_chamber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Proton_detected_in_an_isopropanol_cloud_chamber.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="80" data-file-height="80" /></a><figcaption>Proton detected in an <a href="/wiki/Isopropanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopropanol">isopropanol</a> <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chamber</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1886, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein" title="Eugen Goldstein">Eugen Goldstein</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Canal_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Canal rays">canal rays</a> (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases had different values of <a href="/wiki/Charge-to-mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge-to-mass ratio">charge-to-mass ratio</a> (<i>q</i>/<i>m</i>), they could not be identified with a single particle, unlike the negative <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> discovered by <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wilhelm Wien</a> in 1898 identified the hydrogen ion as the particle with the highest charge-to-mass ratio in ionized gases.<sup id="cite_ref-Wien1904_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wien1904-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> in 1911, <a href="/wiki/Antonius_van_den_Broek" title="Antonius van den Broek">Antonius van den Broek</a> proposed that the place of each element in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> (its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear charge. This was confirmed experimentally by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> in 1913 using <a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray spectra</a> (More details in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a> under Moseley's 1913 experiment). </p><p>In 1917, Rutherford performed experiments (reported in 1919 and 1925) which proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of protons.<sup id="cite_ref-Petrucci2002_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petrucci2002-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These experiments began after Rutherford observed that when <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a> would strike air, Rutherford could detect scintillation on a <a href="/wiki/Zinc_sulfide" title="Zinc sulfide">zinc sulfide</a> screen produced at a distance well beyond the distance of alpha-particle range of travel but instead corresponding to the range of travel of hydrogen atoms (protons).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After experimentation, Rutherford traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air and found that when alpha particles were introduced into pure nitrogen gas, the effect was larger. In 1919, Rutherford assumed that the alpha particle merely knocked a proton out of nitrogen, turning it into carbon. After observing Blackett's cloud chamber images in 1925, Rutherford realized that the alpha particle was absorbed. If the alpha particle were not absorbed, then it would knock a proton off of nitrogen creating 3 charged particles (a negatively charged carbon, a proton, and an alpha particle). It can be shown<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the 3 charged particles would create three tracks in the cloud chamber, but instead only 2 tracks in the cloud chamber were observed. The alpha particle is absorbed by the nitrogen atom. After capture of the alpha particle, a hydrogen nucleus is ejected, creating a net result of 2 charged particles (a proton and a positively charged oxygen) which make 2 tracks in the cloud chamber. Heavy oxygen (<sup>17</sup>O), not carbon or fluorine, is the product. This was the first reported <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap"><sup class="template-chem2-sup">14</sup>N + α → <sup class="template-chem2-sup">17</sup>O + p</span>. Rutherford at first thought of our modern "p" in this equation as a hydrogen ion, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span>. </p><p>Depending on one's perspective, either 1919 (when it was seen experimentally as derived from another source than hydrogen) or 1920 (when it was recognized and proposed as an elementary particle) may be regarded as the moment when the proton was 'discovered'. </p><p>Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the simplest and lightest element and was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Prout%27s_hypothesis" title="Prout's hypothesis">Prout's hypothesis</a> that hydrogen was the building block of all elements. Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei as an elementary particle led Rutherford to give the hydrogen nucleus <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span> a special name as a particle, since he suspected that hydrogen, the lightest element, contained only one of these particles. He named this new fundamental building block of the nucleus the <i>proton</i>, after the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πρῶτον</span></span>. However, Rutherford also had in mind the word <i>protyle</i> as used by Prout. Rutherford spoke at the <a href="/wiki/British_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association for the Advancement of Science">British Association for the Advancement of Science</a> at its <a href="/wiki/Cardiff" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> meeting beginning 24 August 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureScience_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureScience-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the meeting, he was asked by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with the neutral hydrogen atom. He initially suggested both <i>proton</i> and <i>prouton</i> (after Prout).<sup id="cite_ref-Romer1997_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romer1997-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rutherford later reported that the meeting had accepted his suggestion that the hydrogen nucleus be named the "proton", following Prout's word "protyle".<sup id="cite_ref-Footnote_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Footnote-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first use of the word "proton" in the scientific literature appeared in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pais1986_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pais1986-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One or more bound protons are present in the nucleus of every atom. Free protons are found naturally in a number of situations in which energies or temperatures are high enough to separate them from electrons, for which they have some affinity. Free protons exist in <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a> in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebeling2021_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebeling2021-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, which propagate through the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-goddard-2012_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goddard-2012-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free protons are <a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">emitted directly</a> from <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a> in some rare types of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protons also result (along with electrons and <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrinos</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Free_neutron_decay" title="Free neutron decay">radioactive decay of free neutrons</a>, which are unstable.<sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez-2021_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez-2021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stability">Stability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Stability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1233989161" /> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div><span class="unsolved-label" id="unsolved-label-physics">Unsolved problem in physics</span>:</div> <div class="unsolved-body">Are protons fundamentally stable? Or do they decay with a finite lifetime as predicted by some extensions to the standard model?</div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics)</a></div> </div> <p>The spontaneous decay of free protons has never been observed, and protons are therefore considered stable particles according to the Standard Model. However, some <a href="/wiki/Grand_unified_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unified theory">grand unified theories</a> (GUTs) of particle physics predict that <a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">proton decay</a> should take place with lifetimes between 10<sup>31</sup> and 10<sup>36</sup> years. Experimental searches have established lower bounds on the <a href="/wiki/Mean_lifetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean lifetime">mean lifetime</a> of a proton for various assumed decay products.<sup id="cite_ref-Bucella1989_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bucella1989-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee1995_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee1995-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kamioka_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamioka-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiments at the <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton <a href="/wiki/Mean_lifetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean lifetime">mean lifetime</a> of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041208280159999999♠"></span>6.6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>33</sup> years</span> for decay to an <a href="/wiki/Antimuon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimuon">antimuon</a> and a neutral <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a>, and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7041258772319999999♠"></span>8.2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>33</sup> years</span> for decay to a <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> and a neutral pion.<sup id="cite_ref-Nishino2009_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nishino2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another experiment at the <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a> in Canada searched for <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> resulting from residual nuclei resulting from the decay of a proton from oxygen-16. This experiment was designed to detect decay to any product, and established a lower limit to a proton lifetime of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7036662709600000000♠"></span>2.1<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>29</sup> years</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed2004_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed2004-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, protons are known to transform into <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> through the process of <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Inverse_beta_decay" title="Inverse beta decay">inverse beta decay</a>). For free protons, this process does not occur spontaneously but only when energy is supplied. The equation is: </p> <dl><dd><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></a></span></dd></dl> <p>The process is reversible; neutrons can convert back to protons through <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, a common form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>. In fact, a <a href="/wiki/Free_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Free neutron">free neutron</a> decays this way, with a <a href="/wiki/Mean_lifetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean lifetime">mean lifetime</a> of about 15 minutes. A proton can also transform into a neutron through <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">beta plus decay</a> (β+ decay). </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>, the mean proper lifetime of protons <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aba67c1e81ab0679738eb51bfb7c62c7832951b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.162ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}" /></span> becomes finite when they are accelerating with <a href="/wiki/Proper_acceleration" title="Proper acceleration">proper acceleration</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" /></span>, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aba67c1e81ab0679738eb51bfb7c62c7832951b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.162ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}" /></span> decreases with increasing <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" /></span>. Acceleration gives rise to a <a href="/wiki/S-matrix" title="S-matrix">non-vanishing probability</a> for the transition <span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></span></span>. This was a matter of concern in the later 1990s because <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aba67c1e81ab0679738eb51bfb7c62c7832951b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.162ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}" /></span> is a scalar that can be measured by the inertial and <a href="/wiki/Rindler_coordinates" title="Rindler coordinates">coaccelerated observers</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">inertial frame</a>, the accelerating proton should decay according to the formula above. However, according to the coaccelerated observer the proton is at rest and hence should not decay. This puzzle is solved by realizing that in the coaccelerated frame there is a thermal bath due to <a href="/wiki/Unruh_effect" title="Unruh effect">Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect</a>, an intrinsic effect of quantum field theory. In this thermal bath, experienced by the proton, there are electrons and antineutrinos with which the proton may interact according to the processes: </p> <ol><li><span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></span>,</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></span> and</li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>p<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> + <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> → <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>n<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span></span>.</li></ol> <p>Adding the contributions of each of these processes, one should obtain <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aba67c1e81ab0679738eb51bfb7c62c7832951b0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.162ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }}" /></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quarks_and_the_mass_of_a_proton">Quarks and the mass of a proton</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Quarks and the mass of a proton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">quantum chromodynamics</a>, the modern theory of the nuclear force, most of the mass of protons and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> is explained by <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>. The mass of a proton is about 80–100 times greater than the sum of the rest masses of its three valence <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a> have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a> in a proton, as compared to the rest energy of the quarks alone in the <a href="/wiki/QCD_vacuum" title="QCD vacuum">QCD vacuum</a>, accounts for almost 99% of the proton's mass. The rest mass of a proton is, thus, the <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</a> of the system of moving quarks and gluons that make up the particle, and, in such systems, even the energy of massless particles confined to a system is <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence#Composite_systems" title="Mass–energy equivalence">still measured</a> as part of the rest mass of the system. </p><p>Two terms are used in referring to the mass of the quarks that make up protons: <i><a href="/wiki/Current_quark" title="Current quark">current quark</a> mass</i> refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while <i><a href="/wiki/Constituent_quark" title="Constituent quark">constituent quark</a> mass</i> refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluon</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">particle field</a> surrounding the quark.<sup id="cite_ref-Waston2004_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waston2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 285–286">: 285–286 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith2003_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2003-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150–151">: 150–151 </span></sup> These masses typically have very different values. The kinetic energy of the quarks that is a consequence of confinement is a contribution (see <i><a href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">Mass in special relativity</a></i>). Using <a href="/wiki/Lattice_QCD" title="Lattice QCD">lattice QCD</a> calculations, the contributions to the mass of the proton are the quark condensate (~9%, comprising the up and down quarks and a sea of virtual strange quarks), the quark kinetic energy (~32%), the gluon kinetic energy (~37%), and the anomalous gluonic contribution (~23%, comprising contributions from condensates of all quark flavors).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constituent quark model wavefunction for the proton is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {|p_{\uparrow }\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {18}}}\left(2|u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle +2|u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }\rangle +2|d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle \right)} .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msqrt> <mn>18</mn> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↓</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">u</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {|p_{\uparrow }\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {18}}}\left(2|u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle +2|u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }\rangle +2|d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle \right)} .}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1b2a951b566a7a37c81aca4dcb3b9c76bf935f6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:117.225ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {|p_{\uparrow }\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {18}}}\left(2|u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle +2|u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }\rangle +2|d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle \right)} .}" /></span> </p><p>The internal dynamics of protons are complicated, because they are determined by the quarks' exchanging gluons, and interacting with various vacuum condensates. <a href="/wiki/Lattice_QCD" title="Lattice QCD">Lattice QCD</a> provides a way of calculating the mass of a proton directly from the theory to any accuracy, in principle. The most recent calculations<sup id="cite_ref-SMAnswers_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SMAnswers-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fodor2008_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fodor2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claim that the mass is determined to better than 4% accuracy, even to 1% accuracy (see Figure S5 in Dürr <i>et al.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Fodor2008_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fodor2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). These claims are still controversial, because the calculations cannot yet be done with quarks as light as they are in the real world. This means that the predictions are found by a process of <a href="/wiki/Extrapolation" title="Extrapolation">extrapolation</a>, which can introduce systematic errors.<sup id="cite_ref-Perdrisat2007_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perdrisat2007-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is hard to tell whether these errors are controlled properly, because the quantities that are compared to experiment are the masses of the <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>, which are known in advance. </p><p>These recent calculations are performed by massive supercomputers, and, as noted by Boffi and Pasquini: "a detailed description of the nucleon structure is still missing because ... long-distance behavior requires a nonperturbative and/or numerical treatment ..."<sup id="cite_ref-Boffi2007_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boffi2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More conceptual approaches to the structure of protons are: the <a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">topological soliton</a> approach originally due to <a href="/wiki/Tony_Skyrme" title="Tony Skyrme">Tony Skyrme</a> and the more accurate <a href="/wiki/AdS/QCD" class="mw-redirect" title="AdS/QCD">AdS/QCD approach</a> that extends it to include a <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a> of gluons,<sup id="cite_ref-Erlich2008_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erlich2008-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> various QCD-inspired models like the <a href="/wiki/Bag_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Bag model">bag model</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Constituent_quark" title="Constituent quark">constituent quark</a> model, which were popular in the 1980s, and the <a href="/wiki/SVZ_sum_rules" class="mw-redirect" title="SVZ sum rules">SVZ sum rules</a>, which allow for rough approximate mass calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-Calangelo2000_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calangelo2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods do not have the same accuracy as the more brute-force lattice QCD methods, at least not yet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Charge_radius">Charge radius</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Charge radius"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proton_radius_puzzle" title="Proton radius puzzle">Proton radius puzzle</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/CODATA" class="mw-redirect" title="CODATA">CODATA</a> recommended value of a proton's <a href="/wiki/Charge_radius" title="Charge radius">charge radius</a> is <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6984840750000000000♠"></span>8.4075(64)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−16</sup> m</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-physconst-rp_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-rp-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The radius of the proton is defined by a formula that can be calculated by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a> and be derived from either atomic spectroscopy or by electron–proton scattering. The formula involves a form-factor related to the two-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Parton_(particle_physics)" title="Parton (particle physics)">parton</a> diameter of the proton.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A value from before 2010 is based on scattering electrons from protons followed by complex calculation involving scattering cross section based on <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Rosenbluth</a> equation for <a href="/wiki/Momentum-transfer_cross_section" title="Momentum-transfer cross section">momentum-transfer cross section</a>), and based on studies of the atomic <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy levels</a> of hydrogen and deuterium. In 2010 an international research team published a proton charge radius measurement via the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a> in muonic hydrogen (an <a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">exotic atom</a> made of a proton and a negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a>). As a muon is 200 times heavier than an electron, resulting in a smaller <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbital</a>, it is much more sensitive to the proton's charge radius and thus allows a more precise measurement.<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl2010_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent improved scattering and electron-spectroscopy measurements agree with the new small radius. Work continues to refine and check this new value.<sup id="cite_ref-KarrReview_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KarrReview-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure_inside_the_proton">Pressure inside the proton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pressure inside the proton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the proton is composed of quarks confined by gluons, an equivalent <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> that acts on the quarks can be defined. The size of that pressure and other details about it are controversial. </p><p>In 2018 this pressure was reported to be on the order 10<sup>35</sup> Pa, which is greater than the pressure inside a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a>. It was said to be maximum at the centre, positive (repulsive) to a radial distance of about 0.6 fm, negative (attractive) at greater distances, and very weak beyond about 2 fm. These numbers were derived by a combination of a theoretical model and experimental <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a> of high-energy electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkert2018_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkert2018-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these results have been challenged as also being consistent with zero pressure<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as effectively providing the pressure profile shape by selection of the model.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charge_radius_in_solvated_proton,_hydronium"><span id="Charge_radius_in_solvated_proton.2C_hydronium"></span>Charge radius in solvated proton, hydronium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Charge radius in solvated proton, hydronium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The radius of the hydrated proton appears in the <a href="/wiki/Born_equation" title="Born equation">Born equation</a> for calculating the hydration enthalpy of <a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaction_of_free_protons_with_ordinary_matter">Interaction of free protons with ordinary matter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interaction of free protons with ordinary matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although protons have affinity for oppositely charged electrons, this is a relatively low-energy interaction and so free protons must lose sufficient velocity (and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>) in order to become closely associated and bound to electrons. High energy protons, in traversing ordinary matter, lose energy by collisions with <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>, and by <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> of atoms (removing electrons) until they are slowed sufficiently to be captured by the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a> in a normal atom. </p><p>However, in such an association with an electron, the character of the bound proton is not changed, and it remains a proton. The attraction of low-energy free protons to any electrons present in normal matter (such as the electrons in normal atoms) causes free protons to stop and to form a new chemical bond with an atom. Such a bond happens at any sufficiently "cold" temperature (that is, comparable to temperatures at the surface of the Sun) and with any type of atom. Thus, in interaction with any type of normal (non-plasma) matter, low-velocity free protons do not remain free but are attracted to electrons in any atom or molecule with which they come into contact, causing the proton and molecule to combine. Such molecules are then said to be "<a href="/wiki/Protonated" class="mw-redirect" title="Protonated">protonated</a>", and chemically they are simply compounds of hydrogen, often positively charged. Often, as a result, they become so-called <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Brønsted acid">Brønsted acids</a>. For example, a proton captured by a water molecule in water becomes <a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aqueous" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueous">aqueous</a> <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cation</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>O<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proton_in_chemistry">Proton in chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proton in chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_number">Atomic number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Atomic number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, the number of protons in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of an atom is known as the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>, which determines the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> to which the atom belongs. For example, the atomic number of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> is 17; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms. The chemical properties of each atom are determined by the number of (negatively charged) <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of (positive) protons so that the total charge is zero. For example, a neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons, whereas a Cl<sup>−</sup> <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</a> has 17 protons and 18 electrons for a total charge of −1. </p><p>All atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical, however. The <a href="/wiki/Number_of_neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Number of neutrons">number of neutrons</a> may vary to form different <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>, and energy levels may differ, resulting in different <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">nuclear isomers</a>. For example, there are two stable <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_chlorine" title="Isotopes of chlorine">isotopes of chlorine</a>: <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">35</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">17</sub></span></span>Cl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> with 35 − 17 = 18 neutrons and <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">37</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">17</sub></span></span>Cl<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> with 37 − 17 = 20 neutrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen_ion">Hydrogen ion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hydrogen ion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hydron_(chemistry)" title="Hydron (chemistry)">Hydron (chemistry)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hydrogen.svg/220px-Hydrogen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hydrogen.svg/330px-Hydrogen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Hydrogen.svg/440px-Hydrogen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron (it has no neutrons). The term <i>hydrogen ion</i> (<span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>) implies that that H-atom has lost its one electron, causing only a proton to remain. Thus, in chemistry, the terms <i>proton</i> and <i>hydrogen ion</i> (for the protium isotope) are used synonymously.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:20%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The proton is a unique chemical species, being a bare nucleus. As a consequence it has no independent existence in the condensed state and is invariably found bound by a pair of electrons to another atom. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">Ross Stewart, <i>The Proton: Application to Organic Chemistry</i> (1985, p. 1)</cite></div> </div> <p>In chemistry, the term <i>proton</i> refers to the hydrogen ion, <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span>. Since the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, a hydrogen ion has no electrons and corresponds to a bare nucleus, consisting of a proton (and 0 neutrons for the most abundant isotope <i>protium</i> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-1"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">1</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></a></span>). The proton is a "bare charge" with only about 1/64,000 of the radius of a hydrogen atom, and so is extremely reactive chemically. The free proton, thus, has an extremely short lifetime in chemical systems such as liquids and it reacts immediately with the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a> of any available molecule. In aqueous solution, it forms the <a href="/wiki/Hydronium_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydronium ion">hydronium ion</a>, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>, which in turn is further <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvated</a> by water molecules in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion#Cation_(positively_charged)" title="Hydrogen ion">clusters</a> such as [H<sub>5</sub>O<sub>2</sub>]<sup>+</sup> and [H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>]<sup>+</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-Headrick2005_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Headrick2005-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The transfer of <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> in an <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theory" title="Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory">acid–base reaction</a> is usually referred to as "proton transfer". The <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a> is referred to as a proton donor and the <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> as a proton acceptor. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> terms such as <i><a href="/wiki/Proton_pump" title="Proton pump">proton pump</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Proton_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton channel">proton channel</a></i> refer to the movement of hydrated <span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> ions. </p><p>The ion produced by removing the electron from a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> atom is known as a <i>deuteron</i>, not a proton. Likewise, removing an electron from a <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> atom produces a <i>triton</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proton_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)"><span id="Proton_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_.28NMR.29"></span>Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also in chemistry, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Proton_NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton NMR">proton NMR</a></i> refers to the observation of hydrogen-1 nuclei in (mostly <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a>) molecules by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a>. This method uses the <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(physics)" title="Quantization (physics)">quantized</a> <a href="/wiki/Spin_magnetic_moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin magnetic moment">spin magnetic moment</a> of the proton, which is due to its angular momentum (or <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>), which in turn has a magnitude of one-half the reduced <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>. (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar /2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar /2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74e0713309590b82aed3a8247c30cfdeae9f456b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.631ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar /2}" /></span>). The name refers to examination of protons as they occur in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-1">protium</a> (hydrogen-1 atoms) in compounds, and does not imply that free protons exist in the compound being studied. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_exposure">Human exposure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Human exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton therapy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Surface_Experiments_Package" title="Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package">Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages</a> (ALSEP) determined that more than 95% of the particles in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> are electrons and protons, in approximately equal numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-LPI2009_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LPI2009-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BNL2007_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BNL2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Because the Solar Wind <a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">Spectrometer</a> made continuous measurements, it was possible to measure how the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> affects arriving solar wind particles. For about two-thirds of each orbit, the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> is outside of the Earth's magnetic field. At these times, a typical proton density was 10 to 20 per cubic centimeter, with most protons having velocities between 400 and 650 kilometers per second. For about five days of each month, the Moon is inside the Earth's geomagnetic tail, and typically no solar wind particles were detectable. For the remainder of each lunar orbit, the Moon is in a transitional region known as the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">magnetosheath</a>, where the Earth's magnetic field affects the solar wind, but does not completely exclude it. In this region, the particle flux is reduced, with typical proton velocities of 250 to 450 kilometers per second. During the lunar night, the spectrometer was shielded from the solar wind by the Moon and no solar wind particles were measured.<sup id="cite_ref-LPI2009_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LPI2009-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Protons also have extrasolar origin from galactic <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, where they make up about 90% of the total particle flux. These protons often have higher energy than solar wind protons, and their intensity is far more uniform and less variable than protons coming from the Sun, the production of which is heavily affected by <a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">solar proton events</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejections</a>. </p><p>Research has been performed on the dose-rate effects of protons, as typically found in <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">space travel</a>, on human health.<sup id="cite_ref-BNL2007_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BNL2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shukitt-Hale_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shukitt-Hale-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To be more specific, there are hopes to identify what specific chromosomes are damaged, and to define the damage, during <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> development from proton exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-BNL2007_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BNL2007-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study looks into determining "the effects of exposure to proton irradiation on neurochemical and behavioral endpoints, including <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic" title="Dopaminergic">dopaminergic</a> functioning, <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a>-induced conditioned taste aversion learning, and spatial learning and memory as measured by the <a href="/wiki/Morris_water_maze" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris water maze">Morris water maze</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shukitt-Hale_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shukitt-Hale-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrical charging of a spacecraft due to interplanetary proton bombardment has also been proposed for study.<sup id="cite_ref-Green2006_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green2006-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many more studies that pertain to space travel, including <a href="/wiki/Galactic_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Galactic cosmic rays">galactic cosmic rays</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">possible health effects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">solar proton event</a> exposure. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/STS-65#Mission_parameters" title="STS-65">American Biostack and Soviet Biorack</a> space travel experiments have demonstrated the severity of molecular damage induced by heavy ions on <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> including <a href="/wiki/Artemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artemia">Artemia</a> cysts.<sup id="cite_ref-Planel2004_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Planel2004-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiproton">Antiproton</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Antiproton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/CPT-symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="CPT-symmetry">CPT-symmetry</a> puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticles</a> and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. For example, the charges of a proton and antiproton must sum to exactly zero. This equality has been tested to one part in <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7008100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>8</sup></span>. The equality of their masses has also been tested to better than one part in <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7008100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>8</sup></span>. By holding antiprotons in a <a href="/wiki/Penning_trap" title="Penning trap">Penning trap</a>, the equality of the charge-to-mass ratio of protons and antiprotons has been tested to one part in <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7009600000000000000♠"></span>6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>9</sup></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gabrielse2006_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gabrielse2006-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> of antiprotons has been measured with an error of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997800000000000000♠"></span>8<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−3</sup></span> nuclear <a href="/wiki/Bohr_magneton" title="Bohr magneton">Bohr magnetons</a>, and is found to be equal and opposite to that of a proton.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mp-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mp_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mp">"2022 CODATA Value: proton mass"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+proton+mass&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mpDa-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mpDa_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpu">"2022 CODATA Value: proton mass in u"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+proton+mass+in+u&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmpu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mpc2MeV-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mpc2MeV_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpc2mev">"2022 CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. 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(2019-02-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.99.032008">"Search for invisible le modes of nucleon decay in water with the SNO+ detector"</a>. <i>Physical Review D</i>. <b>99</b> (3): 032008. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.05552">1812.05552</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PhRvD..99c2008A">2019PhRvD..99c2008A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.99.032008">10.1103/PhysRevD.99.032008</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96457175">96457175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Search+for+invisible+le+modes+of+nucleon+decay+in+water+with+the+SNO%2B+detector&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=032008&rft.date=2019-02-20&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1812.05552&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96457175%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.99.032008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PhRvD..99c2008A&rft.au=The+SNO%2B+Collaboration&rft.au=Anderson%2C+M.&rft.au=Andringa%2C+S.&rft.au=Arushanova%2C+E.&rft.au=Asahi%2C+S.&rft.au=Askins%2C+M.&rft.au=Auty%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Back%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Barnard%2C+Z.&rft.au=Barros%2C+N.&rft.au=Bartlett%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.99.032008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CODATA2018-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CODATA2018_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"2018 CODATA recommended values"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180122130230/https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2017-01-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.95.013002">"Improved limits on the hadronic and semihadronic $CP$ violating parameters and role of a dark force carrier in the electric dipole moment of $^{199}\mathrm{Hg}$"</a>. <i>Physical Review D</i>. <b>95</b> (1): 013002. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.09371">1612.09371</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.95.013002">10.1103/PhysRevD.95.013002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119344894">119344894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Improved+limits+on+the+hadronic+and+semihadronic+%24CP%24+violating+parameters+and+role+of+a+dark+force+carrier+in+the+electric+dipole+moment+of+%24%5E%7B199%7D%5Cmathrm%7BHg%7D%24&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=013002&rft.date=2017-01-17&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1612.09371&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119344894%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.95.013002&rft.aulast=Sahoo&rft.aufirst=B.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.95.013002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mup-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mup_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mup">"2022 CODATA Value: proton magnetic moment"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+proton+magnetic+moment&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mupmuB-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mupmuB_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mupsmub">"2022 CODATA Value: proton magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00hill/page/41">41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-033445-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-033445-9"><bdi>978-0-13-033445-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Chemistry&rft.pages=41&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.+%3A+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-13-033445-9&rft.aulast=Petrucci&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rft.au=Harwood%2C+W.+S.&rft.au=Herring%2C+F.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralchemistry00hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/rutherford">"How Rutherford detects proton and life of Rutherford"</a>. <i>ScienceDirect</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231205185436/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/rutherford">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDirect&rft.atitle=How+Rutherford+detects+proton+and+life+of+Rutherford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fmathematics%2Frutherford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1925.0029">"Blackett's cloud chamber"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character</i>. <b>107</b> (742): <span class="nowrap">349–</span>360. 2 February 1925. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1925.0029">10.1098/rspa.1925.0029</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+A%2C+Containing+Papers+of+a+Mathematical+and+Physical+Character&rft.atitle=Blackett%27s+cloud+chamber&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=742&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E349-%3C%2Fspan%3E360&rft.date=1925-02-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1925.0029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1925.0029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatureScience-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NatureScience_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v105/n2651/abs/105780a0.html">meeting report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170318033543/http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v105/n2651/abs/105780a0.html">Archived</a> 2017-03-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.51.1330.627.a">announcement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221019190517/https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.51.1330.627.a">Archived</a> 2022-10-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romer1997-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Romer1997_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRomer_A1997" class="citation journal cs1">Romer A (1997). "Proton or prouton? Rutherford and the depths of the atom". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics" title="American Journal of Physics">American Journal of Physics</a></i>. <b>65</b> (8): 707. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997AmJPh..65..707R">1997AmJPh..65..707R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.18640">10.1119/1.18640</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Proton+or+prouton%3F+Rutherford+and+the+depths+of+the+atom&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=707&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.18640&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997AmJPh..65..707R&rft.au=Romer+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Footnote-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Footnote_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rutherford reported acceptance by the <i>British Association</i> in a footnote to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasson1921" class="citation journal cs1">Masson, O. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1430963">"XXIV. The constitution of atoms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Magazine" title="Philosophical Magazine">Philosophical Magazine</a></i>. Series 6. <b>41</b> (242): <span class="nowrap">281–</span>285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786442108636219">10.1080/14786442108636219</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190621193214/https://zenodo.org/record/1430963">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-06-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=XXIV.+The+constitution+of+atoms&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=242&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E285&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786442108636219&rft.aulast=Masson&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1430963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">OED<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-proton" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=proton">"proton"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=proton&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dproton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pais1986-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pais1986_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPais1986" class="citation book cs1">Pais, A. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0"><i>Inward Bound</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/296">296</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-851997-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-851997-4"><bdi>0-19-851997-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inward+Bound&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-19-851997-4&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finwardboundofmat00pais_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span> Pais believed the first science literature use of the word <i>proton</i> occurs in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F106357a0">"Physics at the British Association"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>106</b> (2663): <span class="nowrap">357–</span>358. 1920. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1920Natur.106..357.">1920Natur.106..357.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F106357a0">10.1038/106357a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Physics+at+the+British+Association&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=2663&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E358&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F106357a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1920Natur.106..357.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F106357a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebeling2021-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ebeling2021_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEbelingReinholzRöpke2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ebeling, W.; Reinholz, H.; Röpke, G. (2021). "Equation of state of hydrogen, helium, and solar plasmas". <i>Contributions to Plasma Physics</i>. <b>61</b> (10). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021CoPP...61E0085E">2021CoPP...61E0085E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fctpp.202100085">10.1002/ctpp.202100085</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Plasma+Physics&rft.atitle=Equation+of+state+of+hydrogen%2C+helium%2C+and+solar+plasmas&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=10&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fctpp.202100085&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021CoPP...61E0085E&rft.aulast=Ebeling&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Reinholz%2C+H.&rft.au=R%C3%B6pke%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goddard-2012-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-goddard-2012_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028154200/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/cosmic_rays.html">"What are cosmic rays?"</a>. Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/cosmic_rays.html">the original</a> on 28 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+are+cosmic+rays%3F&rft.pub=NASA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Fscience%2Fknow_l1%2Fcosmic_rays.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080140/http://certificate.ulo.ucl.ac.uk/modules/year_one/NASA_GSFC/goddard/imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/cosmic_rays.html">"mirror copy, also archived"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://certificate.ulo.ucl.ac.uk/modules/year_one/NASA_GSFC/goddard/imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/cosmic_rays.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=mirror+copy%2C+also+archived&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcertificate.ulo.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmodules%2Fyear_one%2FNASA_GSFC%2Fgoddard%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Fscience%2Fknow_l2%2Fcosmic_rays.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPoenaruRebelWentz2001" class="citation book cs1">Poenaru, Dorin N.; Rebel, Heinigerd; Wentz, Jürgen, eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-010-0708-5"><i>Nuclei Far from Stability and Astrophysics</i></a>. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. <span class="nowrap">79–</span>81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-0708-5">10.1007/978-94-010-0708-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6937-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6937-0"><bdi>978-0-7923-6937-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclei+Far+from+Stability+and+Astrophysics&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-0708-5&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-6937-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-94-010-0708-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonzalez-2021-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gonzalez-2021_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUCNτ_CollaborationGonzalezFriesCude-Woods2021" class="citation journal cs1">UCNτ Collaboration; Gonzalez, F. M.; Fries, E. M.; Cude-Woods, C.; Bailey, T.; Blatnik, M.; Broussard, L. J.; Callahan, N. B.; Choi, J. H.; Clayton, S. M.; Currie, S. A. (2021-10-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10304438">"Improved Neutron Lifetime Measurement with UCNτ"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>127</b> (16): 162501. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.10375">2106.10375</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PhRvL.127p2501G">2021PhRvL.127p2501G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.127.162501">10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.162501</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34723594">34723594</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235490073">235490073</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240401134040/https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10304438">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1989). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Decay+of+protons+and+neutrons+induced+by+acceleration&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=094004&rft.date=1999-03-16&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11449%2F65768&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2646123%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PhRvD..59i4004M&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fgr-qc%2F9901008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.59.094004&rft.aulast=Matsas&rft.aufirst=George+E.+A.&rft.au=Vanzella%2C+Daniel+A.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.59.094004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVanzellaMatsas2000" class="citation journal cs1">Vanzella, Daniel A. T.; Matsas, George E. A. (2000-12-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevD.63.014010">"Weak decay of uniformly accelerated protons and related processes"</a>. <i>Physical Review D</i>. <b>63</b> (1): 014010. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0002010">hep-ph/0002010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhRvD..63a4010V">2000PhRvD..63a4010V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.63.014010">10.1103/PhysRevD.63.014010</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11449%2F66417">11449/66417</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12735961">12735961</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231230134615/https://journals.aps.org/prd/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevD.63.014010">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-12-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Weak+decay+of+uniformly+accelerated+protons+and+related+processes&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=014010&rft.date=2000-12-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11449%2F66417&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12735961%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhRvD..63a4010V&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0002010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.63.014010&rft.aulast=Vanzella&rft.aufirst=Daniel+A.+T.&rft.au=Matsas%2C+George+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.63.014010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatsasVanzella2002" class="citation journal cs1">Matsas, George E. A.; Vanzella, Daniel a. T. (2002-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S0218271802002918">"The fulling–davies–unruh effect is mandatory: the proton's testimony"</a>. <i>International Journal of Modern Physics D</i>. <b>11</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1573–</span>1577. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0205078">gr-qc/0205078</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218271802002918">10.1142/S0218271802002918</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0218-2718">0218-2718</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16555072">16555072</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220724015304/https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S0218271802002918">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+D&rft.atitle=The+fulling%E2%80%93davies%E2%80%93unruh+effect+is+mandatory%3A+the+proton%27s+testimony&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1573-%3C%2Fspan%3E1577&rft.date=2002-12-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fgr-qc%2F0205078&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16555072%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0218-2718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218271802002918&rft.aulast=Matsas&rft.aufirst=George+E.+A.&rft.au=Vanzella%2C+Daniel+a.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldscientific.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1142%2FS0218271802002918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waston2004-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waston2004_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatson2004" class="citation book cs1">Watson, A. (2004). <i>The Quantum Quark</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">285–</span>286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82907-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82907-6"><bdi>978-0-521-82907-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Quark&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E285-%3C%2Fspan%3E286&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82907-6&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith2003-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smith2003_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith2003" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Timothy Paul (2003). <i>Hidden Worlds: Hunting for Quarks in Ordinary Matter</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003hwhq.book.....S">2003hwhq.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05773-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05773-6"><bdi>978-0-691-05773-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hidden+Worlds%3A+Hunting+for+Quarks+in+Ordinary+Matter&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003hwhq.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05773-6&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Timothy+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndré_Walker-Loud2018" class="citation magazine cs1">André Walker-Loud (19 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.aps.org/articles/v11/118">"Dissecting the Mass of the Proton"</a>. <i>Physics</i>. Vol. 11. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PhyOJ..11..118W">2018PhyOJ..11..118W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysics.11.118">10.1103/Physics.11.118</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210605002635/https://physics.aps.org/articles/v11/118">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics&rft.atitle=Dissecting+the+Mass+of+the+Proton&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=118&rft.date=2018-11-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysics.11.118&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PhyOJ..11..118W&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9+Walker-Loud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.aps.org%2Farticles%2Fv11%2F118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SMAnswers-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SMAnswers_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/38788/title/Standard_model_gets_right_answer_for_proton,_neutron_masses">this news report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416132731/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/38788/title/Standard_model_gets_right_answer_for_proton,_neutron_masses">Archived</a> 2009-04-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and links</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fodor2008-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fodor2008_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fodor2008_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurrFodorFrisonHoelbling2008" class="citation journal cs1">Durr, S.; Fodor, Z.; Frison, J.; Hoelbling, C.; Hoffmann, R.; Katz, S.D.; Krieg, S.; Kurth, T.; Lellouch, L.; Lippert, T.; Szabo, K.K.; Vulvert, G. (2008). "Ab Initio Determination of Light Hadron Masses". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>322</b> (5905): <span class="nowrap">1224–</span>1227. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0906.3599">0906.3599</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...322.1224D">2008Sci...322.1224D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.249.2858">10.1.1.249.2858</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1163233">10.1126/science.1163233</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19023076">19023076</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14225402">14225402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ab+Initio+Determination+of+Light+Hadron+Masses&rft.volume=322&rft.issue=5905&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1224-%3C%2Fspan%3E1227&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14225402%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Sci...322.1224D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.249.2858%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19023076&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1163233&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0906.3599&rft.aulast=Durr&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Fodor%2C+Z.&rft.au=Frison%2C+J.&rft.au=Hoelbling%2C+C.&rft.au=Hoffmann%2C+R.&rft.au=Katz%2C+S.D.&rft.au=Krieg%2C+S.&rft.au=Kurth%2C+T.&rft.au=Lellouch%2C+L.&rft.au=Lippert%2C+T.&rft.au=Szabo%2C+K.K.&rft.au=Vulvert%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perdrisat2007-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perdrisat2007_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerdrisatPunjabiVanderhaeghen2007" class="citation journal cs1">Perdrisat, C. F.; Punjabi, V.; Vanderhaeghen, M. (2007). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AIP+Conference+Proceedings&rft.atitle=A+Study+of+Spacecraft+Charging+due+to+Exposure+to+Interplanetary+Protons&rft.volume=813&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E694-%3C%2Fspan%3E700&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.541.4495%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2169250&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006AIPC..813..694G&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=N.+W.&rft.au=Frederickson%2C+A.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftrs-new.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2014%2F39501%2F1%2F05-0657.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Planel2004-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Planel2004_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlanel2004" class="citation book cs1">Planel, H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rnUFZ24RUdYC&pg=PA135"><i>Space and life: an introduction to space biology and medicine</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">135–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31759-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31759-7"><bdi>978-0-415-31759-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809004918/https://books.google.com/books?id=rnUFZ24RUdYC&pg=PA135">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+and+life%3A+an+introduction+to+space+biology+and+medicine&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-31759-7&rft.aulast=Planel&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrnUFZ24RUdYC%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gabrielse2006-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gabrielse2006_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGabrielse2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gabrielse, G. (2006). "Antiproton mass measurements". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Mass_Spectrometry" title="International Journal of Mass Spectrometry">International Journal of Mass Spectrometry</a></i>. <b>251</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">273–</span>280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IJMSp.251..273G">2006IJMSp.251..273G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijms.2006.02.013">10.1016/j.ijms.2006.02.013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Mass+Spectrometry&rft.atitle=Antiproton+mass+measurements&rft.volume=251&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E273-%3C%2Fspan%3E280&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijms.2006.02.013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006IJMSp.251..273G&rft.aulast=Gabrielse&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.cern/news/news/physics/base-precisely-measures-antiprotons-magnetic-moment">"BASE precisely measures antiproton's magnetic moment"</a>. <i>CERN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220304125452/https://home.cern/news/news/physics/base-precisely-measures-antiprotons-magnetic-moment">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CERN&rft.atitle=BASE+precisely+measures+antiproton%27s+magnetic+moment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhome.cern%2Fnews%2Fnews%2Fphysics%2Fbase-precisely-measures-antiprotons-magnetic-moment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBallCandidoCruz-MartinezForte2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, Richard D.; Candido, Alessandro; Cruz-Martinez, Juan; Forte, Stefano; Giani, Tommaso; Hekhorn, Felix; Kudashkin, Kirill; Magni, Giacomo; Rojo, Juan (August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9385499">"Evidence for intrinsic charm quarks in the proton"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>608</b> (7923): <span class="nowrap">483–</span>487. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.08372">2208.08372</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.608..483N">2022Natur.608..483N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04998-2">10.1038/s41586-022-04998-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9385499">9385499</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35978125">35978125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+intrinsic+charm+quarks+in+the+proton&rft.volume=608&rft.issue=7923&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E483-%3C%2Fspan%3E487&rft.date=2022-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9385499%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.608..483N&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2208.08372&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-04998-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35978125&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Richard+D.&rft.au=Candido%2C+Alessandro&rft.au=Cruz-Martinez%2C+Juan&rft.au=Forte%2C+Stefano&rft.au=Giani%2C+Tommaso&rft.au=Hekhorn%2C+Felix&rft.au=Kudashkin%2C+Kirill&rft.au=Magni%2C+Giacomo&rft.au=Rojo%2C+Juan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9385499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGaoVanderhaeghen2022" class="citation journal cs1">Gao, H.; Vanderhaeghen, M. (2022-01-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.94.015002">"The proton charge radius"</a>. <i>Reviews of Modern Physics</i>. <b>94</b> (1): 015002. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.00571">2105.00571</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022RvMP...94a5002G">2022RvMP...94a5002G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.94.015002">10.1103/RevModPhys.94.015002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6861">0034-6861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=The+proton+charge+radius&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=015002&rft.date=2022-01-21&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2105.00571&rft.issn=0034-6861&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.94.015002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022RvMP...94a5002G&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Vanderhaeghen%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.94.015002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proton&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Protons" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Protons">Protons</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/">Particle Data Group</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">LBL</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cern.ch/lhc/">Large Hadron Collider</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEavesCopelandPadilla2010" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Eaves" title="Laurence Eaves">Eaves, Laurence</a>; Copeland, Ed; Padilla, Antonio (Tony) (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/protonradius.htm">"The shrinking proton"</a>. <i>Sixty Symbols</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a> for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sixty+Symbols&rft.atitle=The+shrinking+proton&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Eaves&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft.au=Copeland%2C+Ed&rft.au=Padilla%2C+Antonio+%28Tony%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sixtysymbols.com%2Fvideos%2Fprotonradius.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProton" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>MIT proton visualization project: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/inside-the-proton-the-most-complicated-thing-imaginable-20221019">Inside the Proton, the ‘Most Complicated Thing You Could Possibly Imagine’</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quanta_Magazine" title="Quanta Magazine">Quanta Magazine</a>, Oct 19 2022</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-9I0buDi4s">Visualizing the Proton</a>, Arts at MIT, 2022</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">Up (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Up antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles" title="List of hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons64" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles" title="List of hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">Massless particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">Relativistic particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">Wave–particle duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_chauvinism" title="Particle chauvinism">Particle chauvinism</a></li></ul> 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